The Development and Evolution of Nervous Systems The nervous system is the first major bodily system to take

take form in an embryo (third week). The CNS evolved; even the simplest animals have sensory and motor neurons. During evolution, a split in the nervous system occurred between vertebrates (with a spinal column) and invertebrates (without a spinal column). The human brain has evolved quickly.

The first CNS appeared in flatworms.

Figure 3.24 Development of the Forebrain Genes and the Environment Nature (biology) versus nurture (environment) Gene: unit of hereditary transmission; sections on strands of DNA organized into chromosomes

Chromosomes: strands of DNA wound around each other in a double-helix Degree of relatedness: monozygotic versus dizygotic twins Heritability: a measure of the variability of behavioral traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors

Abstract concept, population concept, and is dependent on the environment Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins Investigating the Brain Much research in neuroscience correlates loss of specific functions to brain damage. Lateralization of the two hemispheres

Phineas Gage and the emotional frontal lobe Split-brain procedure Experiments, including the chimeric face experiment Left hemisphere more verbal, right hemisphere more spatial Figure 3.27 Split-brain Experiment Figure 3.28 Chimeric Faces and the Split Brain

EEG

Electroencephalograph (EEG): a device used to record electrical activity in the brain Hubel and Wiesel inserted electrodes into the brains of anesthetized cats. o Discovery of feature detectors Brain Imaging Neuroimaging creates images of the living, healthy brain.

Structural brain imaging: CT scan, MRI Functional brain imaging: PET, fMRI Figure 3.30 Structural Imaging Techniques (CT and MRI) Figure 3.31 Functional Imaging Techniques (PET and fMRI) Study Guide Chapter 1: Overview

Definition of psychology Major schools of psychological thought Major figures in psychology Be able to define: Psychology Historical views of psychology (e.g., nativism, empiricism, behaviorism, dualism, and the figures associated with each) Be able to identify major figures in psychology Early figures: Plato, Aristotle, Descartes Mid-19th century figures: James, Titchener, Darwin 20th century figures: Watson, Chomsky, B.F. Skinner, Sigmund Freud, Abraham Maslow Be able to associate each figure with a particular school of thought (e.g., Titchener structuralism, Skinner behaviorism, Maslow humanistic psychology)

We focused on the distinction between behaviorism and cognitive psychology

Behaviorism: Overt, measurable behavior Cognitive psychology: Reaction against behaviorism, focused on mental processes that are only observable indirectly Studied through use of illusions (e.g., Bartlett false memory studies, Muller-Lyer illusion) Gestalt psychology: Emphasizes that the whole is greater than the sum of individual parts

Why is it important to study an illusion like the Muller-Lyer line illusion? What does this tell us about cultural contributions to psychological processes?

Distinguish between subfields of psychology

E.g., what is the difference between cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience? Distinguish between social psychology and cultural psychology, and what types of research would be relevant to each field Chapter 2: Overview

Empiricism and the scientific method Properties of measurements What makes an experiment? Statistics Be able to define: Empiricism Scientific method Theory Hypothesis Know what an operational definition is

Be able to define and give examples of the three properties of good measurements:

Validity Reliability Power Recognize when demand characteristics and expectancy effects may occur, and how to control for them

E.g., hide the true intention of the experiment from the participant Distinguish between a single-blind and double-blind experiment Know what a frequency distribution looks like, and what is on the axes

Be able to define descriptive statistics vs. inferential statistics Discriminate between measures of central tendency and variability Know the properties of and how to calculate all three measures of central tendency: Mean Median Mode

And also two measures of variability (do not need to know how to calculate these): Range Standard deviation

You should be able to calculate mean, median and mode for simple datasets (dont worry about calculating variability, wont be on test) Example: Find mean, median and mode for the following: 9, 3, 4, 6, 3 First, rearrange from smallest to largest: 3, 3, 4, 6, 9

Mean is the average of all numbers ((3+3+4+6+9/5) = 5) Mode is most frequently occurring number (3) Median is the middle number (4) You should be able to do this without a calculator, just using pencil and paper

Be able to identify skewed distributions, and know how the measures of central tendency are affected by the skew

Goal of scientific research: Discovery of causal relationships between variables Know what different correlations look like (can only go from -1 to +1)

Remember: Variables that are correlated may cause each other, but correlation is not causation Define what an experiment is, and what qualities a good experiment must have Distinguish between matched-sample and matched-pairs designs Be able to define: random sampling, case studies, population, sample, IV, DV, control, third-variable problem Be able to identify concepts from the code of ethics (Informed consent, freedom from coercion, protection from harm, risk-benefit analysis, deception, debriefing, confidentiality) Potentially Harmful Therapies

Lilienfeld and PHTs

Recall some of the PHTs we discussed in class, and what are some characteristics of PHTs Be familiar with the reasons why some PHTs continue to be popular Overview Identify the major components of neurons and know the directional flow of information

Chapter 3 Components of neurons

Know the major types of neurons, where they are located, and which ones are more numerous than others Also be familiar with the functions of different types of neurons (e.g., purkinje, pyramidal, bipolar) Know the resting potential, action potential, and the difference between nodes of Ranvier and saltatory conduction (the nodes are structures, saltatory conduction the process of an action potential traveling down the neuron)

Be familiar with the types and functions of neurotransmitters Be able to discriminate between agonists and antagonists Distinguish between examples of the different divisions of the nervous system

Be able to identify major regions of the brain From the following figure, you should be able to point out almost all of the brain structures we discussed in class (lobes, subcortical structures, etc)

Be able to define the functions of the motor and somatosensory cortices, and what brain plasticity is Know what lateralization means, and what split-brain patients tell us about lateralization Know the difference between environmental vs. genetic factors, and what a hereditability index tells you Distinguish between structural vs. functional imaging, and the properties of each of the major types of imaging (e.g., PET, fMRI, EEG)