English Word-formation

Some examples: This book is unputdownable. The Smiths are Brownites/Blairites. Derivation is the most frequent process. Word-formation is concerned with how words are composed. Different fields of word-formation: phonolog inflection s ntax word-formation

sit !an item" base # $ero morpheme -% &'()&) such simple words have no place in word-formation. un*happ + composed of two elements prefix !un" # base !happ " + the prefix gives the word a specific meaning !negation". un, bound morpheme- happ , free morpheme W'.D !beseda" vs. /0S) !podstava" sometimes also 1osnova2. The difference between 1podstava2 and 1osnova2 is not clearl defined. 3)45603 7(5T !enota" must be furnished with the necessar endings. )xamples: 5 can sit !sit is a word with a $ero morpheme suffix" 3ahko sedim. 8e sits. !s in sits is an overt morpheme".

/0S) is the part that remains after the word has been stripped of its endings. Sometimes /0S) is identical with W'.D. Word-formation alters the base of the word- not the whole word. 5t is concerned with how words are made from the base. )nglish has five inflections: s- ing- ed- er- and est !the last two are used to form comparative and superlative respectivel ". 5nflections are not part of word-formation- the are part of morpholog of the language. There are no inflectional prefixes in )nglish. Two suffixes !-ed and +ing" are common to both word-formation and morpholog : )xample: washing could be an thing without the context. 9

She hung up the washing. Washing is a noun- but its base is verbal + suffix +ing is used to make a noun out of a verb. The result is a change of the word class. 5:ve been washing all morning. !the inflectional suffix has been added to the base" wash -% present participle +ing ,% verb -% -ing word-formational suffix ,% noun 5nflectional processes do not change the word:s class- word-formational sometimes do. Semantic change !change in meaning" in necessar for word-formational processes. S ntax vs- Word-formation S ntax requires certain word endings to allow for- e.g- sub;ect-verb agrement bl<ack bi=rd !>rn pti>" vs. bla=ckbir<d !kos" The first phrase is sub;ect to s ntax- ou can add other words to it- the stress is on the nounthe ad;ective can also be in comparative or superlative form. /lackbird- on the other hand has a different meaning !a specie of a bird"- the stress is on the first part of the word- it is a lexical unit and its meaning is fixed. 5t is a compound !$lo?enka" whose meaning is not transparent.

WORD-FORMAT O!A" #RO$E%%E%

&a;or word-formational processes: 9" 6'&@'7(D5(A !$lagan;e" B" D).5C0T5'( !afiksaci;a- i$pel;evan;e" D" 6'(C).S5'( !konvr$i;a" &inor word-fornational processes: E" F" G" J" K" /3)(D5(A 635@@5(A !krnitev" /06HI'.&0T5'( .''T-6.)0T5'( .)D7@3560T5'(

9" 6'&@'7(D5(A 0dding one base to another. 5ndividual bases are put together to form a new lexical unit with a special meaning- 5t functions as a single word. B" D).5C0T5'(L0II540T5'( 0n affix is either a prefix !unwanted" or a suffix !golden&' Slovene also knows infixes !stopicl(ati".

D" 6'(C).S5'( 0 ver important word-formational process in )nglish- but not in Slovene. (ouns can be converted into verbs and sometimes vice-versa. )xample: Wolf !n" volk- wolf !v" po?reti- e.g. 8e wolfed down his lunch. !@o?rl ;e kosilo." crow !n" !vran" -% crow !v" !kikirikati" E" /3)(D5(A Two words blend into one- with changed meaning: smog M smoke # fog F" 635@@5(A The original word is clipped !shortened": laborator % lab Cer often used with names. G" /06HI'.&0T5'(L/06HD).5C0T5'( /ackformation: Irom verb -% noun + ver often write -% writer !affixation" sing -% singer /ackderivation Irom noun to verb beggar -% beg bab sitter -% bab sit !the verb was formed a lot later than the noun." t pewriter -% t pewrite J" .''T-6.)0T5'( Was included into WI b /radle due to historical reasons. 5n 9JNE he wrote a ver influential book called 1The &aking of Words2. .oot-creation concerns with words that come and go with ever generation- e.g. onomaetopoia- acron ms- common names that have passed from personal to common names. Such words have identical roots. &odern linguists claim that this process is not a part of WI

0" '('&0T'@')T56 W'.D -words after sounds !imitation of the sounds produced b e.g. an animal" -'nomatopoeia is a Areek word -Different languages use different onomatopoetic words: 0 cock: 0 dog: slo,kikiriki ang,cockadoodledoo slo,hov-hov ang,wow-wow- bow-wow

See textbook pp 9K and pp99G /" S'7(D SO&/'35S&L@8'()T56 SO&/'35S& -Sound s mbolism tell us what goes together with certain animals !3ion roared" - it widel used in poetr -closel linked to onomatopoeia -onomtopoetic words also imitate sounds of nature- while sound s mbolism can create artificial words that do not exist in nature: &artin looked across the table at Pill and + $ing + the fell in love. Qing here means speed- happ future- etc. A./. Shaw: a critic once wrote a series of insulting words about him and at the end added @-shaw. @ is often used as a pe;orative- negative sound. See-saw has nothing to do with the verbal paradigms - it means up-and-down- and the seesaw itself goes up and down. tut-tut denotes a sound of disapproval. cf. Slo- ccc- spelled differentl - but essentiall the same sound. ow- ouch,au- auva- a;s in slo. ugh,blek- fu; 0ll these expression are highl sub;ective and difficult to confirm with a large number of speakers. 6" 0//.)C50T5'(SL06.'(O&S -)nglish is more restricted in respect to abbreviations than Slovene. -0cron ms are used in Slovene on a dail basis. -5t is best if we read out acron ms in )nglish letter b letter -Some can be read as words- but we have to know them !(0T'" -@'W is read onl letter b letter A& !geneticall - gene manipulated" (A' !non-govermental organisations" D" @.'@). (0&)S 7S)D 0S 6'&&'( ('7(S 0(D C)./S @roper names are divided into: a" @ersonal names

b" Aeographical names c" (ames of things @roper names can be used as ordinar common names Hodak !surname" % kodak !a kind of camera" 0lessandro Colta !ph sicist" % volt !a measure for voltage" Timoth !surname" % timoth !a kind of grass" 6ommon nouns should be spelt with a small initial- but sometimes the are written with a capital to honor the person after wich a think was named. The less a person has to do with the present- the more likel it is to use small initial. Duke of Wellington % wellingtons !t pe of boots that were worn in Wellington:s times are now named after him. 0t first- the noun was spelt with a capital- now with a small initial". @asteur % @asteuri$e !ver often still spelt with a capital- however small initial is gaining on popularit R pasteuri$ed milk". 6alvar !place of Pesus: death % calvar place of extreme torment Dunkirk % dunkirk !a narrow escape + at Dunkirk- 0llied forces executed a mass evacuation operation during WW 55" 3 nch % l nch % lin>- lin>ati !3 nch introduced fast executions" )arl of Sandwich % sandwich @ompadour !hairst le- a kind of purse" Sillhouette % sillhouette !a drawing technique" .obert @eel !&inister of the interior in the Cictorian age- who founded the &etropolitan @olice" % /ob % bobbie Watergate % -gate !ever scandal receives this suffix" ).g. 0l ghraibgate With conversion new words can become verbs as well- though nouns are far more common: &c0dam % macadami$e !the meaning is not the same as in Slovene- macadami$ed road consists of asphalt- tar and sand". /owdler !publisher of Shakespeare:s pla s who edited out the most offensive words" % bowdleri$e - to ameliorate the words !olepSati besede" @roper names from fiction and drama can also be used in this wa . Pohn /un an wrote a book titled @ilgrim:s @rogress through which he introduced the phrase Canit fair !semen; ni>evosti" into the )nglish language. 8e also introduced the phrases Aiant Despair !velikan 'bup" and the Slough of Despond !mo>vir;e obupa" Oahoo !Swift: the worst kind of people" We have some examples in Slovene as well: deseti brat,someone who is re;ected b ever one"

samorastnik, one who grew up in bad conditions but managed to create a good life for himself krpan,strong man 8amlet,undecided 5ago, a ver evil man &alapropism -confusion of two words -mistakes made due to ignorance Spoonerism -&istakes made in speech due to brain defects -he often made mistakes b switching fones from one word with the fones from the preceeding or following word: 8e said: 15s the bean di$$ T2 but wanted to sa : 15s the dean bu$$ T2 8e said: 1'ur queer old dean.2 but wanted to sa : 1'ur dear old queen.2 K" .)D7@3560T5'( .eduplication occurs if the same element is repeated or if a slightl changed element is repeated. )xample: What:s the weather likeT So-so. !This is not a neutral answer. 5t also not a compound or a case of conversion". Iurther examples: -ping-pong rh me combinations: walkie-talkie super-duper tick-tock !onomatopoeia" flip-flop !hrup- ropot" rub-a-dub !ropot bobna + bobnan;e" ,rompompom humdrum !dolg>as" good -good ,pridkan- pobo?n;aSki !negative reference" $ig-$ag,cik-cak shill -shall ,cincati- oklevati fift -fift ,pol-pol U" /3)(D5(A 5s a regular often used process smoke # fog ,% smog !a blendL pormanteau word to don M do on

to doff M do off Slovene examples: ko>er;a M VkoWsilo # veV>er;aW breSpl;a M VbreWskev # >eVSpl;aW 9N" 635@@5(A -a minor process -used in proper names )xample: )li$abeth, 3i$- )li$a- /essX )ither the beginning orLand the end of the word is clipped. 6lipping is a speech economising device. laborator !standard" % lab !colloquial" refrigerator% fridge !change in spelling" bic cle % bike microphone % mike perambulator % pram @ersonal names can become diminutives 0lfred % Ired % Ireddie !the consonant is doubled- because there is onl one vowel" )li$abeth % 3i$ % 3i$$ie 5f a multi-s llable word is stressed on the last s llable- the last consonant must be doubled. Cictoria % Cic % Cickie !k is added to retain the pronunciation" )rovision M V)uroWpean teleVvisionW )urovision is ;ust a shirt form- it does not have a different meaning and as such cannot constitute as a case of blending Aestapo M )eheime %taatspoli$ei !Secret state police" 99" /06HI'.&0T5'( )timolog is ver important with this process. sing !v" % singer !n" 0gent nouns: beggar !n" % beg !v" pedlar !n" % peddle !v" The longer of the two words existed first and was then reduced + unusual.

8owever- things are not alwa s so simple: television !n" !earlier" % televise !v" depends on the meaning of the noun. The difference is in the /0S): television is the base of televise. sightseeing- sightseer- sightsee + the two nominal forms are far common than the verb # the isn:t tensed et + a sign of backformation. t pewriter % t pewrite !the infinitive or the past tense form isn:t used- however- t pewritten is prett common". brainwashing !n" % brainwash !v" - rare housekeeper !n" % housekeep !v" not the same as 1to keep a house2 gamekeeper !n" !sb who watches over deer" gamekeep !not the same as to keep game" 9B" 6'(C).S5'( The process of shifting from one word class to another without an changes in form !those do occur occasionall " -occasionall stress-shift occurs im=port !v" =import !n" -sometimes the word does not switch classes. 0 proper name is switched to a common noun: Oou are a new Shakespeare !changed into a common noun and has an article. Sometimes such nouns are written with a small initial. Coicing of consonants house !n" LhausL % house !v" Lhau$L The more the word is used- the greater the possibilit of it being written with a small initial. This house is brick. !brick is an ad;ective- but does not have all the features of ad;ectives + cannot be put into a comaparative or superlative form Iull vs. @artial conversion @artial,has a s ntactic position of the word but does not behave accordingl !like brick". The wealth !ha san article- but cannot be plural" &ean !ad;." -% the ad;ective is far more common than the verb- that:s wh we usuall perceive it as such. The second reason lies in the word:s roots. Work- sleep- love: Oou cannot consider onl frequenc here. Their et molog must be considered too- because we don:t know whether the noun or the verb had been used first- 5n

') verbs were distinguished from nouns b their endings- but those have since been dropped. We- therefore- don:t speak about conversion- but agreement between nouns and verbs. Yuirk sa s love is a deverbalised noun- however- etimologicall speaking that:s not quite true. Direction of the process of cinversion: ( % C wolf C %( drink 0d; % C clean Some grammars sa that conversion is a free process- but this is not true. (ot ever noun can be converted. paper !n" 6ollins Dictionar lists twelve meanings in one of which the noun is converted into verb: To paper the walls in our room. )xamples: The ups and downs of life 5:m fed up with our wh s and hows. 6onversion is sometimes called Q).' D).5C0T5'( or Q).' S7II540T5'( + meaning that it is a subchapter of derivation. @roblems with $ero derivation are encountered when translating !partial conversion": factor to ,tovarniSka igra>a evening dress,ve>erna obleka 5n Slovene- nouns cannot premodif nouns- therefore ad;ectives are used instead. 5n )nglish we are stuck ad;ectivi$ed nouns. String ad;ectives are also a problem: mushroom !n" to mushroom !v" rasti kot gobe po de?;u thumb !through" !v" brskati (ouns converted into verbs often get a particle or become phrasal vebs. Slovene examples: &ra$ ;e !ToporiSi> sa s this is conversion" Cipavec- maribor>an, a train to &ariborLCipava Cipavec is also wine from Cipava.

9D" 6'&@'7(D5(A -the result is a 6'&@'7(D !$lo?enka" -individual elements of a compound are called 6'&@'()(T )3)&)(TS 6ompound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one base- functioning both grammaticall and semanticall as one word. The can be found in an part of speech Three basic criteria: 9" I'.& B" &)0(5(A D" ST.)SS # a question of productivit B and D" &)0(5(A 0(D ST.)SS: 6.'=SSW<'.DS !kri?anka" vs spelt solid,compound The stress != <" is called 6'&@'7(D ST.)SS !first element heavil stressed- second one weakl " 5n both cases 6.'SS is identified as an ad;ective. 6.'SS W'.DS !;e$ne besede" each word is a s ntactic unit on its own The stress is !< =" !first element weak stress- second heav "

post office: even though there are two words- it has a compound stress # a difference in meaning- so this is a compound. 9" I'.&: compounds are usuall spelt as a single word- solid spelling !without a h phen" is the most usual. (ot all compounds follow all three criteria: post office !meaning and stress adhere to the criteria- form does not" hou=se-dog -compound -meaning: pes >uva; @.'D76T5CO Oou cannot ;ust combine an words together: -house-dog -house-wife -housework -household -Zhousechild 3imited productivit tax-pa ers + can also be written as [taxpa ers\ and tax pa ers\uni<versit edu=cation the meaning of the phrase can be understood from the two words.

9N

Dictionaries must explain compounds with special meaning- e.g.: blackbird- black sheep. Some words don]t adhere to the rules: sti<ll-li=fe a big bo : co<ld w=ar The bo is big bigger bo the biggest bo

We can]t do that with [cold war\ or [still-life\ 9" T8) I'.& 'I 6'&@7(DS ;udging cpds b their form- we have two groups: 9" @.5&0.OLST)& 6'&@'7(DS B" S)6'(D0.O 6'&@'7(DS 9" @.5&0.O 6'&@'7(DS Those are a common heritage of the 5ndo-)uropean languages- also called stem compounds !debelne $lo?enke" a=pple tr<ee , it appears in its stem form semantic relation between the two elements are quite diverse ^rt-o-mir !o is called stem formant + debelni formant + which links the two stems together handiwork- workada - and now obsolete handicuff are old words. During the transition from &) to () all endings and inflections were dropped. Distinguishing between primar and secondar stress is onl of historical relevance. B" S)6'(D0.OLSO(T06T56 6'&@'7(D giant]s task velikanska in ne velikanova naloga saxon genitive cut-throat okruten morilec s ntactic relation between C and ' not primar stress man-of-war bo;na lad;a s ntactic relation between @@ and (

a" genitival compounds giant]s task Two kinds of genitive in )nglish: -specif ing -classif ing Specif ing genitives: the normal kind- express possession Pohn]s dog + the dog belongs to Pohn.

99

The main stress falls on the headword Pohn]s d=og !Whose dogT" CS 6lassif ing genitive: gi=ants ta<sk !What kind of a task"_ -are compounds -have special meaning -their productivit is limited gi=ants ta<sk vs a gi<ant]s ho=use

a doctor]s degree !classif ing or specif ingT + usuall classif ing i.e. a kind of degree is meant" her child]s face !usuall classif ing" @lural: m wife]s hat -% a lad ]s bike -% our wives] hats lad ]s bikes or lad s] bikes !both forms possible- because it]s specif ing genitive.

printer]s errors printers] errors - both mean the same thing lovers] quarrel + usuall in plural- because it takes two to quarrel prisoners] camp + man prisoners are there @roblems with: a lion]s share ,lev;i dele? a cat]s paw, nekdo- ki ;e orod;e v rokah nekoga drugega sheep]s e es, ko ;e nekdo $al;ubl;en busman]s holida ,>e mora nekdo med dopustom delati Pudas kiss,;ude?ev pol;ub written without the apostrophe- as it was in '). 0lso: 0chilles heel Tantalus torment Sis phus labour Qoisova $von>nica b" Cerbal compounds break*fast pickpocket cut-throat breakneck kill;o spoilsport makeshift save-all C !imperative" #' s ntactic compound C # ' - also a person a cruel murderer vratolomen spoil sb else]s pleasure sb who puts a stop to something $asilen wants to save ever one Qois bellflower

9B

scapegrace tosspot Slovene: ka?ipot trinog Triglav Bnd pattern: C#( pla ground drawbridge grindstone treadmill chewing gum sleeping bag

falls out of grace a habitual drinker

a kind of ground a kind of bridge a kind of stone

5(A I'.&S: sle=eping-b<ag vs ma have a h phen a bag used for sleeping in + a compound gerund sin=ging te<acher a teacher who teaches singing vs

sl=eeping d=og a dog that is sleeping a s ntactic unit with a present participle sin=ging te=acher a s ntactic unit a teacher who likes to sing dan=cing te=acher a teacher who likes to dance dan=cing gi=rl a girl who likes to dance

dan=cing t<eacher vs a teacher who teaches dancing dan=cing gi=rl professional dancer vs

Drd pattern: @hrasal verbs - a semantic unit of a verb and an adverbial- it]s meaning ma be metaphorical )xamples: look up , look upwards , look up in a dictionar , look me up ,come and pa me a visit 3ook over the fence a" 3ook over the fen=ce,@ogle; >e$ plot b" 3ook ov=er,@regle; plot 3ook over is a s ntactic unit The wind blew down the chimne a" @rep Cerb, Ceter $apihal dol po dimniku @hr verb, Aa ;e podrl

9D

@hrasal verbs are compounds. The ]re alwa s written apart- without h phens. The don]t have compound stress. The have a special meaning- which is wh the are treated as compounds. &an phrasal verbs can be converted to nouns: wa<ke u=p % wa<ke-u=p ,maska wa=keup !now a true compound. 7suall spelt with a h phen- sometimes as a whole word. @hrasal verbs are alwa s spelt without a h phen: Z8e tried to make-up a good excuse. (ouns: l=a -b< !po>ivaliS>e ob cesti" no corresponding phrasal verb lo<ck-o=ut,i$prt;e the verb was created from a noun. break-out,pobeg outbreak,i$bruh @0.033)3 6.)0T5'(S take over set up vs vs overtake upset

@hrasal verbs are a productive group onlooker b stander forthcoming particle precedes the stem downtrodden suffix is added as well

Three instances have their own meaning- which is added to the verb: 'C).- 7(D).- '7T. overwork [too much\ pretegniti se preve> delati overdo pretiravati undersell [too little\ pod ceno proda;ati outlive pre?iveti outdo [better than sbLsth else\ prekositi outbid ve> ponuditi

/ut one should distinguish them from words such as: understand- overtake !simple words" outwit: biti bol; premeten od nekoga drugega

9E

to out-herod 8erod + turned out to be a quite productive wa of foming new compounds !to out-$ola Qola" 7p and out is said to be productive still: upset- upkeep- output- outcome 8e]s trather slow on the uptake bootblack, a person who polished shoes chimne sweep,take a wild guess happ -go-luck ,fi>firi> sta -at-home $ape>kar forget-me-not,spomin>ica @repositional compounds mother-of pearl,biserna matica bill-of-fare,;edilnik lill -of-the-valle ,Smarnica will-o]-the-wisp,plini- ki se pono>i dviga;o i$ mo>vir;a se pono>i;o vidi;o kot lu>ke D" @0.0SO(T8)T56 6'&@'7(DS Derived from verbs: watch-maker- house-keeping watch-makVer* !er is a suffix" sb who makes watches blue-e ed- long-tailed Suffix can be placed on the last or on the first element: passers-b - b -standers E" /06HI'.&0T5'( housekeeper + housekeep bab sit M bab sitter sleepwalk M sleepwalking /ackformation can be classified as a subgroup of s ntactic compounds F" 6'(C).S5'( 'I SO(T06T56 A.'7@ 6onversion affects entire s ntactic groups. (ominal or ad;ectival compounds are used as verbs with idiomatic meaning: to give sb a cold shoulder to cold-shoulder,pre$irati grown-ups- well-to-do- father-in-law

9F

G" ST.5(A 6'&@'7(DS 0 process ver productive in modern )nglish. hot-water tap The first element is a compound in itself. public schoolbo ,a bo attending public school The first element ma contain the con;unction [and\ or a preposition: a cat-and-dog life his matter-of-fact voice Some strings ma contain more than three elements + often used newspaper headlines &acmillan .efuses Ban, Rate Rise "ea, #robe !some think this is not a string compound" J" 635@@5(A 6'&@'7(DS The second element remains the same- the first one is clipped: )urasia /oth elemenets clipped: )urovison K" .)@)T5T5'( 6'&@'7(DS tick-tock- ding-dong T8) @.'(7(650T5'( 'I 6'&@'7(DS Those of more recent origin !the ma;orit " the two components are perceived as separate 'lder compound elements are not recognisable- 5n pronunciation we do not distinguish the two parts present: holida !hol da ". Sometimes both pronunciations are possible side-b -side: =forehead or =fore<head T8) 7S) 'I 6'&@'7(DS 6ompounds can be written as a single word- two words- or with a h phen in between. 7suall one of the form becomes standard. The h phen is loosing ground nowada s: life span or lifespan 0d;ectival compounds are usuall written with a h phen snow-blind- 0nglo-Saxon- .oman-6atholic 8 phen is linked to the word classificationR if one of the elements is an ad;ective- there is a high possibilit of the presence of a h phen.

9G

5n converted phrasal compounds use h phens: stick-in-the-mud This also goes for famil relations: mother-in-law The h phen is omitted wherever possible- but is used when one meaning must be distinguished from the other a man eating tiger >lovek ;e tigra vs. a man-eating tiger tiger l;udo?erec tailor-made dresses custom-made dresses vs. /och]s BNN-odd cantatas pribli?no BNN

a tailor made dresses vs. action /och]s BNN odd cantatas BNN >udnih

8O@8)( W5T8 D).5C0T5C)S 8 phen needed with the prefix rere-cover !ponovno pokriti" vs. recover !o$draveti" re-sign !sing again" vs. resign !dati odpoved" re-pa !pa again" vs. repa !oddol?iti- popla>ati" Some prefixes are stressed- but h phen is preserved: ex-husband- anti-(a$i Sometimes it does not matter: cooperate or co-operate T8) &)0(5(A 'I 6'&@'7(DS Semantic relations between the elements of compounds The form does not tell us how to interpret the compounds 0gent !sub;ect" of the action: vs. sunset- sunrise sunspot !place"- sun-worship !ob;ect"- sunbeam !source"

These are stem compounds without suffixes !the first element is not a word nut a stem"- hence the meaning of the compound varies. 7suall there is little or no ambiguit in them. 'ften we cannot decipher the meaning even if we know the meaning of both of the elements. 5t is set b usage. house-boat % boat used as a house work house % sirotiSnica !/r)" % pobol;Sevalnica !0m)" % delavnica,workshop

9J

6ompounds can be classified according to their meaning into three groups: 9" The meaning is based on one of the elements + usuall on the second one 0/,/ house-boat is basicall a boat- the first element onl limits it- distinguishes it from other boats. This also helps to avoid ambiguit with the so-called reversible compounds where the position of the two elements is reversed: boat-house,>olnarna- housework,gospodin;ska dela Some s ntactic compounds are structured like that as well: wal=king stick- dr=aw bridge B" Cer rarel the meaning of the compound can be deduced from the second element 0/,0 gold leaf !a leaf of gold"- tiptoe !to walk on the tip of one]s toes" mid-ocean- &cDonalds !Donald]s son"- Hirkpatrick !St. @atrick]s church" 5ntermediate compounds explained as either 0/,0 or 0/,/: bo -king % a king who is a bo % a bo who is a king girlfriend D" /ahuvrihi compounds 0/,6 red-coat,a soldier wearing a red coat !dragonec" ,a person wearing that coat These are ver picturesque expressions: red-skin- pale-face 6ompounds express something that someone has or is wearing blockhead !tnalo # glava" ,tepec hunchback,grbavec pot-bell ,debeluh blackshirt,fascist brownshirt,(a$i bluestocking,a woman with literar taste and interests la$ bones,lenuh butterfingers,Stor lightskirts,lahko?ivka f<ur co=at !comparison not possible" vs. ( # ( long road !comparison is possible" ad;. (

The stress and form in [fur coat\ speaks against the idea that this is a compound- however because of the change in meaning this is indeed a compound le<ather ;a=cket fr<uit sa=lad ap=ple ;u<ice

vs.

ap<ple pi=e novella sh<ort st=or vs. lo<ng ro=ad !not a compound"

hladna vo;na tiho?it;e co<ld w=ar sti<ll li=fe

9K

-0ll these compounds consist of an ad;ective and a noun -comparison !gradation" is not possible - ad;ectives in compounds can]t be modified at all -see book p. K9-KB wo<man doc=tor la<d doc=tor non-compound stress =0=/,0L/ level stress wi=tch do<ctor fo=ot do<ctor compound stress

Yue=en &o=ther

Specific categor where mispronunciation can lead to misunderstanding Slee=ping-bags Ire=nch te<acher a teacher who teaches Irench vs. vs. slee<ping do=gs Ir<ench te=acher a teacher from Irance

"OA!WORWORD%/BORROW !)% 6eltic language dim ad; % mra>en mattock % kramp Scottish Aaelic clan- slogan- whiske - glen !a narrow valle - especiall in Scotland" 5rish Aaelic bog % mo>vir;e Welsh flannel- cwm !krnica- kotan;a Aaelic influence + word order 3och (ess !this word order is strange in )nglish + 3ake (ess" (orse !especiall in the north of the 7H" )ndings: -b - -beck- thorpe- -thwaite- dale borough b -law,additional local laws b -product- b -pass !these are prefixes + no relation between b -law and these words". Skirt !(orse" vs. shirt !0nglo-Saxon"

The ') pronoun hie is still alive in sub-standard `em !We got `em."

9U

Irench 9NGG (orman conquest !/attle of 8astings" 9FKK /eginnings of the empire 9U9K Start of the empire]s descent (orman Irench words 5n three waves: 9NGG The (orman Irench 9E9F The end of the war between /ritain and IranceR 8enr 5C won the battle at 0gincourt !a huge influx from 6entral-Irench words 9GGN 6romwell is deposedR .estoration beginsR 6harles 55 becomes the kingeven 6entral-Irench words enter the )nglish language. Aeoffre 6haucer created a unified language from (orman-Irench- 0nglo-Saxon- and 3atin ,% &odern )nglish- the language in which Shakespeare wrote. 3ater on came the -owel shift and the loss of endings Ieudal s stem was later introduced- which resulted in dualit : modern words were Irenchwhile 0nglo-Saxon ones were [obsolete\. (-Ir table chair 0-S board stool

serf,t pical term descended from 0-S. This is not the Slovene [tla>an\ !bondsman" Several words still have 6entral Irench doublets (Ir LkL cattle catch reward warden 6Ir LtSL chattel chase regard guardian

See book p. 9EG .eligious- legal- militar and art terms are mostl Irench See book p. U9- UB Drd wave: /oth Irench spelling and pronunciation are preserved with such words These words entered in the .estoration period. Words that entered the language before tended to be 0nglici$ed. ST.)SS )nglish has stress at the beginning of the word Irench has it at the end of the word

BN

garage 0m): final stress /r): first-s llable stress ballet 0m): final /r): first message: initial stress and Ld?L at the end + ancient borrowing massage: final stress and L?L at the end + recent borrowing hors-d] oeuvre gua Lki:L [pomol\ gauge Lgeid?L 6ar industr : chauffeur- coupe &ottoes and formulations: ..S.C.@. !raponde$ s:il vous plabt" Ior ever Irench word in )nglish- there are two )nglish words D9c Irench words FBc )nglish words 3atin 6ontribution: .omans came at the time of 6hristiani$ation- 3atin expressions connected with religion enter )nglish. 3ater the were 0nglici$ed- so the are no longer perceived as foreign: strata ,% street vino ,% wine episcopus ,% bishop The educated people during the 0nglo-Saxon produced works in 3atin- which was also the language in which the taught at 'xford 7niversit . 3atin was widel used until the .enaissance. 0lso- with the development of politics it is normal to form compounds out of 3atin words. Cer often 3atin and Areek words are used to create new )nglish compound: Tele!Areek + for" # vision !3atin + sight" , Television ox !Areek + acid" # gen !3atin + create" , ox gen mouth- earX % (ative )nglish nouns- but their ad;ectives are 3atin: mouth + oral ear + aural e e + ocular nose + nasal Sometimes two ad;ectives correspond to the same noun + one )nglish and one 3atin:

B9

Sun % sunn % solar son % filial daughter % filial paternal vs. fatherl heavenl vs. celestial Some have more than two ad;ectives: &an manl. + positive ending + something worth of a man mannish negative + used for women manli,e - likeness !manlike creatures" male + refers to the sex masculine + refers to genderR usuall in grammar virile + good qualities in a man Woman womanl. + pohvalno womanish + used for men !negative" womanlike + fema>e feminine + politi>en pri$vok feminist cit Ltown + urban !mestni"- urbane !civli$ed- well-behaved Areek contribution: The )nglish were interested in Areek culture although the influx of Areek words stopped in the &iddle 0ges for a couple of centuries. 5n the .enaissance the influx continued- but not with the same vigor. Areek words are nowada s used for new words + inventions- the internationalisms- especiall in the following fields: ps chiatr drama poetr logic pathos Suffixes +ish M Ar. iskos - can be also neutral + bo ish -denote nationalit !Swedish" @refixes -atom !a used to negate + atom means indivisible" are found in

BB

apoliti>en: -apolitical - non-political 0lmost all words connected with theatre are Areek. Areek words ending in +eR the e is sometimes pronounced sometimes not: apostrophe- catastrophe !e pronounced as LiL- episode !mute e" Daphne 0thene @enelope 0phrodite S llabic e is sometimes also pronounced in 3atin or 5talian words: recipe- finale Some slang expressions: -kudos -hubris 5talian contributions are connected with food and music Dutch: -painting + easel + slikarsko sto;alo -maritime affairs Spanish comtribution: Ilorida- (evada- armada !a fleet of warships" @otuguese: banana Aerman: mineralog : $inc- gneiss LnaisL- lager !beer" delicatessen- kindergarten .ussian- tsar or t$ar- knout !a whip used for punishment" 0rabic: alcohol- alchem - mosque Slovene into )nglish 9" 5nternationall used speciali$ed technical terms: dolina !Slovene vrta>a" pol;e !kraSko pol;e" ponor !lukn;a sko$i katero i$gine ponikalnica" uvala !ve>;a vrta>a" B" )xpressions t pical for Slovene environment: ?ganci L $hgantsi

BD

The Ma,ers of Words / Author0s $ontributions

6ontributed b poets- writers- politiciansX The work that contributed the most words: The Bible' W cliff]s translation is the first known translation into vernacular !9Eth centur "- followed b the translation b T ndale and 6overdale !9Gth centur ". 5n 9G99 the 0uthori$ed Cersion funded b Hing Pames was published. -man new words and phrases emerged. -the /ible is the most frequentl quoted in the world -known b all strata of the )nglish societ See book pp. 9NB-9NE ) e for an e e- tooth for a tooth,oko $a oko- $ob $a $ob To go the wa of all the earth !or all the flesh",pre; ali sle; bomo hrana $a >rve To be saved b the skin of one]s teeth,$a las se reSiti To set one]s house in order,pomesti hiSo $hau1er: -the father of the )nglish poetr -basicall he was one of the first people who started the process Towards &odern )nglish -6anterbur Tales is his most famous work 8is phrases: 0s fresh as the month of &a 0 verra parfit gentil knight !knight]s served Aod- their master and his wife" %pen1er2 b that time poets stopped writing about knights and chivalr and started to write about women !in that period Saavedra writes Don Yuixote- a mocker of knighthood" Spencer]s phrase: squire of dames,osva;alec ?ensk William %ha,espeare + Bnd most important + after the /ible 8e influenced almost all languages + the phrase [to be or not to be\ is known world-wide. /ook pp. 9NF-9NG 8e was important because of: 9" the abundance and felicit of his compounds: 8eaven-kissing hill B" Aenius in the manipulation and development of meaning cudgelling one]s brain cudgel,cepec $a ?ito BE

)xplanation: 3a$ people will never do an thing even if ou cudgel them. B" &ultitude of phrases hamlet,omahl;ivec 3ohn Milton: right after Shakespeare b the influence on the language @andemonium,huda $meSn;ava @.'S) W.5T).S -@rose is more difficult than poetr and drama -Technical terms are also present here -0t first it was written in 3atin onl - vernacular started to be used much later. 8umanities and science -educated people spoke 3atin and Irench -)nglish took over man 3atin words -in time )nglish words were created from 3atin -the word [scientist\ was created fairl lateThomas $arl.le -was a Scot -he liked compounds -he translated from Aerman and created man composite words Schadenfreude % mischeif;o ,privoS>l;ivost "ewis $arrol2 -he created man nonsensical words- some are used even toda - others are not: galumphing- chortle !iet4s1he2 dbermensch,superman W' $hur1hill iron curtain,?ele$na $avesa F' D' Roose-elt (ew Deal ,new deal + a social reform !Slovene took the )nglish phrase verbatim" W' Wilson the self-determination of peoples pravica do samoodlo>be See also book pp. 9EU

BF

What is going to be in the e5am6 9" )ither explain the word or use it in a sentence. successful + successive !use it in context" to be good at something !not a good explanation- since it can also be a verb" being good at something is 'H invaluable !positive" wash-out ZDemonstration proved to be a wash-out. The demonstrationX !it needs the definitive article" /e careful with countableLuncountable nouns: Strela !countable" $elen;ava !7" 3ightning !uncountable" Cegetable !6" DER 7AT O!/%8FF 9AT O! Divided into: -prefixation -suffixation 0 prefix, a bound morpheme 0 morpheme is the smallest meaningful unitR can be bound !cannot stand on its own or free !stand-alone". @refixes and suffixes are present in all languages- but infixes are not present in )nglish !but are present in Slovene" 5t is a word-formational process- the product of which is a new- which in turn can serve as a base for another new word. 0 new lexical unit thus has a different meaning. 7se of inflection results in a new word or a new word class- while affixation does not change the word class. Derivational suffixes- or ie are problematic since the do not change the meaning of the word as expected- onl the st listic level of the language changes. C receive Li:L sincere severe ( reception LeL sincerit severit valueless !negative"

BG

supreme penal legal discreet C intervene

supremac penalt legac discretion ( intervention

The /0S) !podstava" of the words changes as the are transferred to a new word class. Spenser L)L Spenserian LiL photo=graphic !change in stress"

=@hotograph pho=tograph Dickens % Dickensian Shaw % Shavian

With imported personalities it is ver hard to guess- which suffix is going to be used. &ilton % &iltonic 8itler % 8itlerite Turner % Turnesque .embrandt % .embrandtesque discuss - the marked part is part of the base. 5t]s not prefix but a S5&@3)4 disappear and dishonest + dis here stands for negation and is a prefix. L-idL naked rugged sacred - -ed is not a suffix here wicked + SO330/56 ed 8e stopped smoking + has nothing to do with word-formation- inflections belong to morpholog . There are onl five inflectional suffixes- but there]s lot more derivation suffixes. 5f ou want a past participle- simpl add the +ed inflection to the infinitive. 8owever- ou cannot use an derivational suffix- as the have limited applicabilit . ( book king 0d;ective bookish Zkingish kingl

5t]s the same with prefixes.

BJ

0II540T5'( vs. 6'&@'7(D5(A postman + can be interpreted as a compound % post # man Some grammarians believe it is not a compound. There are man such examples: -policeman -fireman -man behaves as a suffix + the doer of the action is produced in this wa . -man is pronounced with a schwa. -doesn]t have compound stress. pla wright -also- shipwright -derived derived from the verb to work Derivational prefixes usuall have a clear meaning: dis-- un- means [not\ remeans [again\ comeans [with\ Derivational suffixes are less clear: -l and +ish + sometimes cause change in word-class- however- sometimes word class doesn]t change- onl the meaning does. ( ( child % childhood !adds the meaning of abstraction" a<nti-so=cial su=perman Suffixes are usuall not stressed- however- this is not true if the suffix is of foreign origin: -ee -ette -ese !Papanese" -ation !organisation -esque !picturesque" laughter - the suffix doesn]t exist elsewhere- it]s a D)0D S7II54. sweetness / productive !used to produce a noun from an ad;ective"

BK

The same goes for prefixes. un + productive prefix in + dead prefix forgive -old Aermanic prefix !ver-" -a dead historical prefix withhold + with is a dead prefix. vs. foretell alive !productive" prefix + before forelegs !spredn;e noge"

BU