University of Biha English Department Rijalda Dizdarevi

Glossary

Subject: English Language Teaching Methodology Teacher: Sanja Josifovi-Elezovi, PhD.

A
Accuracy Accuracy refers to the ability to produce grammatically correct sentences that are comprehensible. This is often contrasted with fluency.

Analytical learners Analytical learners prefer to plan and organize their work. They focus on details and logic, and prefer sequential steps and clear progression. They are often unwilling to take a guess except when they're confident of their response. Their notebooks and work may be quite detailed.

Acquisiton-learning hypothesis According to Stephen Krashen, adult second language learners can develop second language learning. One method is learning, a conscious study of the forms of language. The other method is acquistion, or just picking up a language the way children do without conscious attention to forms.

Affective filter is a "wall" a learner puts up if his/her anxiety level is high. The lower the anxiety level, the lower the filter. ELLs must have a low affective filter in order to learn English. The more comfortable students are in their school environment, the more ready they will be to learn.

Affective feedback Affective feedback is when teachers (or anybody) display signs about how interested they are in trying to understand the student. These signs come in the form of gestures, facial expressions, and intonations.

Approach A set of principles about teaching including views on method, syllabus, and a philosophy of language and learning. Approaches have theoretical backing with practical applications.

Assimilation a general term in phonetics for the process by which a speech sound becomes similar or identical to a neighboring sound.

ALTE Association of Language Testers in Europe

Aural learners Learners who benefit more from left-brained activities. Aural learners learn respond well to oral instruction as opposed to visual instruction. The implication for ESL teaching is that learners have different styles of learning and a teacher should try to accommodate various learning styles. Active voice Sentences where the subject is the doer of the action, not the receiver of the action. This is contrasted to the passive voice where the subject is receiving the action.

Acculturation Process of adapting to a new culture, being able to adapt to two or more cultural patterns.
Auditory Learners

Students with this learning style prefer oral instructions and activities. They learn best be listening and speaking, and so may enjoy oral reading, choral reading, and listening activities. Auditory learners may struggle with reading in that they won't fully glean the key information. Yet they may easily be capable of understanding important elements of a lecture or set of instructions.

B
Behaviouralism This is the theoretical view that language learning is a matter of habit formation. The learner mimics the language they hear, and when they receive some positive feedback, that language becomes a habit. This view is criticised because it does not explain how a child can acquire something as complex as a language with so little input and feedback.

Bilingual refers to the fact that students speak more than one language. All of our ESL students are bilingual. It can also refer to a program where students learn content information in their native language.

BICS are Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills. These are the language skills needed for everyday personal and social communication. Second language learners must have BICS in order to interact on the playground and in the classroom. It usually takes students from 1-3 years to completely develop this social language. BICS are not necessarily related to academic success.

C
Caretaker talk People who interact with young children often intuitively modify their language. Adults choose simpler sentences and vocabulary, repeat themselves, and paraphrase what children say.

Comprehensible input A hypothesis that learners will acquire language best when they are given the appropriate input. The input should be easy enough that they can understand it, but just beyond their level of competence.

Code Switching The alternate use of two languages. Speaking one language and using words from another, their native language.

Critical period hypothesis The hypothesis that if somebody does not acquire a first language before a certain time (around puberty), they will lose the ability to acquire language.

Can do statements these statements describe what language users can typically do with the language at different levels and in different contexts (general, social & tourist, work, study).

CALP is Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency is the language associated with native language literacy and cognitive development. These are the language skills needed to undertake academic tasks in the mainstream classroom. It includes content-specific vocabulary. It may take students from 5 to 7 years to develop CALP skills. CALP developed in the first language contribute to the development of CALP in the second language.

Communicative approach A set of principles about teaching including recommendations about method and syllabus where the focus is on meaningingful communication not structure, use not usage. In this approach, students are given tasks to accomplish using language, instead of studying the language.

CLT: Communicative Language Teaching.

CELTA: Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults.

Culture Shock is a normal stage in the acculturation process that all newcomers go through. Being in a strange place and losing the power to communicate can disrupt a persons world view, self-identity, and systems of thinking, acting and feeling.

Students feel frustrated, angry, hostile, sad, lonely and homesick. Students may develop physical ailments such as stomach aches and headaches. They are often devastated by the emotional upheaval caused by moving to a new culture. They may exhibit behavior such as depression or sleeplessness. They may become overly aggressive or withdrawn.

Concordance an alphabetical list of the principal words used in a book or body of work, with their immediate contexts

Chants short repetitive songs or rhythms that can be implemented to introduce or reinforce lesson material for second language students. Educators can use chants in small or whole group activities to help ESL learners become comfortable with the process of language acquisition.

Culture Shock

Feelings of disorientation and confusion upon contact with new cultures.

Cognitive strategies This learning strategy focuses on summarization, repetition, organizing the language, and memorization. Students who opt for this strategy manipulate the language to foster retention and recall. Some examples include mind mapping, mnemonics, and underlining key words or phrases.

D
Direct method A method of language learning associated with Francois Gouin and Charles Berlitz. Second language learning should model first language learning in that it should be learned 'directly'; grammar is taught inductively with no explanations, the learner's first language is not used in the class, and new vocabulary is introduced by demonstration. DIY do it yourselfe approach Drills Drills allow students to practice the lesson's target language in controlled, predictable exercises. This is perfect when the teacher initially presents and practices new material. Drills help make the language automatic, laying down a set path or habit early in the lesson. The more times students use a set pattern, the more likely they will then be able to correctly use the new language later in the lesson, and beyond.

Drama an excellent method to introduce role playing and acting out activities involving all students in the classroom to enhance language acquisition for ESL students. Stories can be acted out to reinforce comprehension skills, as well as language skills, while the LEP learner absorbs the rhythm and meanings of words in the new language. A fun way to learn without inhibitions present.

E
EFL English as a Foreign Language.This refers to non-native speakers who are learning English language in a non-native English environment.

ESL English as a Second Language. This refers to non-native speakers who are learning English in an English language environment.

Enculturation

The process of culture being taught from one generation to the next.

ENL English is a New Language This term is used by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards.

Empathy although the educator may not be familiar with the ESL student's culture or language, a strong attempt must be made to validate the student's first language. It is very important that the teacher of an ESL learner empathize with the student's position. The instructor should try to imagine what the ESL student is experiencing after being immersed into a new culture and new language for the first time.

Extrinsic motivation Motivation that comes from the outside. It involves motivating students through rewards or punishment. Many educators have objections to this kind of motivation as it serves only short term objectives.

ESOL English for Speakers of Other Languages

ESP English for Specific Purposes. For example: English for scientists, English for academic purposes, English for doctors/health care workers

Extroverted learners Extroverted students tend to enjoy interaction in the classroom. They flourish and put language together in group activities that require information to be exchanged. Variety and change are very important too.

F
FIRST/SECOND LANGUAGE (Ll - L2) The first language (L1) of a child is the mother tongue or the native language. It is the language learned first and usually the home language. The second language, the L2, is the target language or the language learned after the first language is acquired. It may eventually become the student's dominant language, especially if it is the only language he/she is schooled in.

Four skills English can be broken into four main skills: speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Although there are other important aspects of the language, such as pronunciation, we can classify these as one of the four main skills.

Fluency Spoken or written with ease.

Focus on Task A critical ingredient for communicative language learning according to Michael Long is the need for students to focus on an interesting and meaningful task. Other key elements for task-based instruction include comprehensible input, context, prior knowledge, and negotiation of meaning.

Fillers

refer to the "ums," "ahs," and "errs" of native English speakers between thoughts. Part of speaking well for learners of the language means using fillers correctly.

G
Grammar Translation Method The Grammar Translation Method is an old method which was originally used to teach dead languages which explains why it focuses mainly on the written form at the expense of the oral form.

Global learners These students don't like to be bored, and require information presenting in an interesting manner. They often learn in large leaps, suddenly connecting several chunks together. For global learners, the big picture is often important. Global learners are also called "holistic learners."

Group correction When activities require group work instead of pair or individual work, then group correction allows students to help one another. It fosters teamwork and a supportive classroom environment, as well as encourages students to notice the language. Any role-play, presentation, interview, debate, or other type of group activity can incorporate a correction session at the end. Students then point out mistakes others made during the activity. This technique also increases student talk time.

I
Input hypothesis According to Stephen Krashen language is acquired when we get a comprehensible input that is just beyond our competence. This is one of the basic principles of the Natural Approach.

Instrumental motivation Learning a language for a concrete purpose like getting a job, university requirement, graduation

Intrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do something. Intrinsically motivated learners find a certain pleasure in learning or think it is important. They may feel that what they are learning is important for them. Introverted learners Reserved and reflective students tend to be introverted learners. They enjoy solitary activities, such as worksheets or writing activities. They equally enjoy activities that allow thought and preparation before speaking or interaction, which may be done with worksheets or writing activities. Too much interaction can be overwhelming for these students.

Inclusion Inclusion represents the belief that students with disabilities should be integrated into general education classrooms, community activities and resources, and home settings as students who do not have disabilities. Within classrooms, students work toward their IEP goals. The term inclusion has been broadened in order to create what is known as inclusive learning communities where all children belong, those with and without disabilities and those with linguistic, ethnic, cultural, and socioeconomic differences, such as ESL/LEP students.

Intonation conveys a much subtler ways of meanings, it is a music of speech, usage: to show the grammar of what we are saying;

IWB Interactive whiteboard

Jeremy Harmer I am a writer of books in the field of English Language Teaching. These include Methodology titles, course materials, and learner literature (often called graded readers). I am a frequent presenter, seminar leader and teacher both in the UK and, more frequently, around the world. I hold a BA in English Literature from the University Of East Anglia, UK and a Masters in Applied Linguistics from the University of Reading (UK) As a teacher and trainer in the field of English Language Teaching (ELT) I have worked for International House, London, Eurocentre Bournemouth, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, the Bell School, Cambridge, and at the Instituto Anglo Mexicano de Cultura (in Mexico DF, Ciudad Satellite and Guadalajara where I was branch director for four years). The IAMC is now part of The Anglo Foundation. Currently I work as an online tutor for the MATESOL at The New School, New York.

K
Kinesthetic/tactile learners Learners with this style of learning do well when they stand up and move around. They use their whole body to learn language. Oftentimes, when they remember the language, they go back in their minds to what their body was doing. Flashcards and other realia that assist learning are helpful here. These students don't like to sit in the classroom for long periods, and will simply tune out if forced to do so.

L
Learner centered The students/learners are the primary focus. The teacher plays only a secondary role.

Learning Learning is the conscious internalization of the rules of language. It results in explicit knowledge about the forms of language and the ability to verbalize this knowledge. Learning according to Stephen Krashen can not lead to acquisition. Lexical approach First coined by Michael Lewis, the fundamental principle of the lexical approach is language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar. The lexical approach has a lot in common with the communicative approach. It highlights how lexical phrases, prefabricated chunks of language, play an important role in producing fluent speech. Justification for this theory comes from statistical analysis of language which shows that we do indeed speak in chunks and collocations.

LEP refers to the current description of students abilities--that they currently have limited English proficiency. This is the term used to describe ELLs by laws and government documents. Many consider it a pejorative term.

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) The basis for educating students with disabilities in classrooms comes from the concept of least restrictive environment (LRE), a provision in the federal laws that have governed special education since 1975 with the passage of PL 94-142. LRE is a student's right to be educated in the setting most like the educational setting for nondisabled peers in which the student can be successful, with appropriate supports provided. Mainstreaming and Inclusion are interpretations of LRE.

Lau vs. Nichols (1974) The United States Supreme Court decision which found the San Francisco Board of Education failing in the duty of providing equal access to education of Chinese speaking students who were enrolled in mainstream, English only classes. Providing ESL students with the same materials as native speakers does not satisfy the requirement of equal access to education.

Learning Styles the manner in which individual students learn and process information. Teachers need to be aware of the fact that some teaching strategies and approaches may not reach every student. Educators need to take into consideration a student's personality, cultural background, and mode of learning. Lessons should be planned according to the learning styles of students, including ESL learners.

Learning strategies Learning strategies refer to the specific thoughts and actions students take for successful learning. The strategy is often dictated by the learning style of the student. An extroverted student, for example, will seek out conversation partners while an introverted student will first analyze the target language and engage in other solitary activities. No one strategy is better overall.

Language Minority (LM) A person from a home where a language other than English is spoken. Language Minority students may have limited English skills or may be native English speakers (i.e., one parent in the home speaks a non-English language so the student is considered language minority but student was born in the U.S. and the parents only communicate with him.

Listening This is one of the four main skills, and is closely linked with speaking. In oral communication, both speaking and listening must be used cooperatively.

M
Monitor hypothesis Learning,according to krashen is a conscious study of form. It is responsible for monitoring our communication and correct minor errors but it will not help much in producing fluent communication. In order for a learned system to be effective as a monitor, a learner must have sufficient time, and knowledge of the rules.

Medals This is information about what a student has done well, e.g. Your paragraphs and punctuation are good or Thats good evidence written in the margin next to a well made point by the student. Grades and marks are measurements not medals. Medals are information about what exactly was done well.

MLD Monolingual Learners Dictionary Modeling the teacher of ESL students demonstrates the learning activity as the students watch. After showing the students what to do, the educator repeats the demonstration as learners follow along.

Soon the students are capable of performing the task without hesitation. This type of modeling by the teacher helps the ESL student to be comfortable with the classroom activities and to know what is expected on assignments.

Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner has developed a learning theory that involves eight intelligences that can be discovered in the classroom. Due to the fact that students, including ESL students, learn and process material in numerous ways. An instructor can adapt classroom activities according to the learning styles and different intelligences detected in the classroom The eight intelligences include: Linguistic, Musical/Rhythmic, Logical Mathematical, Visual/Spatial, Bodily/Kinesthetic, Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, and Naturalist. A teacher can plan lessons and assessments according to the types of intelligences found in the classroom.

Missions This is information about what the student needs to improve, correct, or work on. It is best when it is forward looking and positive. e.g. try to give more evidence for your views or Use more paragraphs to show the structure of your writing. Again, measurements such as grades do not usually give this information.

Mainstreaming Mainstreaming is the term for placing students with disabilities or special needs in general education setting only when they can meet traditional academic expectations with minimal assistance, or when those expectations are not relevant, for example, participation in school assemblies, art, music, health, and physical education in order to have social interactions with the other students. There is no separation of students based on need or ability. All students are placed in classrooms designed for native English speakers that function at the perceived "normal" level.

Metacognitive strategies This strategy links learning preferences and awareness. Students assess what they like, what they don't like, what works effectively, what works ineffectively, and so on for them as individuals. They then realize that they learn best under these specific conditions. Memory-related strategies These strategies help students remember new information and language. It doesn't necessarily stress full understanding or usage, however. Flashcards, memorization, or activities which link movement with language are all examples of this strategy.

Mistakes A mistake can best be compared to a slip of the tongue. The student produces the language incorrectly, but it's a previously studied grammar structure, phrase, idiom, or word. If pointed out, he'll likely be able to correct the mistake.

N
Natural Order Hypothesis This hypothesis states that there is a natural pre-determined order in which we can acquire language.

Nina Spada Dr. Spada teaches graduate level courses in the Second Language Education Program. Her courses include Second Language Learning, Form-focussed Instruction Corrective Feedback and Second Language Acquisition, and Aspects of Second Language Acquisition. Dr. Spada's research focuses on relationships between instructional input and learning outcomes. She is particularly interested in the role of form-focused instruction in second language acquisition (SLA). She has carried out large-scale classroom SLA research with children and adults. Dr.

Spada is co-author of the award-winning textbook "How Languages are Learned" published by Oxford University Press.

O
Orderly rows The tables are placed in well-organised rows. This is the traditional form of a classroom. Advantages of this are that the teacher can see all students, move freely around the classroom and can gain the attention of all the students. The main disadvantage is that there is very little scope for student interaction.

P
Pairwork two students practise language together,study a text, research language or take part in information gap activities.

Pitch a device by which we comunicate EMOTIONS AND FEELINGS;

Paralinguistic Features of a Language Paralinguistic features in Communication are the aspects of non-spoken communication that do not involve words. Examples of these are Body language, gestures, facial expressions, tone and pitch of voice.

PHLOTE a student with a primary home language other than English that did not qualify for Downingtowns ESL Program

Pull Out Classes in which students are withdrawn from the mainstream regular subject classes for one or more periods a week, for English language instruction classes in smaller groups.

Peer Tutoring the teacher can assign a "buddy" to an ESL student to help during the silent period of language acquisition. The English-speaking buddy helps the ESL learner with the daily classroom routines until the student is comfortable with the environment. Peer tutors can also help during small group activities to support the ESL student.

Praise Praise plays an important role in student motivation, as it creates a positive learning environment. It also gives students the chance to understand that they correctly produced the language, met class expectations, and/or improved their language skills. Criticism, an equally important tool, rests on the other side of the spectrum.

R
Routine establishing classroom routines that allow ESL students to become familiar with what happens in the classroom everyday. The repetitive tasks help second language learners to become comfortable in a safe classroom environment. Self-confidence will be gained if these students know the order in which activities occur daily.

Rubrics measuring scales that reveal to students what is expected of them on particular assessments. The teacher needs to display and model scoring rubrics being careful to adequately explain the assessment scoring information they represent. After an ESL student is comfortable with teacher made rubrics, unbiased authentic assessment can be implemented for evaluation purposes. The

rubrics list the academic work involved and states the criteria expected for an exemplary score and the criteria for lower scores on assignments.

Real Life Experiences classroom experiences should include hands-on activities that are relevant to real world life. For example, situations presented in lessons should be related to life outside of school. These meaningful activities will help ESL students to realize the importance and the need for classroom and life long learning.

Role play A role play is an extremely useful free activity that allows students to apply the target language with other, previously learned material. It has the further benefit of placing that language in a real context, which each individual student can fine tune to his personal life. This makes the language more realistic, and thereby more memorable.

S
Skimming When skimming a document, students want to understand the broad brush strokes, so to speak. They should note the main idea and purpose of the article or essay, and maybe even some of the supporting ideas. At this stage, detailed information is less important than being able to roughly summarize the material.

Scanning Scanning involves finding specific information during reading, such as names, dates, figures, key vocabulary, or key details. When scanning a document, students don't look to gather the general meaning, and so shouldn't read through the whole test. This technique proves useful when students have to gather or confirm information, either from articles, schedules, or forms. They can then use this information to complete a task or support opinions in a conversation.

Silent Way The Silent Way is a method whereby the teacher remains mostly silent to encourage students to solve their own problems. Originated by Caleb Gattegno in the 70s, this method was meant to facilitate learning through discovery

The Silent Period is a varying period of time during which a newcomer is unwilling to speak in the second language. Nearly all students go through a silent period. This stage could last for as long as one year. English language learners should not be forced to speak until they are ready to do so.

Sheltered English Also referred to as transition or bridge classes, students cover the same content areas as mainstream, English only classes but they do so in a manner that adapts the language components of the classes to meet the needs of the language minority students' English proficiency levels. Adaptations include simplified speech, contextualization, task-function orientation, and interactional activities.

Stress a term we use to describe the point in a word or phrase where pitch changes, vowels lengthen and volume increases;

Scaffolding Scaffolding refers to the idea that specialized instructional supports need to be in place in order to best facilitate learning when students are first introduced to a new subject.

Situational Language Teaching The Oral Approach or Situational Language Teachinng is an approach developed by British applied linguists in the 1930s to the 1960s. It is little known by many language teachers although it had an impact on language courses. It presents a structural syllabus based on a behavioristic theory of learning.

Structural syllabus A syllabus in which grammatical structures form the central organizing feature. A structural syllabus proceeds from simple grammatical structure to more complex grammatical structure.

Slips mistakes that students can correct themselves.

Suggestopoedia Suggestopedia is a language teaching method developed by the Bulgarian psychologist, Georgi Lozanov (see picture on the right.) Like Community Language Learning and the Silent Way Method, Suggestopedia is an innovative method that promises great effective language learning results. Lozanov claimed that by using this method one can teach languages approximately three to five times as quickly as conventional methods.

Skimming A top-down reading activity where a learner quickly reads some material to find the gist of the material.

Streaming

that is, the practice of grouping children on the basis of their performance or their perceived abilities

T
Task based learning Teaching/learning a language by using language to accomplish open-ended tasks. Learners are given a problem or objective to accomplish, but are left with some freedom in approaching this problem or objective.

Teacher centered Methods, activities, and techniques where the teacher decides what is to be learned, what is to be tested, and how the class is to be run. TESL Teaching English as a Second Language. TESOL Teaching English for Speakers of Other languages Or Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. TOEIC Test of English for International Communication. A standardized test that is used to prove proficiency in English.

TOEFL Test of English as a Foreign Language. TOEFL is supposed to test English proficiency for international students who want to study abroad.

Top down a holistic approach to language teaching. It refers to studying language as a whole.

Total Physical Response Total Physical Response is a language teaching method which is based on the assumption that the coordination of speech and action will boost language learning. It was developed by James Asher in the 70s He drew from a variety of areas, including psychology, learning theory and humanistic pedagogy.

TTT/TTR Teacher Talking Time / Teacher Talking Ratio.

STT/STR Talking Time / Student Talking Ratio.

U
Universal grammar This is an innatist view that all people are born with some knowledge of language. Linguists use this hypothesis to explain how it is we can acquire a language with a 'poverty of stimulus' or not enough input to account for the complexity of output. Essentially, we are all born with the capacity for any kind of language. This is not to say we are born with knowledge of the particular rules of our own language, but rather general or universal principles of all languages.student Talking Time / Student Talking Ratio.

Visual learners Learners who benefit more from right-brained activities. Visual learners learn best when they see as opposed to aural learners. The implication for ESL teaching is that visual stimulation accompanying lessons may have some benefit for some students.

VLE Virtual learner environment

Validation of First Language the second language learners will have a positive experience acquiring the new language if their first language is acknowledged and affirmed by teachers and other students. The willingness for the instructor and classmates to learn about the culture and language of the ESL students will help validate and will show approval of the students' native language and culture.

W
Whole-Class Teaching is a style of teaching that offers learning-centered ways to maximize entire-class instruction by creating energizing, engaging teaching that everyone will find useful.

Word Cards written expressions on cards are essential in the successful presentation of learning material. ESL students need the constant reinforcement of visual instructional tools to enhance the second language acquisition process. Vocabulary words, spelling words, and names of objects in the classroom should all be visible on word cards.

(,)