Robbins: Organizational Behavior

Chapter Four

PERSONALITY AND EMOTIONS

CHAPTER 4 OUTLINE Personality A. What Is Personality? 1. Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a persons whole psychological system--it looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than the sum of the parts. 2. Gordon Allport coined the most fre uent used definition! Personality"the dynamic organi#ation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his uni ue ad$ustments to his environment% &. Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. '. (t is most often described in terms of measurable traits that a person e)hibits. B. Personality eter!inants 1. An early argument centered on whether or not personality was the result of heredity or of environment. Personality appears to be a result of both influences. *oday+ we recogni#e a third factor,the situation.

2. -eredity -eredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. *he heredity approach argues that the ultimate e)planation of an individuals personality is the molecular structure of the genes+ located in the chromosomes. *hree different streams of research lend some credibility to the heredity argument! a. *he genetic underpinnings of human behavior and temperament among young children. .vidence demonstrates that traits such as shyness+ fear+ and distress are most likely caused by inherited genetic characteristics. b. 1// sets of identical twins who were separated at birth were studied. Genetics accounts for about 0/ percent of the variation in personality differences and over &/ percent of occupational and leisure interest variation. c. (ndividual $ob satisfaction is remarkably stable over time. *his is indicates that satisfaction is determined by something inherent in the person rather than by e)ternal environmental factors. Personality characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity. (f they were+ they would be fi)ed at birth and no amount of e)perience could alter them.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior &. .nvironment 1actors that e)ert pressures on our personality formation! a. b. c. d. *he culture in which we are raised .arly conditioning 2orms among our family 1riends and social groups

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*he environment we are e)posed to plays a substantial role in shaping our personalities. 3ulture establishes the norms+ attitudes+ and values passed from one generation to the ne)t and create consistencies over time. *he arguments for heredity or environment as the primary determinant of personality are both important. -eredity sets the parameters or outer limits+ but an individuals full potential will be determined by how well he or she ad$usts to the demands and re uirements of the environment. (nfluences the effects of heredity and environment on personality *he different demands of different situations call forth different aspects of ones personality. *here is no classification scheme that tells the impact of various types of situations. 4ituations seem to differ substantially in the constraints they impose on behavior.

'. 4ituation

C. Personality "raits 1. .arly work revolved around attempts to identify and label enduring characteristics. Popular characteristics include shy+ aggressive+ submissive+ la#y+ ambitious+ loyal+ and timid. *hese are personality traits.

*he more consistent the characteristic+ the more fre uently it occurs+ the more important it is.

2. 5esearchers believe that personality traits can help in employee selection+ $ob fit+ and career development. &. *he 6yers-7riggs *ype (ndicator 8ne of the most widely used personality frameworks is the 6yers-7riggs *ype (ndicator 967*(:. (t is a 1//- uestion personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in particular situations. (ndividuals are classified as!

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior a. .)troverted or introverted 9. or (:. b. 4ensing or intuitive 94 or 2:. c. *hinking or feeling 9* or 1:. d. Perceiving or $udging 9P or ;:. *hese classifications are then combined into si)teen personality types. 1or e)ample! a. (2*;s are visionaries. *hey usually have original minds and great drive for their own ideas and purposes. *hey are characteri#ed as skeptical+ critical+ independent+ determined+ and often stubborn. b. .4*;s are organi#ers. *hey are realistic+ logical+ analytical+ decisive+ and have a natural head for business or mechanics. c. *he .2*P type is a conceptuali#er. -e or she is innovative+ individualistic+ versatile+ and attracted to entrepreneurial ideas. *his person tends to be resourceful in solving challenging problems but may neglect routine assignments.

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67*( widely used in practice. 4ome organi#ations using it include Apple 3omputer+ A*<*+ 3itigroup+ G.+ &6 3o. and others. . "he Big Five #o$el

1.

An impressive body of research supports that five basic dimensions underlie all other personality dimensions. *he five basic dimensions are! %&troversion. 3omfort level with relationships. .)troverts tend to be gregarious+ assertive+ and sociable. (ntroverts tend to be reserved+ timid+ and uiet. Agreeableness. (ndividuals propensity to defer to others. -igh agreeableness people,cooperative+ warm+ and trusting. =ow agreeableness people,cold+ disagreeable+ and antagonistic. Cons'ientiousness. A measure of reliability. A high conscientious person is responsible+ organi#ed+ dependable+ and persistent. *hose who score low on this dimension are easily distracted+ disorgani#ed+ and unreliable. %!otional stability. A persons ability to withstand stress. People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm+ self-confident+ and secure. *hose with high negative scores tend to be nervous+ an)ious+ depressed+ and insecure. Openness to e&perien'e. *he range of interests and fascination with novelty. .)tremely open people are creative+ curious+ and artistically sensitive. *hose at the other end of the openness category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar.

2.

5esearch found important relationships between these personality dimensions and $ob performance. A broad spectrum of occupations was e)amined in addition to $ob performance ratings+ training proficiency 9performance during training programs:+ and personnel data such as salary level. *he results showed that conscientiousness predicted $ob performance for all occupational groups. (ndividuals who are dependable+ reliable+ careful+ thorough+ able to plan+ organi#ed+ hardworking+ persistent+ and achievement-oriented tend to have higher $ob performance.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior .mployees higher in conscientiousness develop higher levels of $ob knowledge. 4trong and consistent relationship between conscientiousness and organi#ational citi#enship behavior 9837: 1or the other personality dimensions+ predictability depended upon both the performance criterion and the occupational group. .)troversion predicted performance in managerial and sales positions. 8penness to e)perience is important in predicting training proficiency. %. #a(or Personality Attributes In)luen'ing OB 1. =ocus of control A persons perception of the source of his>her fate is termed locus of control. Internals! People who believe that they are masters of their own fate. %&ternals! People who believe they are pawns of fate. (ndividuals who rate high in e)ternality are less satisfied with their $obs+ have higher absenteeism rates+ are more alienated from the work setting+ and are less involved on their $obs than are internals. (nternals+ facing the same situation+ attribute organi#ational outcomes to their own actions. (nternals believe that health is substantially under their own control through proper habits? their incidences of sickness and+ hence+ of absenteeism+ are lower.

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2. *here is not a clear relationship between locus of control and turnover because there are opposing forces at work. &. (nternals generally perform better on their $obs+ but one should consider differences in $obs. (nternals search more actively for information before making a decision+ are more motivated to achieve+ and make a greater attempt to control their environment+ therefore+ internals do well on sophisticated tasks. (nternals are more suited to $obs that re uire initiative and independence of action.

.)ternals are more compliant and willing to follow directions+ and do well on $obs that are well structured and routine and in which success depends heavily on complying with the direction of others. 2amed after 2iccolo 6achiavelli+ who wrote in the si)teenth century on how to gain and use power. An individual high in 6achiavellianism is pragmatic+ maintains emotional distance+ and believes that ends can $ustify means. -igh 6achs manipulate more+ win more+ are persuaded less+ and persuade others more. -igh 6ach outcomes are moderated by situational factors and flourish when they interact face to face with others+ rather than indirectly+ and when the situation has a minimum number of rules and regulations+ thus allowing latitude for improvisation.

'. 6achiavellianism

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior -igh 6achs make good employees in $obs that re uire bargaining skills or that offer substantial rewards for winning. 0. 4elf-esteem 4elf-esteem,the degree to which people like or dislike themselves. 94.: is directly related to e)pectations for success. (ndividuals with high self-esteem will take more risks in $ob selection and are more likely to choose unconventional $obs than people with low selfesteem. *he most generali#able finding is that low 4.s are more susceptible to e)ternal influence than are high 4.s. =ow 4.s are dependent on the receipt of positive evaluations from others. (n managerial positions+ low 4.s will tend to be concerned with pleasing others. -igh 4.s are more satisfied with their $obs than are low 4.s.

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@. 4elf-monitoring (t refers to an individuals ability to ad$ust his or her behavior to e)ternal+ situational factors. (ndividuals high in self-monitoring show considerable adaptability. *hey are highly sensitive to e)ternal cues+ can behave differently in different situations+ and are capable of presenting striking contradictions between their public persona and their private self. =ow self-monitors cannot disguise themselves in that way. *hey tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in every situation resulting in a high behavioral consistency between who they are and what they do.

*he research on self-monitoring is in its infancy+ so predictions must be guarded. Preliminary evidence suggests!

a. -igh self-monitors tend to pay closer attention to the behavior of

others.

b. -igh self-monitoring managers tend to be more mobile in their careers

and receive more promotions.

c. -igh self-monitor is capable of putting on different "faces% for different

audiences. A. 5isk taking *he propensity to assume or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how long it takes managers to make a decision and how much information they re uire before making their choice. -igh risk-taking managers made more rapid decisions and used less information in making their choices. 6anagers in large organi#ations tend to be risk averse especially in contrast with growth-oriented entrepreneurs. 6akes sense to consider aligning risk-taking propensity with specific $ob demands.

B. *ype A Personality

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior A *ype A personality is "aggressively involved in a chronic+ incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time+ and+ if re uired to do so+ against the opposing efforts of other things or other persons. *hey are always moving+ walking+ and eating rapidly+ are impatient with the rate at which most events take place+ are doing do two or more things at once and cannot cope with leisure time. *hey are obsessed with numbers+ measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they ac uire.

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#a(or Personality Attributes In)luen'ing OB C. *ype 7 *ype 7s never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience and feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments unless such e)posure is demanded by the situation. Play for fun and rela)ation+ rather than to e)hibit their superiority at any cost and can rela) without guilt.

1/. *ype As operate under moderate to high levels of stress. *hey sub$ect themselves to continuous time pressure+ are fast workers+ uantity over uality+ work long hours+ and are also rarely creative. *heir behavior is easier to predict than that of *ype 7s.

11. Do *ype As differ from *ype 7s in their ability to get hiredE *ype As do better in $ob interviews? more likely to be $udged as having desirable traits such as high drive+ competence+ and success motivation.

12. Proactive Personality Actively taking the initiative to improve their current circumstances while others sit by passively. Proactives identify opportunities+ show initiative+ take action+ and persevere 3reate positive change in their environment 6ore likely to be seen as leaders and change agents 6ore likely to achieve career success F. Personality an$ *ational Culture 1. *he 7ig 1ive model translates across almost all cross-cultural studies. 2. Differences tend to surface by the emphasis on dimensions.

3hinese use the category of conscientiousness more often and use the category of agreeableness less often than do Americans. *here is a surprisingly high amount of agreement+ especially among individuals from developed countries. *here are no common personality types for a given country. *here is evidence that cultures differ in terms of peoples relationship to their environment. (n 2orth America+ people believe that they can dominate their environment. People in 6iddle .astern countries believe that life is

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior essentially preordained.

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2. *he prevalence of *ype A personalities will be somewhat influenced by the

culture in which a person grows up. .stimated that about 0/F of the 2orth American population is *ype A +. A'hieving Personality Fit 1. *he Person-;ob 1it! *his concern is best articulated in ;ohn -ollands personality-$ob fit theory.

-olland presents si) personality types and proposes that satisfaction and the propensity to leave a $ob depend on the degree to which individuals successfully match their personalities to an occupational environment. .ach one of the si) personality types has a congruent occupational environment. ,-ee %&hibit ./01 Gocational Preference (nventory uestionnaire contains 1@/ occupational titles. 5espondents indicate which of these occupations they like or dislike? their answers are used to form personality profiles. *he theory argues that satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personality and occupation are in agreement.

2. *he Person-8rgani#ation 1it

6ost important for an organi#ation facing a dynamic and changing environment+ and re uiring employees who are able to readily change tasks and move fluidly between teams. (t argues that people leave $obs that are not compatible with their personalities.

.motions A. Overvie2 1. .motions are a critical factor in employee behavior. Hntil very recently+ the topic of emotions had been given little or no attention within the field of 87. 2. *he myth of rationality. 8rgani#ations have been specifically designed with the ob$ective of trying to control emotions. A well-run organi#ation was one that successfully eliminated frustration+ fear+ anger+ love+ hate+ $oy+ grief+ and similar feelings. &. *he belief that emotions of any kind were disruptive. *he discussion focused on strong negative emotions that interfered with an employees ability to do his or her $ob effectively. B. What Are %!otions? 1. A))e't is a generic term that covers a broad range of feelings that people e)perience and encompasses both emotions and moods.

.motions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. *hey are reactions+ not a trait. 6oods are feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and which lack a conte)tual stimulus. *hey are not directed at an ob$ect.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior 2. .motions can turn into moods when you lose focus on the conte)tual ob$ect. &. A related affect-term that is gaining increasing importance in organi#ational behavior is emotional labor. 8riginally developed in relation to service $obs. (t is when an employee e)presses organi#ationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. C. %!otional 3abor 1. .motional labor is when an employee e)presses organi#ationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. 2. Developed originally in relations to service $obs. &. 3hallenge is when employees have to pro$ect one emotion while simultaneously feeling another. .motional dissonance. =eft untreated bottled up feelings of frustration+ anger+ and resentment can lead to emotional e)haustion and burnout. . Felt vs. isplaye$ %!otions 1. .motional labor creates dilemmas for employees when their $ob re uires them to e)hibit emotions incongruous with their actual feelings. (t is a fre uent occurrence. 1or e)ample+ when there are people that you have to work with whom you find it very difficult to be friendly toward. Jou are forced to feign friendliness. I

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2. 1elt emotions are an individuals actual emotions. &. Displayed emotions are those that are organi#ationally re uired and considered appropriate in a given $ob. *hey are learned. '. Key,felt and displayed emotions are often different. *his is particularly true in organi#ations+ where role demands and situations often re uire people to e)hibit emotional behaviors that mask their true feelings. %. %!otion 1. Gariety i!ensions

*here are many emotions. 4i) universal emotions have been identified! anger+ fear+ sadness+ happiness+ disgust+ and surprise. ,-ee %&hibit ./.1. .motions are identified along a continuum from positive to negative. *he closer any two emotions are to each other on this continuum+ the more people are likely to confuse them.

2. (ntensity

People give different responses to identical emotion-provoking stimuli. 4ometimes this can be attributed to personality. People vary in their inherent ability to e)press intensity,from never showing feelings to displaying e)treme happiness or sadness ;obs make different intensity demands in terms of emotional labor. 1or e)ample+ air traffic controllers must remain calm even in stressful situations.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior &. 1re uency and duration

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.motional labor that re uires high fre uency or long duration is more demanding and re uires more e)ertion by employees. Lhether or not the employee can successfully meet the emotional demands of a $ob depends on both the intensity of the emotions displayed and for how long the effort has to be made.

F. +en$er an$ %!otions 1. (t is widely assumed that women are more "in touch% with their feelings than men. 2. *he evidence does confirm differences between men and women when it comes to emotional reactions and ability to read others.

Lomen show greater emotional e)pression than men+ e)perience emotions more intensely+ and display more fre uent e)pressions of both positive and negative emotions. Lomen also report more comfort in e)pressing emotions. Lomen are better at reading nonverbal cues than are men.

&. *hese differences may be e)plained several ways!

*he different ways men and women have been sociali#ed. Lomen may have more innate ability to read others and present their emotions than do men. Lomen may have a greater need for social approval and+ thus+ a higher propensity to show positive emotions such as happiness.

+. %&ternal Constraints on %!otions 1. .very organi#ation defines boundaries that identify what emotions are acceptable and the degree to which they can be e)pressed. *he same applies in different cultures. 2. 8rgani#ational influences!

*here is no single emotional "set% sought by all organi#ations. (n the Hnited 4tates+ there is a bias against negative and intense emotions. .)pressions of negative emotions such as fear+ an)iety+ and anger tend to be unacceptable e)cept under fairly specific conditions. 3onsistent with the myth of rationality+ well-managed organi#ations are e)pected to be essentially emotion-free.

&. 3ultural influences!

3ultural norms in the Hnited 4tates dictate that employees in service organi#ations should smile and act friendly when interacting with customers. 7ut this norm does not apply worldwide. 3ultures differ in terms of the interpretation they give to emotions. *here

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior tends to be high agreement on what emotions mean within cultures but not between cultures. 1or e)ample+ Americans often see smiling as an e)pression of happiness. -owever+ in (srael+ smiling by cashiers is seen as being ine)perienced.

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4tudies indicate that some cultures lack words for such standard emotions as an)iety+ depression+ or guilt.

4. A))e'tive %vents "heory 1. Hnderstanding emotions at work has been helped by a model called affective events theory 9A.*:. ,%&hibit ./51 .mployees react emotionally to things that happen to them at work and this influences $ob performance and satisfaction. Lork events trigger positive or negative emotional reactions. .vents-reaction relationship is moderated by the employees personality and mood. Persons emotional response to a given event can change depending on his or her mood .motions influence a number of performance and satisfaction variables such as 837+ organi#ational commitment+ turnover+ and level of effort. *ests of the theory suggest! a. .motional episode is a series of e)periences precipitated by a single event b. ;ob satisfaction is influenced by current emotions along with history of emotions surrounding the event c. .ffect on performance fluctuates d. .motion-driven behaviors are short in duration and variable e. *ypically have a negative influence on $ob performance .motions provide valuable insights in understanding employee behavior .motions in organi#ations shouldnt be ignored even when minor

I.

OB Appli'ations

1. Ability and 4election! People who know their own emotions and are good at reading others emotions may be more effective in their $obs.

.motional intelligence 9.(: refers to an assortment of non-cognitive skills+ capabilities+ and competencies that influence a persons ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures. a. -el)/a2areness. 7eing aware of what you are feeling. b. -el)/!anage!ent. *he ability to manage ones own emotions and impulses. c. -el)/!otivation. *he ability to persist in the face of setbacks and failures. d. %!pathy. *he ability to sense how others are feeling. e. -o'ial s6ills. *he ability to handle the emotions of others. 4everal studies suggest .( may play an important role in $ob performance. .(+ not academic (.M.+ characteri#ed high performers. *he implications from the initial evidence on .( are that employers should consider it as a factor in selection+ especially in $obs that demand a high degree of social interaction.

2. Decision making

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior *raditional approaches to the study of decision making in organi#ations have emphasi#ed rationality. *hat approach is probably naNve. People use emotions as well as rational and intuitive processes in making decisions.

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2egative emotions can result in a limited search for new alternatives and a less vigilant use of information. Positive emotions can increase problem solving and facilitate the integration of information.

&. 6otivation

6otivation theories basically propose that individuals "are motivated to the e)tent that their behavior is e)pected to lead to desired outcomes.% *he image is that of rational e)change. Peoples perceptions and calculations of situations are filled with emotional content that significantly influences how much effort they e)ert. 2ot everyone is emotionally engaged in their work+ but many are.

'. =eadership *he ability to lead others is a fundamental uality sought by organi#ations. .ffective leaders almost all rely on the e)pression of feelings to help convey their messages and is often the critical element that results in individuals accepting or re$ecting a leaders message. Lhen effective leaders want to implement significant changes+ they rely on "the evocation+ framing+ and mobili#ation of emotions.

0. (nterpersonal 3onflict

Lhenever conflicts arise+ you can be fairly certain that emotions are also surfacing. A managers success in trying to resolve conflicts+ in fact+ is often largely due to his or her ability to identify the emotional elements in the conflict and to get the conflicting parties to work through their emotions.

@. 3ustomer service Muality customer service makes demands on employees that can create emotional dissonance. .motional contagion is an important consideration

A. Deviant workplace behaviors

2egative emotions can lead to a number of deviant workplace behaviors. .mployee Deviance! Goluntary actions that violate established norms and which threaten the organi#ation+ its members+ or both. *hey fall into categories such as! a. b. c. d. Pro$u'tion: leaving early+ intentionally working slowly Property: stealing+ sabotage Politi'al: gossiping+ blaming co-workers Personal aggression: se)ual harassment+ verbal abuse

6any of these deviant behaviors can be traced to negative emotions. 1or e)ample+ envy is an emotion that occurs when you resent someone for

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior having something that you do not+ and which you strongly desire and can lead to malicious deviant behaviors.

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