Electronic Communication Systems by Kennedy

Electronic Communication ey eat Panis) ay Wa Fourth Edition Peer eee ey eae eeTata McGraw-Hill Electronic Communication Sysiems, Fourth Edition (Copyright (© 1995 by the Glencoe Division of MecrslianMe-Graw-Hill School Company. All rights resereed. Copyrighs © 1988, 1977, 1070 by I. Ing. All righes reverved, ‘No part of this publication may bee reproduced or eisirtbutet in my Furr or by ay moans, of were in a data hee or retrieval sperm, without INE peiot welines: permacion of the publisher TATA MeGRAVCHILE EDITION 1999 Sth reprint 2008 DENORDANABAKR For Seles lta Chey Libeury of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Rannedy, Gecepe, dine Eleerreetic Commiaiteathes sywiens / Geonge Kennedy, Berard Davis, athed Pom Inchadles babi yrephical eeferences and Geale. ISN O-AC-BINS92-F thar corvar) 1. Telecommenication Daves, Herman, dive 1h Tine TR STINKS 1903 62th? BSEIN-13: 97074638824 SSEINAI Gs WIT On ni Publishod by Tata MeGirww-Hill Publishing Company Limised, 7 Weat Patel Nagar, New Det #10008, sd peinted st Poshupati Printecs Po Led. Deaths 10.008Contents 2.3.1 Addition of noise due en several sences 23.2 Addition of noise duc tm several ificrs in cascade 2.1.3 Ninise im reactive camcusts 24.1 Signalsto-noise malo 24.2 Definition of noise figure rae ane eine Bb BEEP BREESE RREEvi CONTENTS: 24.3 Calevlation of anise gure ee f poe 2.5 Noise figure from meavurement 3 AMPLITUDE MODULATION 5 2ELAMELITUDE MODULATION THEORY __as as é oe 38 3-2-1 Bosic equlvesneats—Comparion of levels 3 2 clase fier F 32.3 Pllate-moxtalated class C amplifier at 2.4 Modulared transisioc amplifiers cy 3.2.5 Semmary _ S52 _4 SINGLE-SIDEBAND TECHNIQUES 56 : - 5 ESC IRE ATE Deca Pe eee Sie |______4iny 4:2 SUPPRESSION OF CARRIER de) Effect of nonlinear resistance om added sigmals a 22 Tho alameda SUPPRESSION 43.1 The filter sysuem a $ i Sa The “ibe” met =H _ 403.4 System evaluation and comparison: og 44 EXTENSIONS OF SSR 0000 GCogyrapheed mamtal$.2 NOISE AND FREQUENCY MODULATION a EL Effects of ecive on carrier—Noise triangle a2 5.2.2 Pre-emphatis and de-emphasis 35 E24 Comparison of wideband and narrowband FM 38 {ELS Stercophomle FM multiples sysiem 34 4.3 GENERATION OF FREQUENCY MODULATION 6 RADIO RECEIVERS 61.1 Tuned radio-frequency (TRF) receiver 119 E12 Supechelersdyne receiver 120 . “(22.1 RE section. and characters oa 6-2.2 Frequency changing and tracking 128 12.3 Intermedime frequencies and IF amplifiers 134 624 ‘Detection and automatic gain comsral (AG) 136, 3.1 Extensions of the superheserodyne principle 0 aes . 3.3 Addisional systems 131 F-1.1 Fundamentals of wassmission lines 186 THL.2 Characterisie impedence J ne 1858 RADIATION AND PROPAGATION OF WAVES Hel ELECTROMAGNETIC RADHATION 00000 1.1 Fundamentals of electromagnetic waves 24 Bel.2 Effeces of the eyinomment 0000 8.2. PROPAGATIONLOF WAVES 00000000 BZ.) Growmed (eurface) wees B:2.2_Sky- eave. propagalion—The konowpber: 0 4-2,3 Space waves 26 8:23.40 Tropospheric scatter propagation 3 82.5 Euurateorestrial cammisnicatsony 2 9 ANTENNAS 1 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS 941.1 Electromagnetic radiation 9-1.2 The elementary doublet (Henzian dipole) Bae 9.2.1 Curent and 92.2 Resonant antennas, radiation patterns, and length calculations 250 9-2.3 Nonresonant antennas (Directional antennas) DAL 9.3 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 262, 9.3.1 Antenna gxin and effective radiated power 2 0.3.2 Radiation mensurerwend and field intensity 264 3.3 Antenna resistance 9.3.4 Bandwidth, beamwidih, and polarization 94 EFFECTS OF GROUND ON ANTENNAS 266 Qt Ungrounded antennas 287 ‘AD Geoundied antennas 0CONTENTS ix ‘94.3 Grounding sym 268 94.4 Effects of antenna height 209 9-5 ANTENNA COUPLING AT MEDIUM FREQUENCIES: 272 95.1 General considerations m 9.5.2 Selection of feed point mm 9-5.3 Ancemna couplers a3 9.S.4 Impedtance matching will stubs and other devices ya 3.6 DIRECTIONAL HIGH-FREQUENCY ANTENNAS 00378 346.1 Dipole arrays 216 96.2 Folded dapole and applications 278 27 SUMMARY 10 WAVEGUIDES, RESONATORS AND COMPONENTS 10) RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDES: 3 10-11 Introduction ay WAVEG ING, MATCHIB ATION 33: 103 A Methods of alin waveguides 435 10.3.2 Waveguide complings 00 (Q3.5 Basic accessories 00 10-34 Multiple jmetions 00 WO. matching and vening 0 M4 CAVITY RESONATORS 33 1043.1 Pendamessals 353 14.2 Practical comsideraticus ass 310® CONTENTS 10-5 AUXILIARY COMPONENTS 17 10-5.1 Directional couplers 7 10-5.2 Isalatoes and circulators 339 1W0-5.3 Mivers, detectors and devector enunts 365 105.4 Switches aT TL MICROWAVE TUBES AND CIRCUITS 37 11-| MICROWAVE TRIODES 378 HI-L.1 Frequency limitations of gridded tubes 37H L-1.2 UBF triodes and circuits 380 1b-2 MULTICAVITY KLYSTRON 3aL V2) Opeewtion 8 (Ui-2.2 Practical comssdecutioms 20000 UL REPLEX KLYSTRON 00000000 U-3.1 Fumelormeegeaby 00ST 11-3.2 Penesical considerations: 389 1-4 MAGNETRON 390 114.1 Introduction 391 114.2 Operation cry 114.3 Practices! considerations 396 List4 Types, performance and applications 304 115 TRAVELING-WAVE TUBE (TWT) 0 115.1 TWT fundamentals 301 Da Prachieal cael atl + 11-$.3 Types. performance and applications 405 U1-6 OTHER MICROWAVE TUBES 0.0... Li-6.1 Crossed-field amptifier 408 11-6.2 Backward-wave oscillator 4L0 Lid Misccltanenus pies ay 12 SEMICONDUCTOR MICROWAVE DEVICES AND CIRCUITS 416 1241 PASSIVE MICROWAVE CIRCUITS any L211 Stripline and microstrip circuits at? 12-12 SAW devices 419 12-2 TRANSISTORS AND [NTEGRATED CORCUITS .___42 12.2.0 High-frequency limitations 4b 12-2.2 Microwave transistors and integrated circuits 422 12-2.3 Microwave integrated circuits 424 12-2.4 Performance and applications of microwave tansivtors and MECy 425‘CONTENTS af (2-3 VARACTOR AND STEP-RECOVERY DIODES AND MULTIPLIERS 427 123.1 Varwctor diodes 427 12.3.2 Step-recowery diodes 430 123.3 Frequency multipliers 40 12-4 PARAMETRIC AMPLIFIERS 432 124.1 Basie peinciples 432 124.2 Amplifier clrewite 435 12-5 TUNNEL DIODES AND NEGATIVE-RESISTANCE AMPLIFIERS 12.5.1 Principles af tunnel diodes 12-5.2 Negative-resistance amplifiers 12-5.3 Tunnel-diode applications 12-6 GUNN EFFECT AND DIODES 1246.1 Gunn effect 12-62 Gunn diodes and applications 12-7 AVALANCHE EFFECTS AND: DIODES 12.7.1 IMPATT diodes 12.7.2 TRAPATT diodes 12-7.3 Performance and applications of avalanche diodes 12:8 OTHER MICROWAVE DIODES 1268.1 PIN diodes 12.8.2 Schotiky-harrier dinde 12-8.3 Backward diodes 12.9 STIMULATED-EMISSION (QUANTUM-MBCHANICAL) AND ASSOCIATED DEVICES 12.0.1 Fundamentals of mmers 12-9.2 Practical masers und their applications Sha S885 S4G% SEE ELSE 12-93 Fundamentals of lasers a0 12-94 CW lasers and their communications appleations a7 124.5 Other opieciccimnic deviers ams 13 PULSE COMMUNICATIONS ah er 3:11 Infoemmation in u communications 142 131.3 Koike in an intoemation-carrying channel | Lez 122.0 Introduetion— [3-LT Pulse-width modulation (3:2.3 Pulse-positioe modulation Uh24 Pulse-code modulation (PCM) | gesii CONTENTS 13.3 PULSE SYSTEMS Sot 142 T 510 14 DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS MeL Bigied Pandamentals 00 (ELE fe baa punter pm a 14-13 Digital electromies W412 Characteristics of data transmission cixcuits 530 14-23 Digital codes 535 HA24 Error detection and conection S41 M43 DATA SETS AND INTERCONNECTION REQUIREMENTS 5a? T=. Modesn classification Sa 14-3.2 Modem interfacing, 550 14.3.3 Intercotinection of data circuits to nelephome loops 552 [4 NETWORK AND CONTROL CONSIDERATIONS 559 144.) Nenwork: onganizalioas a [4.2 Switching systems 144.3 Network peotacnils a7 i4-3 SUMMARY 59 15 BROADBAND COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS vision onl 2 Time-divisicon multiplex 586 (3:2 SHORT- AND MEDMUM-HAUL SYSTEMS 0.0... St 162.1 Guanial cables 0. sag 13-2.2 Fiber optic links SIL 19-25 Microwave links sm ‘Tropospheric scaner links 515 15-3 LONG-HAUL SYSTEMS 576 15-3.1 Submarine cables 516 15-3.2 Satellite communications 381 [$4 ELEMENTS OF LONG-DISTANCE TELEPHONY saz 18-4.) Routing codes and signaling systems 502 154.2 yand routin 393 154.3 Mitcellapeous practical aspects co 15-4.4 Intredection te traffic engineering 535 56CONTENTS xiii 16 RADAR SYSTEMS 0 16-1 BASIC PRINCIPLES ol 16-11 Fundamentals sal Ife12 Radar pesformance factors 606 16-2 PULSED 3YSTEMS lz 162.1 Basic palsed radar system 612 162.2 Antennas and scanning 67 fie2.3 Display methods on 16-24 Pulbed radar systems 623 \te2.5 Moving-target indication (MTT) 626 16-26 Radar beacons 832 16:3 OTHER RADAR SYSTEMS a3 16-3.1 CW Doppler radaz ou 14e3.2 Frequency-modulaied CW radar 637 Wfie3.3 Phased array radars 638 16-3.4 Planar array radars 642 17 TELEVISION FUNDAMENTALS 48 17-| REQUIREMENTS AND STANDARDS: a0 17-1. Introduction to television 17-1,.2 Television systenss amd standanss 17-2 BLACK-AND-WHITE TRANSMISSION 4655 17-2.1 Fundamentals 655 17-22 Beam Scanning 657 17-2.3 Blanking and synchronizing pulses 660 17-3 BLACK-AND-WHITE RECEPTION 64 17.3.1 Fundamentals 66 670 674 17-3.5 Hortzoetal deflection circuits on 17-4 COLOR TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 6a 17-4,1 Tnereduction ob? 17-42 Color mansmission oe 17-4. Color reception 6 18 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 701 LiL HISTORY OF PIER OPiS 0 Uhe2_ WHI PORER CHPICS?adv CONTENTS M3 INTRODUCTION TO LEGHT 00 Sn dena tbat + 18-3.2 Dispersion, Diffraction, Absorption, and Scattering 705 18-4 THE OPTICAL FIBER AND FIBER CABLES: 7 18.4.2 Piber Lonees 76 18-§ FIBER OPTIC COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS 17 18-51 The Source 17 185.2 Noise ‘ 718 18.5.3 Response Time 78 18-5.4 The Optical Link 79 185.5 Light Wave ia 18-5.6 The System crs 18:6 INSTALLATION, TESTING, AND REPAIR 00000782 14.1 Splices ari 18-62 Fiber Opeic Testing 7a 1846.3 Power Budgeting mHPreface This book originated a5 notes used tn aching communications at a technical college in Sydeey, Australia. At thot dime, textbooks written at this lewel were not available, As demand for this course grew, am Assratinn text was published, Soon afterward, this text, aimed primarily et American students, wus published in the Linited States, The text is designed for communications stuslents at the advanced level, ead is presents information, ebout the basic philosophies, processes, circuits. and cher build- jing blocks of consemunicstions systems. It is intended for use ax text material, but for Festest effect it should be backed up by demonstrations and practical work in which In this edition of the text, chapter objectives have bees added and stadent cenercises increased in mumiber to reinforce the theory in each chupter. Further, & new chapter on fiber optic theory has been added. ‘The muxhematical presequisites ure an endesuanding of the j aperanor, wrigono- metric formulas of the product-of-two-sines form, very basic differentiation and inte- ignition, afd binary arichmetic. ‘The basic clectical-lectrunic prerequisite is 2 knowledge of some cizcuit theory and common active eiveuits. This involves familiarity wich dz and sc circuit theory, including resoeance, filters, mutually coupled circuits and transformers, and the operation of comenon solid-state deviees, Sense knowledge of themaionic devices and tiec- om ballistics is helpfel in the understandiag af microwave tubes. Flvally, communica tices prerequisites are resaricted tora working knowledge of mused voltage and power amplifiers, oscillators, flop-flogs, and gates, The sxthors are indebted to the fallawing people fr providing matesials for this tent: Noel T. Smith of Central Texas College; Rabert Leacock, Test and Measurement ‘Group, Tekteneix; James E. Gena, Phelps Dodpe Internatineal Carparatiern, end David ‘Reber, AMP Iacocporaied. We would also like wo thauk the reviewers, Clifford Clark of TTT Technical Institets, Millon Kennedy, end Richard Zboray, for their input te this editice. ‘Gorge Kennedy Beran! DavisElectronic Communication SystemsIntroduction to Communications Systems This chapter serves to introduce the reader to ibe subject af. systems, and ‘also this bock asa whole, In studying ét, you ‘will be introduced to an information source, a basic communications system, trasmitters, receivers and noise. Modulation methods are intreduced, and the absolute need to use OBJECTIVES them in conveying information will be made clear. The final section briefly discusses bandwideh: requirements are shows that the bandwidth needed to transmit same signals and! waveforms is a grent deal more than might be expected. Upan campleting the material ix Chapicr {, ihe student wil! Be wble to: Define the word information as if applies to the subject of communications Explain the term channel moive and its effects. ‘Understand the use of modulation, as it applies to eransmission, Solve problems using Fourier series and transforms, ‘Demonstrate 2 basic understanding of the tern handwide and it application in comm munications, ]-] COMMUNICATIONS Ina bimad serie, the terra commundeations refers tn the sending, receiving and processing of infornstioe by eleciragic meuns. Communications stzned with wine telegraphy in the eighicen forties, daveloping with Uelepheay some decades later and radio at the beghuning of this century. Radio communication, made possible by the invention of the triode nibe, wus greatly improved by the wark done daring ord War I. It subse- quently became even more widely used and refined though the invention and wie of he transistor, integrated circuits and other semicanducice devices. Mone recently, the2 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATICRN SYSTEMS: use of satellites and siber optics has made communicatioas even more widespread, with an increasing emphasis on computer and other dats communicatines Amoem commanications sestewt is first concerned with the sorting. process ing and sometimes suring of information before its eransmission. The stoal transmission thon Follows, with further processing and the fibkeing of noise. Finally we bawe feception, which may inchude processing weps such as decoding, storage Ad interpe:~ tation, in this coment, Innes ed communications include radio telephony aad telepra- phy, boadcastieg, poist-te-pains and mobile communications (comovercasl oc ill. lary}, compatcr communications. redar, radictelemetry and rade aids 40 navigetina. All these are treated in tum. in folkvwing chapters. In order to become familiar with these systems, it is necessary fart to knove about amplifiers and oscillators, the buihting blocks of all electronic processes and oquipment. With these as a background, the everyday commenications concepes of noise, modulation ad infarmarion eheary. as well as the various systems themselves, may be angrowched, Any logical onder may be used, hut the ane auogsed here is, basic ayslems, communications processes and circuits, and more comples systems, bs com sidered snnst suitable, [t is alsa important te consider the human facioes influencing a particular system, since they must always affect its design, planing and use. COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS. Before inveitigating individeal systems, we bawe to define and discuss important terms such os igbsrmation, mesamge and sigma, chanel (eee Section |-2.3), maine and aise fortiov, miiuaion and demaduiurion, and finally encoding aed decoding. To corme- fate these concep. a block diagram of a geoeral communications systeca is shown in The communications system exists ie convey a message, This message comes fron the information source, which ceiginates i, in the sense of selecting one nctsayge drama grup of messages. Although this applies mone wo telegeaphy than $0 entertainment broadcasting, for example, if may nevertheless be shown 10 apply to all forms af cuntmonications, The set, or total somber of messages. consists af individual mete FIGURE Block diagrass of communications oyniem,INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS 3 sages which may be distinguished fram ane another, These may be words, groops of wns, cide syaibals oF any ather potarramged units Information itscll is that witich i ccigreped. That amount of information exe- tained in any given message cam be measured in dts or im dite. whick are deals with in, Chapter 13, and depends on the number af chotoes that vast be make, The greater the fatal number of pessibte selections. the Linger she semount of information conveyed. Tos indicme the positios of a werd an this page. it mmry be-sullicient wo say shan if isan the tap or bottom, left or right séde. Le.. two consecutive choices of one cut of two possibilities, If this word may appear in nny ore af two pages, it is mow eecesmry 0 say which one, ace more inermabuon muss he giver. The meaning (or lack of mehning} of the isfoematian does nat matter. from this pial of view, only the quantity is ‘impestant, bt must be cealined that no zeal informative is conveyed by a redundant (i.e, ‘totally predictable) message. Redundancy ts mot wasteful under 2il cosdilions. part from its obvious use imentertainment, teaching and any appeal ta the emotions, it also belps a message co remain ineligible: under difficult or avisy conditions. 1-2-2 Transmitter ‘Unless the message arriving freim the information source is electrical in nature. it will be unsuiteble for immedisic wransminion. Even then, a tot of work mast he done so make such a message suitable. This may he demonstrated in sugie-cifeband moelula- flan (see Chapter 4), where it is secesiary to convert the incoming sound signals beso electrical variations, io restrict the range of the audiv frequencies and then. ta enmepress their amplitude rege. All this is done before any moatlarion, In wire telephony no Processing may be required, hut im long-distance communications, a transmitier is required to process, and possitly encwke, the incoming inforcnation so as oo make it siitble for tramsmnisssan snd subserwent eecepticn Eveowally, ina traasminer. the infiarmation modulates the carer, ie, is seperinposed on a high-frequency sine wave The acsual mecthod of mexulatian varics from one system to another, Modulation muy be high fewol or how devel, and the system itself may be ample madulction, freguesey medulatin, pulse moddation or any variadion or combination ef these, depending an the requirements. Figure (<2 dhows a high-level amptitude-modulated broadcast irunsméticr of a type that will be discussed fm detail in Chagrer 6. FIGURE 1-2 Mack diagram of typical radio transmitter,4 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: 12.3 Channel—Noise ‘The acoustic chaemel (i.¢., shouting!) is not used for long-distance communications, and either was the visual channel until the advent of the later, '*Coesmunicaticns,"" in this coment, will be restricted to cndio, wire and fiber optic channels. Also, it should bbe mated that the teams channe! is often used ta refer to the frequency range allocated ti 4 particular service or Lrumtmission, such ax a defevitian ehanned (the allowable carrier bandwidts with modulating), Hvis inevitable thot the signal will detesiorate during the process of transmission and reception as a result of sone distortion in the syste, or because af the intradue tien of noise, winch i unwanted exergy, ssuatly of random character, present ina transmission certent, due to a variety of caurer. Since noise will be received tagether ‘wilh the signal, it places a licnitation on the tansiaission systen as a whole. When couise is severe, it may mask a given sigeal so much thal the signal becomes uninielligi- fbte and therefore useless, fn Figure 1-1, only one source of mise is thown, net beers ‘oniy- one exists, but bo simplify the block diagram. Noise may interfere wut signal at any point ia a communications oyster, buit ir will Ave diy gremien’ effect when the signal ix weakest. This means thet noise in the chasioel or af the input to the receiver is the most noticeable, It is treated in detail in Chapter 2, 1-2.4 Receiver ‘There are a great vaciery of receivers in commanications systems, since the exnet fone ‘of a particular receiver is influenced by a guar many requirements, Among the mere esporaat requiements are the modiulanion system used, the opersting frequency axed its range aod ube type of display required, which in tura depends on the destination of the intelligence received. Mast receivers des conform browily to the superivererotyme type, a8 does Ube simple browdeast receiver whese block diagram is ahown in Figure 13, Receivers run the whole range of complesity from = very simple crystal receiver. with hendphones, to a fat more comples radar eeceiver, with ite involved aoe artingements and viewal display sysiem, which ell be expatded upon in Chaprer & Whiusever the recelver, i mast important functiog b demodulation (andl a a per reette {[ aca excatat FIGURE 1.3 Mock disgram of AM superheterndyme receiver.1-3 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS 5 soenetimes also decoding}. Both chest processes are the reverse of the comespoeding Titer modulsion processes and are discessed in the follwing chapters. ‘As staned initially, the purpose-of a receiver sed the tome of its output inilnence (ts comstruction a mach as the type of mexiulation rystem used, The ounpat af a teceiver may be fed co a lomdspesier, video display anit, teletypewriter, various radar displays, television picture tube, pen recorder or computer, In each instance different arrangements must be marie, each affecting the receiver desiga, Nose that the tansmit- ter and receiver must be in agreement with the modulation and coding methods used (and also timing ar synchrmnization in some cysters! MODULATION 1.3.1 Description Until the process of saperimposing a low-frequency (long-wave) voice information component on a high-frequency (short-wave) carrier signal was perfected, the most widely used form of commenicutions was a syster based on the transmission of a contivous-wave (CW? signal. With this system, the signal was inerraped periodi- cally (Morse code) to produce a cobied message. The CW aysten required tremendous training and expertise on dhe part of the persons involved in transmitting and receiving, the mtssages, and therefore the Field was limined 10 3 few experts With the development of modulation, a whole new ea of consmunicatices evolved, the sesals of which cam be socn all around ws today. "We sill now exacning dhe Process of moxtulstion in more det 13.2 Need for Modulation ‘There are two altematives ta the ese of a modulated carrier For the tans messages in the madic chusnel, One coeld try i send the (modulating) signal itself, or else use un uamodulated carrier. The impassibility of transmitting the signal itselE will be demanstrated. first. Althowgh the topic has not yet been discussed, several difficulties are involved in the propagation of electromagnetic waves at audio frequencies below 20 biloberte (20 kHz) {see Chapters # and 9). For efficient radiation and reception the transmitting snd revciving anteneas would have lo have lengths coenparable te-a quarier-wavelength cof the frequency used. This is 75 meters (38 en) at | megabeste {1 MHz). in the brogdcast band, but at 15 KE it has increased to SAM ms for fest ower 16,000 feet! A, vertical artenns of this size is impracticahle, “There is an even more important srquenent apsinst transmitting signal frequen« ies directly; all sound is concensrated withio the ramge from 20 He to 20 kHe, 90 cho all signals from the different sources would be hopelewtly and inseparably enixed up. in tany city, the broadcasting stations aloce would ceenplotely blanked tee “air” amd yer they represent a very seall proportion of he tal number of tunsenitncrs in use Tn order to separate the various signals, if is necesskey to conwert thems all oa different portines of the electromagnetic spectrum. Each must be given its awn fre quency location, This also overcomes the difficulties of poor mdiarion at how frequen-6 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS cies and reduces imisrference. Qace sipnals have bere weiasteted, a wned circuit is cnpiayed in the front sox of the reeeiver bo make: sure that the Ucsired section of the speciruns it admniied and 2d) the unwseted anes are rejecied, The tuniag af such 8 Giresit is moereally ede varable ind connected to the tuning coats, so that the fonciver cag seloct any desieed Iramiminiion wilhen a predetermined range, suchas the wey high fresweney (VHF) broadcast band wed for frequency modutation (FM) Although this separation of sigaals has remaved @ wamber of the difficulties encountered the absence of modulation, the fact still remains thet unewndalaied carriers of various frequencies cannat, by themselves, be used tn transmit intelligence. ‘Ac ummedulated cartier tues a constant amplinude, a constant frequency and 2 consti phase relationship with respect tp sume reference. A message consists of ever varying questities. Speech, for iestance, is made up af rapid and unpeedictable varistions in anyulinace ¢eelume} and frequency (pitch). Since it is impossible ta neprosemt these twa variables by a sel of three constant parameters, ant ctmodulated carer cance be used to convey informatics. In x continucws-wave-madulaiion system taxuplituile cr Ere- quency modtulalion, but rot pulse modulalion) one of (er parameters of the camrier is varied ly the message. Therefore ol any instant ils devistion fran tbe wamnodulated value (resting frequesky) is peopostiomsl fo the instansaneous aimplitine of the rmoatubat- ing voltage, amd the eaie at which this devtabon takes place is equal 10 the frequency of :oral, Te this Fashion, enough infaomation abot the instantanesas nmplitude andl ency is transmitted i enable the reveiver to recresie the original message (chis vill be expanded upon in Chapter 5). BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENTS a It is reasomable to expect that the frequency range (ie, handwidé} required For 2 given iraramission showhd depead os the bandwidth occupied by the medulaton signals themselves. A higtetigetity adic signal newoires a range of 30 10 150K) He, bert a basdeadih of 4p 340) Hy t) adlequare for atelepheane cowweralios, When a cartier has been similasty modulated with each, a greater bandwidls will te sequined for the hhigh>Fidelicy (Li-fiy tracemnission. At dhis point, is bs worth muting hat ihe cransenitted bandwidth: need not be exactly the same as the bandwidis of the original signal, foe reasons connecied wath the properties of the modulating systems. This will be enade clear in Chapters 3 00 3 Beioee trying to estimme the bandwidth of o modulated transmission, it is esseotial to know the bensiwidih occupied by the axdulaling sigtal iescll, If this consists of sinusoidal sigeats, there is no problem, and the eacupied band wtih wall simply bbe the Frequency range between the Lowest anal the ksghest sine-wave signal, However, if the modslaing signals are nonsinusesdal, a much more complex situstion results, Since such Gontiowsoidal waves ocoer very frequently as modulating sherals i com- fusicatiens. their frequency requirements will be discussed in Section 11.2,INTRO THON TO COMMUNICA TED? SVSTEMS 7 1-4.1 Sine Wave and Fourier 5 Review Tes very important in communications to have a basic understanding of a sine wave signal, Described mathernaically in the tne domain sel in the frequency domain, this signal may be repeescntedt am follows: vieh = En sie (2p + of) = EE, vin Ger + hp (ely where vith = woltage as a functing of rime Eq peak voltage sin = trigonometric: slite function JF = frecqoency in hertz radian frequency (w= 2) r= time é = phase angle If the voltage waveloerts described by this expression were applied to the verti. cal inpat af an cocatloscope, a sine wave would be displaysd on the CRT screen, The symbol f in Equstion (1-1) represents the frequency of the sine wave signal, Nest we wall review the Fourier series. which is used to expeess periodic time Functions in Ube frequency demain, ant the Fourier sransform, which is wed snexpress noaperindic time demain functions in the feequeney domain To expand upea the wpic of bandwidkin requirements, we will define the terms of the expnessacns and provide examples so that these topics can be clearly andersinod. A potiodic waveform has ampliteds and repeatx iteelf during 2 specific time period 7. Some examples of waveforms arc sine, square, rectangular, triangular, ancl sawtooth, Figuee Its an example of 2 rectangular wave, where A designates ampli. tude, FT cepresents timer, and + indicates pulse width, This simplified review of the Fouriet series ts teant to neacquaint ihe student with the basics. The form for the Faurier series is ax follows: {daar beh, sin (=) | 11-2)ff ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: Each term is a simple mathomatical symbol and shall be explained as follows: S = the sum of a terms, in this cose from | to infinity, where takes on = values of 1, 2,3, 4, Op, te, &, = the Fourier coefficients, determined by the type of waveform T + the perind of the wave Jt?) = an indication that the Fourier series is a function of time The expression will becume clearer when the first four terms are ilPastrated: j= [5] [oc (22) rn an 22)] [een (22) onal I. [oer($2) na (te)}s... 09 If oe substitute wy for 2/7 (or. Infy = Dev) in Equation (2-4), we can rewrite the Fourier series in radian terms: Fi) St] + ay cs woe + By sin ma ++]ay cos 2wot + by sin Zod) + fey con Soy By sin eye) # AY Equation (1-4) supparts the statement: The makeup ofa square or rectangular wave ix the sum of (harmonica) the sine wave components af various amplitutes. ‘The Fourier coefficients for the rectangular waveform in Figure (4 are _ir i ey Ar sin (rani) Fee 4, =O because ¢ = @ (waveform is symmetrical ‘The first four terms of his series dor the rectangular waveform arc: po [|= et 2] «(2 ter a Geo) (+ Ls) Example 1-1 shouki simplify asd enhanot umdcats* understanding of this review materiINTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS 9 EXAMPLE 1-1 Compune the fiew four tems la the Fourier series for a 1-KHe Fectenguilar waveform with « pulse width of SOQ yee and an amplitake of 10 ¥, SOLUTION Tm time (10 = 1 = 00"? or palse width = S00 x E0-® any 7 = 04 Refer to Equation (1-5) to solve the protien, (FU) = C00) (0.599 + fr) C1) (OS) en ‘eos (2% 10%] + [manos 7 cos [de 10] = [era ins) (FEE) cn ter x 0%) yom 51+ [SO eas 2 x io’ ] + [2 sax ae x 104] +[S:2 ase 0%] Fit = £5] + (6.3606 oom Cer % 1] + 10) + [2.122 cox fie x 10°) (Because this waveform is 6 symmetrical square wavelorm, it has components at (Ane) DDC, id at (be,) U REte and (be) 3 He potnts, wad at odd multiples thereafter Siac in radians. 1, #5 0 ny —1 (see Figute 1-51, ‘The Fousier transform review material is included here becawse nos all wave- ‘forms ste periodic and informacion cenceming these noeperiodic wavefonms are at great interest in the shady of communications. A complete seedy and derivation of the series and transform are beyoad the scope of this text, but the snadent may fine this review helpful in understanding these concepts.10 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS Figure 1-6 ibhistrates 2 single nonsepesitive pulse. The transform fos this pulse is: Av sin (w!2) ae oer, (16) Fiw) = 2) Fie) = Fourier trassform rm pallse widths Qe) = radian frequency A = amplinude in volts w 20 ‘te Gr = = & ¥ 7 FIGURE 1-7 Fourker transform of a single pubse,INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATHENS SYSTEMS If 1-4.2 Frequency Spectra of Nomsiausoidal Waves Hany nomsinusoidal waves, noch as square waves. are to-be transmitted by 4 commnuni- cations system, then it bs inportses t realize that each such wane muy be broken down into its component sine waves. The handwidth required will nerefore be consierstily greater than might have been expected if cmly the repetition rave of such a wave hand been talen inte account. At may he sii thor any mowuniesedeal. stngle-nalied repetitive warefiienn consists of sine watver anifior cocine waves: fundamental, siee veree is cyaaf an dhe repetition cute ey the moni ; and aff others are harmonics of the fundamental. There are cn infinite ewmber exf sich Aarmurics. Some nen-sine wave recutring of a tue of 200 times per secuned will consist ofa 200s fundamental sine wave, and harmonics oN), 660 and 860 Ha, and so on, Far some waveforms only the even lor perhaps only the ext hamesonics will be pres: ‘cmt. As a general rule y be added than use higher the Earnoaic, the lower its -poeqgy level, so that in bandwidth calculations the highest hantanics are often ignored. ‘The preceding starcencan may be verified in any ont ef theee different ways, tt may be prowed maihematically by Fourier analysis. Graphical synshosis may be used, bn thi case adding the appogrine: sine-wave components, Laken from a formula derived by Fourier analysis, demoestrases the trth of the statement. An added sivastage cof this method is clue it makes it possible for us w see the effect an the overall waveform because of the absence of some of the components (iar instance. the higher hermcnics). Finally, tbe presence of the cummxment sine waves in the correct proportions may be demonstrated with a muve anslyaer, which i& basically a high-gais tinable amplifier with a narrow bandpass, cnabling if ta tune 1 cacl component sine ware and ngasire ifs armpliteds, Same formulas for freqaently encountered nonsinasoidal waves are tow given amd erare my bet Fonsnl iat handbooks, If the senplitade of the nonsimus- coidal wae is A and ins reposition rae is w/2e per second, then ft may be espresemed as fottows: Sequare wave: eos war — Veen Buoy Triangular wave 4A ‘ > fous ait + 6 cus Bast + Vos cos Saat + , = Sawtooth wave: + Mi sant Beet — thin aot — 3 8 sity doar + 5 in cach case several af the hanimnsies Wil he required, bm wdditiow 1 the furdda- nna Irqpency. iF the save fi 40 he repRCSnteMl sccguately tie. with aecepeatly ow distortion). ‘This, of course, will greatly inctense the raguired bandwith,12 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS oF SSS MULTIPLE-CHOICE ‘QUESTIONS Each of the fodlowing mudiple-choite quenions comsiats of an iacomplete surement Sollowed fy foe ehoters fa, b,c. are! dl, Circle the fetter preceding the fine that carrectly completes each sentence, 1. Ina commurscations systers, woive is most Wkely to affect the sigeal a at the transmitter be. it the channel Ce in the information source dat the destinasion 2. indicate the false statement. Fourier analy sis shows thal a sawinalh wave consists of @. fundamental and subharmonic site waves bh, 4 fundamental sire vawe and an infinite number of harmonics cy fundamental and harmonic sine waves whose amplitude decreases with the har- weenie aumber d. sinesoidal voltages, some of which wre simal] emonigh to ignere in practice A. Indicate the fafse statement, Modulation is used bo a. redice the bandwidth used be separa diffesing traersmissinas -e. ensure that intelligence nay be transmnit- ted over tong distances 4. allow the ee of practicable amennas 4. Indicate the jase statement. Pram the trans- milter she sigeal detertoration becuse of ini is casualty a. unwanted energy ‘b. predictable in charmeter present in the transmitter due to any cause Se Indicate the crue statement. Most eeceivers comfcenn 40 the a. amplitude roodulaied group th. frequencysenastulated group ¢, superbetmdiyme gromp od, tinted exiio Frequency roveiver jroup 6 Indicate the false statement. The need for modulation can bes. te exemplified by the fallowsng, a. Antenna lengths will be appreirsemely ANG ong bb. An antenna iat the standied beoedeant AM band is 16,008) f c. All sound is concentrmed from 30 He va 20 kHie aL A message 1s composed of unpredictable verianans in. both amplicede and fre quency 7. Indicate the rue statement. The process of sending and receiving startet at early as a. the middle 193s te, 1850 ¢. the beginning of the twentieth century Gs the 86s A. Which of the following steps is not included im the praceas of reception? a. decoding bs, encoding e stomage . imperpretstion 9 The acoustic channel is used far which of thee Folicavings? a. UHP comnmnications lb, single-sidebam! communications & television communications d, person-to-penen voine communications Mh. Ammpliticke micetulation bs the process al . superimposing a low frequency on a high inequency be. superimposing = high Frequency on a Jow Frequency e. carmier interruption i. frequency shifi and phase shiftINTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS 13 REVIEW QUESTIONS L. The carrier performs certain functions in radio communications. What are they? 2, Define moive, Where is il ercvt fikely to affect Ube signal? 3. Whur does modulation actualy do ta 6 message and carer? 4. List the basic functions of a radio iranscnitter and the corresponding functions of the receiver. $. [gnaring the corstant relative ampdituce coespanest, plot sed jhd the appropriate site waves graphically, in each case using the first four composents, so as to eymehesiae: fat) a square wave, (b} a sawsoath wave,Noise Noise ls probably the andy topic in electronics and telecommunications with which every: ‘one must be Familiar, no matter what bis of her specialization. Electrical disturbances inverfere with signals, producing noise, It is ever prevent and limits the performance uf ost systems, Measuring it is very conten tows; almost everybody hus a different method of quantifying mote and iss effects. After studying this chapter, you should be famifiar with the types and svurces of nuise. The methods of calculating the noise produced by varius suurces will be learned, and so will be the ways of adding swch noise. ‘The very important umése quantities, signal Tor nuise roti, aise figure, amd aoise temper arure, will have best carveredd in detail, as wilt methods of measaring mais OBJECTIVES apteniag she material ir CSuaprer 2. re suvilewe will te sible re Upon Define the word nese as it applies to this material, Name at least six different types of noise. Calewlane ooise bevels for a variety of conditions using the equations in thee tent Demonstrate an understanding of signal-to-noise (S/Mb und the eqqual Work problems involving noise puoduced by resistance andl temperatune 6 intel wed Noise may be defined, in electrical tormms. as any enwanted intriduction wf energy Lereling 10 interfere with the proper reception amd reproduction oF transi Many alisutbegces Of an closteval tales prealiiog Boise In pecelarrs. mt Sigel li pul pil REMCEES. te inp the ay prewliwce hiss an the ee “contest” fesaresd snow) becomes superimposed on the picture. in pulse communications sysiens, noise may produce unwanted pulses.or perhaps cancel oul the wanted ones Ji may causye seriens marhematical errors, Nuoxe can lisnil the range af systems. for a gived transmitted power, It alfocts che somisiviny Of roceiers. by placing a limit oe The weakes stents thai can he amplilied, is pray orn the faselo ii a sysiem, as will be discussed in Chapter In ‘Vere are puinerows wavs of classifying neve. Itimay be subdivided aocoeding Wo type, source, effect, ut relation to the mceiver. dipenling oo cintwmaturtces, Ie is mowL comeenbene hens 1 divile wero ome HAE bread gremps, mise whose sous aeNOISE 15 emtemal w the receiver, and noise created within the receiver itself, External neise is difficult to iret quantitatively. and there is often litte that can be done about i, short of maving the system tc anciber lncesion. Note how radiotslescopes are always located tay from industry, whose processes create so much electrical noese. International satellite earth stabsons are alsa located! in noise-free valleys, where penaible. Internal noise i both more quantifiable and capable of being reduced by appropetate receiver design. Because noise bas such « fimiting effect, and alse Because iis often possible is reduce its effects shrough imetligent circuit use and design, i is most important far all those connected with communications 49 be well informed about maise and its effscts. 2-| EXTERNAL NOISE The varinus fomsy af noise crewed outside ube receiver come under the heading of extemal noise and include atmospheric and exirsternestrial noes and industrial aokse., 21.1 Atmospheric Noise Pechape the Best way 40 broume acquainted with somespheric noise is to listen a shonwaves On a ociver which is tee well equipped to receive trem. An astonishing ‘variety of strange sounds will be heant, all tending to interfere with the program. Most vf these sounds are the resull of spurtous radin waves which induce vobixges in the amenna, The majority al these faith waves come from panzal scunces of disturbance They repnsent atnsoapheric ance, generally called sate. Static is caused by lightning discharges an thunderstorms aired other nurturnl electric disturbances occurring jm the atmospherw. Ib originates in the toma af amplix tode-moculsted impulses, and because such processes ace random in mature, it is spocad over must af the RF spectram normally ased far bromdcsting, Mtmospheric ngise consists of spuricus radio signals with comporents distitvaied over a wade range of Froqmencies. His propagated over the earth in the same way as ondinary radio waves of the same frequencies, so thot af any point on the ground, slate will be receives fren all thunderstirts, local and ister. The attic bs likely to be more severe bt beSs frequent if the ston is local. Fick strength is inversely proportional te frequency, 50 thar this meise will interfere mone wilh the eeception of radio than thal of ictevision. Such note consis af impulses, and (ax shown in Chapter 1) these noesimuscidal waves have harmonics worse amplitude falls off with imercase in the harmonic. Static from alistart sources will vary in intensity acennding 4 the variations in. propagating sondicions, The uesunl increase iin its level takes place at night, at bots broadeast and shortwave frequencies Amoapheric niise becomes lesx severe at frequencies abave abut 30 MI became of Ewer separate factors. First, the higher frequencies are limited ta line-f- sigtn propagation (as will he seen in Chapter 8p, Le., fess tham 8i kilometers or st, Seonnd, the natire of the mechanism generating this noise is sich that very Lille af it ts ereated i the VHF cange andl above.16 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: 2-12 Extraterrestrial Noise ‘It is sage to say that there are almost as many types of space noise as there are sources, Poe canvenience, a division into twa subgeoups will suffice Solar nolse ‘The sua radiates so many things oor way that we showld not be ino ‘surprised tn find that noise ix noticeable among them, again there une two types. Under ‘normal quiet" conditions, there is a consiam noise radiation from ihe sun, simply because it is 2 large body at a very high temperature (wver BOOT om the surface). Tt therefore radiates over a very broad frequency spectrum which includes the frequencies we use for communications, However, the san is 2 comslanily changing star which undergoes cycles cf peak activity from which electrical divturbunces erupt, such as corana flares and sunspots. Eves thowgh che additiunal aoise prodaced comes from a limited partion ef the sun's suriace. it may still be orders of magnitude greater than that revelved daring periods of quiet sun, ‘The solar cycle disturbances tepeat themselves approcimately every | 1 years. fe addition, if a line is drawn to joén these 11-yeur penis. itis seen that a supercyete is in operating, with the praks reaching an even higher maximum every 1K) years a 30. Finslly, these 1-year peaks appear to be increasing in inieasity. Since there is correlation between peaks in solar disterbence and growth rings im tees, it has been possible 00 trace them hack 1 the beginning of the cightecnth cemury, Evidence shaws that the yeer 1957 wax not only a peak but the highest such peak on record. Cammic noise Since distant stars ane also suns and buve high temperstares, they radduase RF nise in the same manner as ou sim, and what they lack in neamess they nessty emake up in numbers which in combination can become skgnificacs. The notse received is called mera (ce black-bady}aotse and is distributed feisty uniformiy aver the entice sky, We also receive noise doom the cemer of cur owe galaxy (ihe Milky Way), form other galaxies, and from other virtual point sources such ax ‘quasars’ and “*palsars,"* This palesic noise is very inteese, but it comes from seurces which are ‘onty points in the sky. Two of the strongest sources, which were also two af the earliest discovered, sre Cassiopeia A and Cygnus A, Note that it is inadvisable to eefer to the previous statements as ‘poise sources when talking with radio astronomers! Summary Spuce qaise is observable at frequencies in the range from about § Miz in somewhat above 1.43 gigahertz (1.43 GHz), the lntter Frequency corresponding. ta the 2i-em hycimgen ““line.”* Apert from man-made onise it is the strangest component over the range of shout 20tn 120 MHz. Nat very much of it bebaw 20) MHa penesrates down thigh the sonoyphere, while its eventual disappearace a: frequencies inexcess Of 1.5GHz is poobsbly governed by the mechanisms penesuling i, dtd its absorpeion by hydeogen in interstellar spac: 2.1.3 Industrial Noive Berween the frequencies of | to 900 MHz (in erban, eetarban amd other imdkstrial areas} the intensily of noise made by hums easily ontstrips that created by any cehet source, intern or external to the ebceiver. Under this heading, sources ouch as autoNOISE 17 mobile and aircraft ignition, ekeciric motors and switching equipment, leakage from high-voltage nes und a naahitude of other heavy electric machines are alf incleded, Flectescent! lights ure another powerful saurce af such noise and therefore should nat ibe used where sensitive receiver reception or testing is being coméucied, The noise is produced by the ane discharge preseot im all these operstions, and ender these circum. stances it is not surprising ther this noise should be mow intense in industrisl and densely popwlatd areas. (Under cetain candibons, industrial noise duc te spark discharge may even span oceans, a4 demonstrated by Marconi im 1901 ar St. John's, ‘Newfoundland ‘The mature of industriel noise is 0 variable thet it is lifficalt t asalyee ft an any basis other than the statistical, |i does, however, obey the gesers! principle dat received noise increeses as the reeciver tundwicih is increased (Section 2 2-2 INTERNAL NOISE ‘Under the hesiking of internal asise, we discuts noise crested by any of the active or passive devices found in receivers. Such poise is geaerally random, icepossible to teat oa 0 individual voltage basis, bul easy to obuerve and describe statistically. Because the noise is randocnly distritvwied over the entire radio spectram there is, om the averape, a8 much af i al one Trequency as al any other. Random mukie power Oy propor onal to the bandwidth over whick it ix measured. 2-2.1 Thermal Agitation Noise The naiue generated in a resistance of the resistive component is canon and is relerred: Ins as chermal, ayptetion, white of Jafinsun soise, 11 is due io the rapid and. random motion of the malreules (wtoms and eleesroms) inside the companeni itself. Inthennodyramics, kinetic theory shows thar the temperature of a particle isa ‘way of expressing its internal kinetic energy, Thras the “'semperature"” of a body is the souistical root mean. square {ram} value of the welocity of mating af the partictes in the body. As ihe theory states, the kinetic energy af these particles hecames spronimaiely zero {i.e., their motion ceases) at the tempercure af absolute nero, which is 0K (kelvins, formerly called degrees Kelvin) and very nearly equals 273°C. It becomes Sppacent that che noise generated by x resistor is proportional to its absoluie tempers lure, in addition to being proportional to the bandwidth over which the mise fs to be measured, Therefore Pe PoP = KT Se ie where 4 = Boltzmann's comsamt = 1.38% 10-7) Jjoulesi/K the appeopriate wopariqnalizy constant jis this ease T= absolute tenpersnire, K = 273 4 °C Sf = bandwith of imerest P= maximum noise power output of a nexistor = = varies dinectly18 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS Uae orheary resistor at the standant temperamee af 17°C (20 K) sno ect nected to any voltage source, It might af first be thought that there is no voltage to be incasured across fi. That is correct Hf the measuring instrament is a direct gercat (de) volmeter, ben itis incorrect if a ery sensitive electronic waltmeter is used, The resister is a poise generator, and there may even be quite & large voltage across iL. Since it is rasdom aad therefore has a fisite rms value bu! ao de-component, only the alkemnaving current (ach meter will register » reading, This noise voltage is caused by the random movement of electrons within the naister, which constitutes a currem It is true that as many electrons arrive af one end af the resistor as at the ether aver any long period of time. At any instant of time, there are hound to be mone electrons arriving #1 one Particular end than at the other becaase their mnavement is randuns. The saue of arrival ‘of clecirons at either end of the resistor therefore varies randomly, and so does the potential difference between the two ends, A random voltage arruse she revisor defi vaively extent and may be both measured ant calculated, Te remst he realized that all foqenulas referring to tazdom noise are applicable any to the rms valuc of wach poss, nat to ies Snstantancous valee, whlch is quire wnpredictable, So far ai peak noise wodtapes ape cancermed, 281 that mary the stants kx ghost they are unlikely to have values in excess of 10 times the rms value, Using Equarion (2-1), ibe oquivalem circuit af a rescdor as a noise generator inay be drawn as i Figure 2-1, and from thes the resistor’s equivalent snise voltage V, moay be calculated. Assume that Ry is colseless and is receiving the maximum anise power generated by A: under these conditions of maximum puwer transfer, ty roast be scqusl to 2. Then a0 a= ge & 4F Va aRP, ~ ARE Af and Vis WakT BFR a Iris seen troen Eqpuarion (2-2) that the square of the rims moise vubtage associ wed with a ecsistar ts proportional 1 the absolute semperanarc of the resistor, the value of its resistance, and the handwidth over which the nosse is measured, Note expecially that the generated noise voltage Is quite independent of the frequency at which it is mewsured, This stems from the fact that it is random and therefure evenly distributed cower the IPequency spectrum FIGURE 2-1) Resistance noise geicratar,NOISE 19 EXAMPLE 2-1 An amplifier operating over the freqenacy range tram 15 wo 20 Mia ‘ae # 1Ddblohm (MECH npet resistor What isthe Tea nose Yonge tthe apa tit amplifier if the ambient lemperatune ib 27CT SOLUTION v= VaR = VOx Linx eo eal + a et 1) =Vixaexae eet = 1 xo = 18.2 microwolts (18,2 #V) seus e ae mere amplifier woah! be masked by the moive and lai. 21.2 Shot Noise ‘Thermal agitation is by mo means the oely source of noise in receivers. The most important of all the other sources is the shor effect, which leads to shot noise im all arnplifying devices and virtually all active devices. /t is caused bry random variations in the errival of electrans (or bales) ai de ourpat electrode af an amplifying device and appears a a randomly varying noise current superimposed on the outpet, When ampli= ‘fed, it is sapposed to sousd as though a shower of lead chot were falling om a metal sheet, Hence the name shor noise Although the average output cerrent of a device is gowerned iby the various bias voltages, at any instant of time there may be more or fewer electrons arriving at the ‘oulpur electrode. In bipolar transistors, this is mainly a result af the randoen drift af the discrete current carriers across the junctions. ‘The paths taken are random and therefore unequal. so that although the average collector current is constant, minute variatioes nevertheless occur. Shot noise behaves in a similar manner to thermal agitation noise. apart from the fact that it has a different source. Many variables are involved in the generation of this noise in the various aenplifying devices, and so it is customary to use approximate equations for it, In addition, shot-noise werent: is a lick difficult to add to thermal-ecise volunge im calculations, so that for ad) devices with the exception of the diode, shot-noise formalas used are generally simplified. Por a dice, the formula is exnctly i= Wie, of a where i, = rms shot-naise current e = charge of am electron = 1.6% 10-2 jy = direct diode carrent Sf = bandwidih of system ‘Note: It may be shown that, fora vacuum tube diode, Equation (2-3) applies only under so-called temperatureslimnited conditions, under which the ‘visual cathode" has nat been formed. In all other instances not only is the formula simplified but it is oot even a formula for shol-notse current. The most convenient melhod of dealing with shot noise20 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS iggo find the value or formula for an equlveless (apat-ncise restiter, This precedes the device, which is now ascumed to be noiseless, and kas a vaise sach thet the same amouré of noise is present at che owtput of the equivalent system ax in the practical amplifier, The onise current hes been replaced by a resistance so thet itis naw easier to add shot ooise to themnal noise. [t bas alsa heen refereed to the input of the arnplifier, ‘wich is a much mare convenient place, as will be seen. The value of the equivalent stew-noise resistince Raq of & device is penerally quoted in the maniifixtunet’s specifications. Appeoxicuate formulas far equivalent thor- noise resistances are also available, They all show that sach poise is inversely prapartional to transconductance and also directly peoporteonal to ourpat current. So far as the aio of R,, is consermed, the inportaed thing to realize is that i ise complesely fictitiows resistance, whose sole fusction is to simplify calculations invalving shat soise, Bar noise caly, this resistance is treated as though it were an ondinary moise-creating resis: lor, at the sume temperanuze as all the ocher resistors, and located in series with the input electrade of the device. 21.3 Transit-Time Noise If the time taken by an electron to travel Hom the emitter to the collector of a transissar became: significant 10 the period of the signal being amplified, Le,, at frequencies tm the upper VHF range sed beyond, the so-called ¢raunit-lowe effecn takes place, and the aise input sdmitance of the transistes increeses, The minuts currents induced in the ‘input of the device by random fhoctustions in the ouiput current become of great importance at such frequencies and create random noise (frequency distortion’, ‘Onee this high-fexquency notae makes ins presence Set, it goes an increasing ‘with frequency at a rate thet soan approaches 4 decibels (6 dB) per octave, and. this Fundons noise then quickly predominates over the ether forms, The resalt of all this is that i is preferable to measure noise af such high frequencies, instead of trying ta caloulite an input equivalent noise resistance for it. Radia frequesey (RE) rensistars are remarkably low-noise, A nulse figure (ate Section 2-4) 2a low as | dil Is possible with transésior amplifiers well ine the UP range. 22.4 Miscellaneous Noise Fllcker Ai low sudio frequeocies, a poosly understood farm af noise called flicker o mmovudacian noise is found in transistors. It is propomionsl to emitter current and june: ion temperature, but since i is inversely prapartional io frequency, it muy be cam plcecly ignored above abogt 500 Ha, It is np tanger very serious. Resistance Thermal noise, sometimes called resistance noise, Hl also present in tran- sisters. It is due to the base, emitter, and collector internal resistances, and in pucet circumstances the base resistance mules the largest contribution From above $00 Ha up to show Jon(S, tasdistor noise remains relatively con stant, 8 that an equivalent usput resistance for shot and thermal! maise may be freely used2-3 NOISE 21 Noise in mivers Mixers (noolinear amplifying circuits) are much noisier than amplifi- ere using identical devices, except ai microwave frequencies, where the situation is rather complex, This high value of noise in mixers is caused by two separese effects. Fira, comersion mansconductance od mixers is much lower than the transcoadectance of amplifiers, Second, if dmage frequency rejection is inadequate, 2s often bappens at shortwave Frequencies, noise associated with the image frequency will abso be ac cepted. NOISE CALCULATIONS 2-3.1 Addition of Nalse due to Several Sources Las’ salen she tio, Chel station ots. Gemma i sik = VaRT Bf R, and V,j = VaR 57 R;. The sum of two such ems vollages in ila grea og sss ee sor ma Gg ao ak Vaan = WR + Wh = Waar GPR, + Aer OTR = VERT Ef, + Aah = VERT Re (ay where Rye = Ry + Ry + aH Ibis seen from the previous equations thal in order to Find the ioeall noise voltage caused by several sources of thermal noise in series, the resistances are added and the noise voltage i calculaind using this total resistance. The same procedure applies if ‘one of those resistances is an equivalent input-noise resistance. EXAMPLE 22 mag eran iy aren steer saratpy, device thet hax 2 205-cim (200.09) equiabent noise and a 00-1 ieee: The hana amplifier br 6 MB, miasmapeeen Ine. soLunon Hac VERE AR 15, 7. Calculate the generalized form of noise figure toon steps 3 and & (2-205, B Calculaic #, from &,, bi possible (2-21, 2-22). and substitute io the general equation for F 4o-abiain the actual formals (2-23, 2.24), or determine P, from mesatremment 2061. ond substitute to obesin the formula for F (2-27 228, 2. it is seen trom Figure 24 that ihe sigeal inut volkage aad power will be (2-12) (LahNUHSE 27 Sintibealy, the soise input vahage and power will be RR 2 - Va aT (1) va RR. 1 aay BFR, ee waar Gp ee ew SE Fa = pm ar oe TER Rea RB, (2-18) ‘The dapat signal-to-noise ratio will be _ ER HAY EY Ry Mii NP ER PR RR AE ORL RY oy ‘The catput signal power will be Va ava Re cn - ( Ate eo = Ae _ (2-17) Bat Ry! Re (Rye RRL ‘The noise output power my be difficult to calculate, For the time being. it may simply be written as Pap = tase ouLpe power ha ‘The cungalt signal-to-noise ratio wall be avy Rs BAR Pee (hay Finally, the general expression for the noise figure is 220) Note that Equation (2-20) i an intermediate resubl.only. An actual formula for F may now be obtained by substinution far ibe output agise power, ox from » knowl: edge of the equivalem eeise resistance, oF frum mensunsense 24.4 Noise Figure from Equivalent Noise Resistance As derived [n Equation 12-7), the egaivaleat noise resistance of an amplifier ar receiwer is the sum of the input termvinating resistance and the equivalent aise resistance af the first stage, together with che noise resistances of the previous stages referred to the input, Puiting it anceher way , we see that all thesc resistances arc added so A, giving @ fuenped resistance which is then said so coocentrate all the “noise making’ of the receiver. The rest of it is now assemed to be noiseless. All this applies here, with the28 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: rainar exception that these ooise resistances must now he added tc the parallel cornbi- nation of Ry and R,. In order to ccerelete noise figure and equivaiant poise resisiance. it is convenient 10 define Rg, whichis a noise resisnance that does not incorporate &, and which is given by Big — Rey — Be 12-7) ‘The cotal equivalent noise resistance fer hit receiver will mow be Fak Sek cei) RAR ‘The equivalent noise voltege geserated at the enpur of the necelver will be Vy = VER aR Since the amplifier has an cwerall voltage gain A and may now bye treated at though it were noiseless, the maize output will be yaw ew AYE Aa ae R Ry Re Ry wet When Equation (2-22) a substituted into the general Equative (220) the reste is an expeessinn fir the noise figure in teres of the equivalent noise resistance, namely RR, + FR) Foom RAR + Ri AMET af ” Gir SPAR AR, WT af Ri RO+R, RAR, op be Lae bait Be AT ae, Rat 1+ Be ae Ra ean Htean be seen fram Equation (2:23) thet if the noise bs to be 2 snieimur for any piven salve of the antenna rosistance R, the ratio (Rt, + Ry, muest also be a suum, $0 thar A must be mvc larger then R,. This is a situation exploiced very alten in Practice, and at may naw be applied to Equation (2-23). Under these mismatched ities, (R, + 8/WR, approaches unity, and the formula for the eaise figure ne- Fale (22a) This ie a most impertant retalionship, best it must be remembered thet it applies ‘unwles mismitchad conditions anly. Under matched conditions (ft, = i.) o€ wists the mnisenatct 8 not Severe, Equation (2-23) must be used instead,14+ =a (els dB) Note that fan “equivalent noise resistance’ is given without any other com- meat in connection with noise figure calculations, it may be assumed to be Ap, 2-45 Noise Peart ee Measurement The preceding section showed how the noise figure may be computed if the equivalent noise resisiance is exsy to calculate. When this is aot practicable, as under transit-time conditions, it is possible 10 make measurements that lead 10 the determination of the noise figure. A simple method, using the diode mole generaior. is often employed. lt is shown in Figure 25 in circuit-block form. Equation (2-3) gave the formula for the exact plate ecise current of a vacuum: abe diode, and this can now be used. As chown, the anode current is controlled by means of the potentionrter which varies filament voliage, and that is bow shot-noise current is adjusted. “The outpwt capacitance af the diode and its associssed clrcult Is resonated at the operating irequency of the receiver by means of the variable inductance, so that it may be ignored. The output Impedance of the noise generator will now simply be R,. ‘The foise vollage supplied wo the input of the receiver by the diode will be given by wip Bef = AVE = iypZy ™ fy Rath m+ kr 23) 3 5 eee ein Voltage E Peay ITH | = > AA > Lo =< aMY) BLECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS The srsise gemeraior is connected wo the receiver ler amplifice) onder teat. an! the noise culpur pewer of the receiver is measured with zero diode plate current, he. swith the dinde plate voltage sepoly switched off. The diode pine voltage supply is now switched ca, and the Filament potentianeter is atljasted so that dade plate current ‘bexins to flow. It is farther adjusted unti! the noite peraer developed in Ry 14 twice as lange as the ectise power in the absence of dinde plate current. The plate current at which this happens, i, is measured with the millianieneter and noted. The axltiocall noise power output is now eqikal bo the aormnal ceive gerwer Oulpul. 4 ial Ge Lubes cam be eapressed im terms of the clinds plate current. Wie nem bay ARI RI sip Bg RAR. + RY As alteady cattinet, Equation (2-26) may be substieuted isne Eguaticm (2-H ‘This. yes Rife + Bian | ReiRy + Ry) ARERI2u, Bf = SRA, OF AUK BFR, WANT AFRAR, Buk, + RP (2th a, — (227) UT, + Ry 11 iL is assumed once: again chit dhe system is onismmsiched and #, FE, Equa lion (2-27) bs sinmplified 1 Ru, oe 228 Ifthe above procedure is eepeared right trons the heginning for a system under naiched conditions. itomy then be peoved that Equation (2.28) applies exactly to such, a systems instend of being merely 2 good appeosimation, a it in here, Such w result emphasizes the value of the noise diode measurement. Aga final simplification, we substitute into Equation (2-28) the values of the ‘varous constants it condalins. These include the slandanl bemperaiting at which uct mensarertents ane made, which is 17°C or 280K. This gives a foomila which is very often quoted: Fo Bale — tale) 6 % MY Px 290 e Lex 1" = (Raf) (2 * MH = 0 Rain 22H where Ry is memsared in ohms and dy la amperes NOISE TEMPERATURE ‘The conceps of noise figure, although frequently used, is net always the crust comve~ nicht measize of noise, particularly ih dealing with UHE and microwave low-noise aennas, receivers or devices. Controversy exists regarding which Is the better all-NOISE 31 arqund mesauement, but noise temperuture, derived from earty work in radoo astro ‘omy, is eenployed extensively for antennas nd low-noise microwave amplifiers. Not the least reason fog its use ix coavenlecee, bn chat ile an seditive like noise power. This may be seen fram reexamining Equaban (2-1), a5 follaws: Pes kT of SP, + Pee kt) Of + aT OF AR APS AT, Af + 29, af Let 4Ts (23) where P, and F, = two indivhtudl noise powers (e.g., eceived by the anenna and generasnd by the arscana, respectively) and Fis their sue 7, and 7, = the iedividual noise temperanares he Another advammge of the ase of noise temperazure for low nesise levels is cher it shows 2 greater variation for any given noise-level change than dows the noise figure, yo changes are easier to grasp is their trac perspective, i will be recalled that the equivalent paise resistance introduced in Section 2-3 is quite fictitious, but it is often ernployed because of its convenience. Similarly, Ty, the equivalent ooise teperaiuce, omy alee be utilized if it proves convenient. In defiang the equivaleat newe temperature of a receiver oc amplifier, itis asiuened that Rigo a. If this is to lead to the correct value of nese culpat power. len abviewsly i, whist Be at a emperaiure other than the standard one al which all the components Garetading R,) are absumed & be. It is them possible to wie Equation (2-24) to equate noise figure and equivaleet noise teyspersture, as follows: ee “gota! noise temperature pep + Sey 4 Mtn Ry Ty BF Ry i, wp ete 2) 1+ (2) where Fly = Ft., 08 postulated in the definition of Ta, fo = 170 = 290 K Toy = eyaivalent noise tempemiuse of the acuplifier or receiver whose anise figure is F Note that F here is & ratio end i not expressed in decibels, Also, T., may be influenced by fbat is certainly not equal to) the actual ambient semperaiure of the feoeiver oe amplifier, It must te: repeated that the equivalent nokst oemperature is past a convenient fletion. IF all the waise of the receiver were genemted hy R., its temperature would bave to be Tq, Fisally we have, frees Equation (2-31), ToF = Ty +7, Teg = TAF ~ 1 am32 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ‘Once noise igure is known, equivalent noise temperature may be calculated from Equation (2-32), or a nomograph muy be constructed if wie is frequent enough to justify it, Graphs of noise tempexature of variows sources vereas frequency and sky temperature versus frequency are aleo available. EXAMPLE 2-f A receiver connected to an artenss whose resistance ia 30 (2 Mat wn equivalent soise resistance of 30 (1. Calculate the receiver's noise figure in decibels sod 58 equivalent notte renpernure SOLUTION pare fee se Boren e x» = FO bog 1.6 = 10 0.204 2.08 dB Tog = Fo UF — 1) = 290 (1.6 — 1) x O16 = 14k LT TE MULTIPLE-CHOICE ‘QUESTIONS. Each of the following muitiple-chaice questions consists af am incomplete statement followed by four choices (a, &, ¢, and d), Circle the letter preceding the lime that correctly complrers cack nentemcr, One of the following types af noise be: b, quadrupled ‘comes of great importance at high frequen- ec. dowhiled cies. It is the 4. unchanged a. shot noise 4. One of the following is nov a useful quantity 1, random noise for comparing the noise performance of re- G impulse noise ccivers: d. tramsit-time noise leedicake the false statement, . © ret are generally noisier than nr » Spi bla vaiage i iniaaadnt bandwidth. ¢, Thermal poise is independent of the frequency at which it is measured, di Industrial noise ts usually of the impulse type. The valoe of a resistor creating thermal nobse Is dowhled. The ecise power pemer- nied is therefore a. halved a. Inport noise voltage b. Bquivalem noise resistance c, Noise temperavare d. Noise figure ‘Indicate the maise whose source is In. a case (ory differen from: that of Use oder three. a. Solar noise bb. Cosmic noise Inedicate: thee false stntement. The square: of the thermal notse vole pesermted by a resistor is propestional to7. 1h, its temperature ©, Boltzmann's ceestant G, the bandwidib aver which itis enewsured ‘Which two broad classifications of noise ee the mnt difBioalt to treat? a. noise genecated is the eoceiver bh, noise generated in ihe transcritter & esternally genemied acise d. imemaily generated anise Space noise generally cowers a wide irequency spectrum, bul che strongest imerier- SNe OCU a, between 8 mle and 143 ete bb, below 20 Mite &. between BM to 100 Mie dy above 1.5 GH ‘When dealize with random noise caicular ficns iE mmitst be remembered thal a. all calculations are faved om peak 02 peak values, NOISE 3d b. calculations are nesed om pesk valves, c, calculations are haved on average values. d, calculations are beied on RMS vabees, 10. Which of the following is ibe mest rellabse ingasuremens for scumparing amplifier noise charmeteristics? 8. signal-to-paite ratio bs, noise factor €, shot noise i. thermal agitatian mise Which of the following statements bs true? a. Random sais power ix inversely pro- portioal so bandwidth, b. Flicker is sometimes called dessadula tiem mets. ‘t, Noise in mixers is cased hy inadequate image Irequency rejection. a. A risdom voltage across a resistance cannet be calculated. REVIEW PROBLEMS 1. Anamplifier operating over the Frequency tangs of 455 to 444) kbiz has 9 2-KE2 inpeat nesistor, What is the rms neise voltage at the input bo this amplifier if the ambien tempera ture is VAC? 2, The noise cutpet of a resistor is amplified by a solscisss amplifier having a gain of 6) and a bandwidth of 20 kHz A meter connected to the outpur af the amplifier rests Limi eras, fa) The bemdwidih of le amplifier is reduced to 5 kM, iis gain remaining constant, What does the meter rend now? 1b) If the resistor is operated at MIC, whan is ts resistance? 3. A parallel-tuned circuit, having a @ of 20, is resorated to 20 Mx with a 1 picafarad (J0-pF) copscitor, I this circuit is tmaintained at (7°C, what noise voltage will a ‘wideband voltmeter measure when placed acroes il? 4, The front end of a television reotiver, having a bandwideh of 7 MB and operating 2 a tempemture of 27°C, coosists of an amplifier having « gain of 15 followed by a mixer whose gain is 20. The amplifier bas a 300-0) input resistor and a shot-noiss equivalens resistance of $001 {1; for the converter, these values are 2.2 and 13.5 Af), reepectively,. and the mixer keod resistance is 470 &f1. Calculate i, for this televisiow seorives: 4. Calculate the shininum sigoal voltage that the receiver of Problem 2-4 cam handle for good reception, given thet the input sigmal-to-roése ratia mast be net tess than MMOL 6. The RF amplifier af a receiver bas an ign resistance of 100 £1, and equivalent shot-naise resistance of 20) (2. x gain of 25, and a Inad resistance of |24 af). Givew that34 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: the bandwidth & 1.0 MHz and the temperature [x 20°C, calculate the equivalent noise voltage at the iapat te this ELF amplifies. If this veseiver bs comnected to an setenna with an impedance of 75 £2, calculate thy noise figure. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1, List, separately, the various sources af random oie and impulse coise external to a receiver. How can sun of them be avoided or minimized? What is the serongest source of extraterrestrial naise” 2. Discuss the types, causes and effects of the various forms of noise which may be created within a receiver or an amplifier. 3. Beserthe tiriefly the forms of noise to which a transistor is pro 4. Define signal-to-noise ratio and noise figure of » receiver. When might the latter be a move suitable piece of information thin the equivalent noise resistance? 8, A receiver bas an overall gen A, an oulpwt resistance Ry, a bandwidth &f, and an absolute opersting temperature T. If the receiver's input resistance ts equal to the antenna resistance R., derive a formula for the woise figure of this receiver, One of the terms af ‘his formufa will be the acise output power, Describe briefly bow this can be measured vesing the diode generstar.Amplitude ‘The definition aad meaning of modulstion in general, ai well as the need for modulation, were introduced in Chapter 1. This chapter deals with ampliude modulation in detail and is subdivided into two sections. Having studied amplitude modulation (AM) theory, students will be able to appreciate that an amplitude-modulated wave is made up of a number of sinuscidal companents having a specific relation to one another. They will be able to visualize the AM wave and calculate Modulation the frequencies present in it, as well as their power or current relations to each other. The second part of the chapter will show several practical methods of generating AM, analye: ing them from a cireuit.waveform, rather than mathematical, point of view. Both vacuum-tybe amplitude modulators, which are the common ones where Ibigh pawers are involved, and transistor AM generators will ‘be discusses. OBJECTIVES Upor completing the material i Chapter 3, the student will he wble as: Dreseribe the AM process ‘Compute the modulating inde. Solve problems inviting bandwith calculations Dhraw a repeesentation of an AM sine wows Analyae and determine through computation the carrier power and sidehand power it AN Understand and explain the jerms grid mesdlavion, plate modlutives, ated framristor vernfariom, 3-1 AMPLITUDE MODULATION THEORY In arplined: modulation, the amplitude of a carrier signal is varied by the soduiating voltage, whose frequency is invariably lower than that of the carrier. In practice, the earier may be figh+requency (HF) while the modulating is audio. Formally, AM ix a46 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS defined ax 4 system of modulation in which the amplinule of the curler is amade proportional 20 ke fustanganrous amplinute of whe mondlaning voltage. Let the carter voltage and the modulating voltage, v Iv... respectively, be represemied by v, = sin ae t hip Ve = Vig Sim thal (+2) ‘Nose that phase angle has teen ignored in both evpressions since it is an: changed by the omplinude modulation process. [ts inchesion here would merely coral salr ie proceedings, without affecting the result. However, it will certainly aot be possible to ignore plise angle when we deat with frequency and phuse modulation on ‘Chapter 4 4 Fron thee definition of AM, you can see that the (enzximuen) amplinade of the ‘unmogulaed carrier will have to be made proportional to the ineanneaeetre modutaneng vakage Vq si ain? when the carrier is amplitede-cvodulated, 31.1 Frequency Spectrum of the AM Wave ‘We shall show mathematically that the frequsccies present ia the AM wave are the carrier frequency and the first pair of sideband frequencies. where a sidebard fre quency is defined 9 fea f= ne cee seed in the fis pair = 1 ‘When a cerier is amplinds-modulaicl, the praporticaality constant is eid equal to unity, and the instastaneous moduluting voltage variations we suneriinpasseat ‘amio the carer amplisade. Thus when there is temporarily na snedulation, the araptli~ tude of the carrier is equal to its unmodulated vabuz. Wher modulation is present, the genplizude of the carrier in varied by its instantaneous value. The situation is illustrated in Figore 3-1, which shows how the cracimum ampGtude of the senplitude-enodutared voltage is make 40 vary in accontince with medulsting vollage changes. Figure 3: als shows that something: tntasial (disterioa) will occur if Vig es greater than ¥, (his istartion is a nesslt of overdriving the amplifier stage), This, amd the fact that be rates Yi, olte cori, leads 1 the definition OF the mowlition inder given in Equation Way ba r FIGURE 2.1 Aniplituke of AM waveAMPLITUDE MODULATION 37 i) ‘The modulation index is a number lying between O and 1, and it is very often expressed 48 4 percentage and called the percewaege moduliiian. Froen Figure 3-1 and Equation (3-4) it is possible to waite an equation for the amplitude: of the omplinids-medulaied voltage. We have A=Kh+ e050 +0, sin = = a, cle ae = V, (Le san a) (35) The instaneancous valtage of the revaliing amplitude-modulaied wave ix w= Asin OA sim ont = V, (1+ een th sin at (346) Equation (3-6) may be expanced, Sy means of the tigonometrical relation sinx sin y= 4 [oos (x — yi - con (+ y)]. to give WW sn aye + OE es a, — at EE cas ur + et (7) Hy has hus been shown that the eywation of an amptitude-modulsscd wave contains three terms. The first term is ideetical w Equation (3-1) and represents the unemdulated carrier, Ot is apparent that the process of amplitude: modulation has the effers of adding to the unmadulaied wave, rathet than changing if, ‘The two adktitional terms produced are the two sidebands outlined. ‘The frequency of the lower sideband (LSB) is f — foes and the frequency af the upper sideband (USB) is f+ fay. The very important conclusion to be made of thes stage is that the bandwidth required for amplitude modulation is twice the frequency of the modulating signal. In modulation by several sine waves sinualiancously, as in tbe AM broadcasting service, che bandwidth required is nice the highest modulating frequency. EXAMPLE 3-1 Ths tuned crcsit of the owcallatar coil and SOLUTION wonhe i 1 # as JeGe exis ws “Rarer Severn “2 038 ELECTRONIC COMM! ‘ Ls | USB btn fra Jerin ke Tet tee FIGURE 3-2 Prequency spectrin af AM eave, 31.2 Representation of AM Amplitude modulation may ine represested! im any of thee ways, depending ec the paint of view, Figure 2-2 shows the frequency specuum and so illustrates Equation (3-7), AM is shown sicnply as comsisting af dace discrete frequencies, Of these, the ventral frequency. i.e, the casrier, has tbe highest amplitude, and the other twa are disposed symmetrically about it, having amplatudes which are eqpaal ts each other, but which can never exceed half the carrier amplitude [see Equation (3-7), und nove thet wd LI ‘The appearance of the amplinademodalated wave is of great interest, and it és shown in Figure 3-3 for one eycle of the medubsing sine wave. Ot i derived from Figure 3-1. which showed the amphiude, or what may sow be called the inp envelope of he AM wave, given by the relation a= ¥, Vj, sin uot. The ewaimum negative amplitude, ar bottom camelape, i given by <= Vy sin pr + CCV ain? ae + ¥7 sin? pr + 2) "2 sin wer sin pe) 7) Exuation (4-7) may be simplified by the use of tbe appeopeiate tr expressions. (Note that these expressions arc sin x sin y= ‘feos (2 — y) — cos fe + yi] aed sin? z= (1 — cos Le, J a-+ BV, sim xt + BY, sin pt + VocWL — cos Bach + YecVAl — cos Jet + 2V, Vyfoas tar — ple — com fur + pe} Sia + MeV = Maeve) + OV, sim ar + BV, sin ar a ay cy {Vac} cos Jur + Vac} ons Ine) ~ + eV) V; cos (w= ple = CVV, cos ie + pie (4-8) we vi ‘The previcus derivation, with the resulting Equation (4-2), is possibly the most important of all im communicatzons. [t is the proof (1) that harmonic and inlermodala- tion distortios may occur in audio and RF amplifiers, (2) that som and difference frequencies will be present in. the output of a mixer, (3) that the diode detector tas wadio Frequencies bn its output, (4) of the operation of the beat-freqwency osciiator {BFO) snd the prodvet detector, and (5) that ie ® part of the proof that the balanced modulawor produces AM with the carter soppressed. IF in Equation (4-8) w is taken as the camier angular freqeency. and as he modulating angular frequancy, then term 1 is the dz component, term I is the carrier, term 111 is the modulating signal, term FV consists of hartronics of the carrier acl tee modulation, tern V represents the lower sideband voltage and term VI is the epper sideband. The equation shows that when two frequencles are passed together theough &42 ELECTRONE® COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AF in out aFin @) ‘ut FIGURE 4-3 Balanced modulstors, (ai Diede; (h) FET. nonlinear resistance, the proorss af amplitage encrdulation takes place, Ina practical modulation circuit, the voltages in Equation (4-4) would be developed across a circuit tuned to the camber Fregaency, and with a bandwidth just lange enough to pasa the carrier and (ww sidchand frequencies but no ahers, 4-2.2 The Balanced Modulator ‘Two circuits af the halenced modulaioe ane shown in Figure (4-3), Bach ulilizes the sonlioear principles just discussed. The modulation vollage v; i fad in push-pull, and ‘he carier vollage v) im parallel, io a pair-af identical diodes or class A (cransistor ar FET) amplifiers, Is the PET eireust, the carrier voltage is ses applied ta the two fates in plane; whereas ibé modulating voltage appears 137" oat of phase ot the gates, sinceSINGLE-SIDEBAND TECHNIQUES 63 they are at tbe opposite ends of a cesier-tpped transformer, The modulated utp currents af the two FETs are combined io tht center-tapped primary af the push-pull ‘omiput transdormer, They therefore sebirsct, as indicated by the direction of the amraws in Figure 4-25, If this sysnem is made complesely symmetical, the cartier frequency ‘will be completely canceled, No syenem can of course be perfectly symmetrical én practice, sa that the carrier will br heavily suppressed rather than completely remaved fa 45-8 seppression is normally segarded as scoepiphle). The output of the balanced modulator contains the two sidekands and some of the miscellaneous componenas ‘which are takes care of by the luning of the output transformers secondary winding. The final output consists only of sidebands, Bince it is oot immediately apparent how and why only the carrier reseed. a mathematical anelysis of the balanced modulator is now given. ‘As indicated, the iagut vollage will bev, +0; at the gate of T) (Figure 4-34 andy, = vy atthe gate of T). if pertect symmetry is assumed (it should be underssocd that the treo devices used in the balanced modulator, whether dices or transistors, must be matched}, the propertionality constants wall be the same for beth FETs and may be called o, 6, amd ¢ xs before, The two drain currents, calculated as in the Freteding section, will be Hat hte, +g) Set + mart by + bvy + oF + ov} + Devry. 1p nao t Bley = vp) bein = QF Sat by be ted + od ~ lees en sup: As previously indicated, the primary current is givert by the difference between the individual dren coments. Trex Sy ig, — fa 7 Ube + deve; ety whem Equation (4-10) is satvtracted from (4-9). We may how repersnnt the carrier vollage Wy by #, sith ei, and the modulating voltage v; by V,. sin as,.1, Substituting theve ino Equatien (4-11) gives iy DEY, sim aiat + deUV = DA, sin ar + dct wet Sin eat Vober far, — mid — cos tee, + ahh (4-13) “The ouput voltage rp ix propeitional te this primary carreen, Let the onesies of proportionality bee. The vy dy = Bab, sin at + Joel Mens (ar, ~ it — Go tor, + ont Shesplifying, we fet P= Debi, and Q = TeclV,, Thet Ho =P Bt gt * GP onsite — hy QP GG Had > te (413) stra reer poet ‘yor ucts oo Equatiog (4-13) shows that (under ideally symmetrical comsitions) the carrier has been canceled ou, lexving only the twa sidebands and (he modulating frequencies.G4 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 43 ‘The proof applics equally ty both diagrams of Figure 4-3, ‘The naning of the output traaaformer will remove the modilating frequencies trom the outpant, but it is also potsible to suppress them by the action of the circuit. The addition of two more diodes to dhe diode balanced modulator is required for this reault, and the circuit then becomes kenown at the ring modularor. SUPPRESSION OF UNWANTED SIDEBAND ‘As siated earlier, the three practical methods of SSB generation all eve the balanced modulator i suppress the carrier, but euch uses a different mechad of removing the anwenied sideband, All these sysiems will remove either the upper or the lower sideband with equal ease, depending of Ihe specific circuit arrangement, Each of the systerns will now be smdied in tam, 43.1 The Filter System ‘The filler systean Is the sienptest sysea af the three —after the balanced modubator the unwanted sideband is removed factually heavily atermaned) by a filter. The filker nay ‘be LC, crystal, ceramic or mechanical, depending on the eemter {requesey and aber equirensents, A block diagraen of an SSB transititter employing this system is thew in Figure 4+, ‘The key chrevits im this qansmitce we the belenced inodalitor aad the sideband-suppeession filter, The spcial consickeations involving sideband suppression will now be examined. Such a filter must hive « flat bandpass sd extremely high atsenwation outside ‘he bandpass, There is no linei.on tks; the higher the attencuation, the beties. In radio comumamicatiens systems, the fragacacy tunge used for voice is 300 to about 2BO0 He in most cases. IT it is required to suppress the lower sidchasd and if the transmitting frequency is, thea the lowest frequency thu this filter must pass withows aberaation is £4 300 Hz, whereas the Bighest frequency that mest be fully attenuated ia f— Cryetal cecilatcr I $85 cut Sings eengsiiann sideband Butfor fe] Batenced (eel fear LA | 1 fier {| | i {Fier ‘Crystal AF inomeie| Audis | Ld ter othor [+ | omeliator or “a sister sentheeizar FIGURE 4-4 Filer method of sidedand smppression,SINGLE SIDEBAND TECHNIQUES 65 300 Hz. in other words, the filte’s response must change from zero atteneation. 1 fall attentuation over a rings of cely 600 He. If the trananining frequency is much abows 10 MEtz, this is virtually impossible. The situatice becomes even worse if lower mod- lating frmquencies are employed, such as the 50-H2 minimum in AM broadcasting. In onder In cbtsin a filter response curve with skirts ax steep as those sagessted above, the Gof the caned circuits used must be very high. As the transmisting frequency is raised, sa must the be raised, until a situation is reached where che necessary (I is-90 high ‘that there is no practicable method af achieving il. Looking at the situation from: the ceher end, we find thas these mast be am epper frequency linait for any type of fier circuit used. Ui has been ferend. for instance, that multistage LC Glters exhnot be used for RF values much greater ches about 100 kHz. Above this frequency she altenuation cutside the bandpass is insufficienL. LC filsers may still he encoumered in currently aed HF eqquiginest, but they bawe otherwise tended to be supersaded by crystal. ceramic or mechanical Miers, minty because af the bully sire of components and great imyravernents iin mectandcal filters. Mechari- cal falters have been sed at frequencies up a S00 ke, and crystal ex ceramic filsers ep tw ubou 20 Miz. Of the three major types of SSB filters, the mechanical filter seecns to be the one with the best all-around properties, snail sige, good bandpass, very good attenna Hide characteristics and an adequate upper frequency limit aze its chief advaringes, (Crystal of ceruiie filters mary be cheaper, hut ane preferuble only at frequencies above 1 Mite All these fiters (even the crystal) have the sare disedvantege —thelt maximum operating frequency is bekow the sual transmitting frequencies. This Is areason for the fpalanced! mixer shown in Figuee 44. (lt is very much tke «balanced modulate, except that the sum frequency is mach farther from the crystal cacillater frequency than ‘the USH was feom the carrier, so that it-cam be selected with = tered circuit.) In this mixer, the frequency of the crystal oscillator oe syethesizer is added to the SSB signed ‘from the filter. che frequency thus being raised to the value desired fiar transmissiem Such so arrangement also allows the transmitter 1 te ninable. Ef the irsnsmisting frequency is much higher than the operating frequency of the sideband filter, then two stages of crining will be required. Ik becomes too difficult to filer oot the eawasted Frequencies in the onngal of tbe caine. I might be noted that the miner is followed by linear amplifies, Tie reason & that the ampliude of the SSB signal is variable aad must cod tye fed to a class C amplifier, whtich would distor: it. A class B RF amplifier (push-psll) is osed instead because lt is more efficient then a class A emplifler. The name dinear aeypiifier is not ‘confined to SSE cystems. Linear amplifiers are used is any AM systeen in which low ar no signal distortion is = requirement. 43.2 The Phase-Shift Method The phase-shift method avoids filters and some of their inherent dicafvantagec, and instead makes use of wo balanced modulators and tw phate-shifling networks, as shown im Figure 4-5, One of the modulators, Af:, receives the carrier voltages {shifted by GO) ond the modulating voltage, whereas the other, M2, is fed the modulating64 ELECTRONIC COMMLINICATION SYSTEMS: ‘wo lisear armtitians mrodalitor FIGURE 4-5 Single sideband by phuse shift, voltage (shifted through 4") and the carrier veltage. Sometimes the modulating volt age phase shift is arranged sligialy ditferestly. itis made +45" for ose of the balances modulators and —45° for the other, tut the result is the same, Bcth modulators produce aa outpet consisting ecly of sidehands, It will be shows that bolls upper sidebands lea! de input cocvier voltage by 90", One of the lower SSdebands leads the reference voltage by Si", amd the other lags it by SCP. The rw lower sidebards arc thus out of phase, and when combined tn the adder, they canoe! cach otieer. The upper sidchaacis are in phase at the adder and therefore add. giving SSH in which the lower sdcbasd has been conceled. The previows statements nay be proved as follows, Wit istaken for granted that the twe balanced modulators re aiso balanced with Fespect to cach other, then amplitudes may be ignored as they do eot-affeet the result Note also that bech balanced modulators are fed from the same sources. As before, taking sin w_ras the carrier ard cin ar a8 the modulation, we see that the balanced modulator M, will receivesin aiq¢ ned sin (as,¢ + G05, whereas Af; takes sin (ayd + S01 and sin wr. Potlowing the reasoning in the proof of the haleeced modulating, we keow that the output of My will contain sum ned difference frequencies. "Thus vy = eos [eet + 0 — age] — cos flare + OP) + anys] cos (wr ange + OP) — con fae + oye + OOF) (eld a Similarly, che ourpat of Jt, will cootabn vp coe feat — tet + SOY) — cos fast + dr + SO") = cos (ut — aye — BO) — com (as, t + og + 90") (1 The output of the adder is =a) + y= 2 ens fot + at + Wy (+16)SINGLE-SIDEBAND TECHNIQUES 67 This cotput is Gbiained by aching Equations (4:14) and (415) and obsesving thet the first term of the First equating is 181° ost of phase with the first term of the second, We have proved ibat one of the sidchands in the adler is canceled. ‘Tir other is reinforced. The system ns shown yields the upper sideband. .A sienilar anplysis shows thet SSB with the lower sideband preseat will he obeained if bath signals are fed Aphase-shifted) ta the ane balanced madulaine. 4-33 The “Third” Method ‘The thind method of peeceating SSB was developed by Weaver as a means of retaining the advantages of the phase-shift method, such as is ability to generate SSB st any frequency and use- low sadio frequencies, without the associated disadvantage of an AF pase-shift nerwock required to operate aver a liege range of audic frequencies. The third method is i direct competition with the filer method, bist is ery complies snd sot often used commercially, Feoen the: block diagram of Figure 4-6, we see that the liner part of this cercuit is identical to that of the phase-shift methesé, but the way in which appropeiaie vohapes are fed torthe last reo balanced inodalacors at paints C and F has been changed. Insiead of trying to phase-shift the whole range of sadia frequencies, this methad combines them with an AF camer f. which is a fined fregsency in the middle of the audio hand. 1650 Hz. A phase shift is then applied to this frequency only, and after the resaiting ‘voltages have been applied to the first pair of balanced modulators, the low-pass filters whose cutoff frequency is fin ensure that the input to the last pair of balanced modula- lore results in the proper eveadual sidebarul sappression. ‘The proof of this method is unduly complex. and therefore oot given here. It may be shown that all lower sideband signals will be canceled for the configuration af Balront < 10%) are applied to the input of a panlinenr resistance whuse inpat-voltage—outwul-cunrem eharac- teristic can be represcenedd hy the expression 4, = (IU + 20 — 0,207) mA, By sabato tion Onin Fagaation (4-8), dstermiae the amplitudes and frequencies of all the components ie the cusput current from ibis nonlinear resistance, Calculate the percentage modulation if tbe ounut current js passed throagh a tuned circuit, s0-that emily the components apysreyi- wie to AM are produced. 4. AJB iesmiver operating at b6 MHz bas 2 frequency stability of | part per million, If its transmission is reproduced by 2 receiver whoo Ereaaeney viebility is 8 parts per million, whi i the masiman frequency éxroe that the output of this receiver could have im reproducing, ibis transtission? REVIEW QUESTIONS ed swpptensiedcarvier (13 with respect ia “er ADL GARE? 2. What are the disadvuntages of 35 with respect ta ASE? 3. A moslulaied wavetanin has the appearance at Figure 4-10. How wokd you determine whether tt is the wavetoren of s soppressed-carter steal, eather chan thet of a LOG percent modulared ASE wae? 4. Show how to derive the equation normally used ta descibe 2 eonlinear resistance 4. Show mathematically what happens when fw frequencies ave acted and them passed thromgh a momlinesr resistance. List the various circuits and peocesses which maike wee af this state of affaics, 1, What i single vdulation? Whot are its advantages RE 4-10 Modulated voltage of Review (eestion 43,78 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: ‘6. Prove that the balanced modulator produces xn output consisting of sidebands only, ‘with the carrier removed, Cuber than in SSB generation, whet applicatines can this cirest have? 7. Draw the block diagram of an SSB transmitter using the filter system. Why must the filiec have such sharp culofT qulside the passband? [a a transmitter, mast ibis ctaff be ‘equally sharp on cath side of the filter's passband? B. What awe linear smplifless? Why are they used in SSE cransmivers? 9. Draw the block diagram of phase cancellation SSE generator and explain how the coarrisr end ihe unwanted sideband ane suppresved. What champs is necessary ity suppress ihe other sideband? W), Compare the three main systems of SSE generution by drawing ep 2 luble of the ‘Outstenting characteristics of cach sytem. 11. Why could JE oot be used for “compatible broadcasting? Whai form of SSB might be so used? 12. Explain brieily what Lincompex is. Could it be used with any form af SSB? 13, In what say does the ese of 2 pilot-cartier system help to reduce the difficulties of receiving and demodulating IGE? What is the shemative to the use af 2H if high receives frequency stability is mended? 14. Define and describe inéependent-sidcband transmission. 15. Draw the block diagram of an ISB transmitter, operating at 22.275 MHz, without a pilet carrier, and with reo 3-kHe sideband.Frequency Modulation Faillowing the pattern set in Chapter 3, this chapter covers the theory of frequency modulation, and its generation, Both the theory and the generation of FM are a gond deal more complex to think about and visualine thar those of AM. Thris is mainly because FM involves ménute frequency variations of the carrier, whereas AM resulis in large-scale amplitede variations of the carrier. FM iis more difficult to determine mathematically and hes sideband behavior that is equally complex. Having studied this chapter, students wel) understand that FM is a form of ameular modulation and thnt phase modulation 5 another sicallar form. Ihe theory of both & discussed in detail, as are their similarity and dmportant differences, 1¢ will be seen that frequency modulation is the preferred form for most appbications. Frequency and amplinade sundulation are then compared, on the basis that both are widely used practical systems, Undike ansplitude modulation, FM is, vor can be made, relatively immune to the effects of noise. Thi point is discussed at length. It will be seen that the effect of noise in FM depends om the noise sideband frequency, 2 point that is brought out under the heading of noise triangle. It will be shewn ‘that processing of the nokhing apes known ai pre-emphasis and de-cmplasiz, plays an important part in making FM rela- ‘tively immune to noise. The final topic studied in this chapter lis the generation of FM. It will be shown that we bagic inethads of generation exist, The first is direct generation. in which a wattage it reactance varies the Frequency of an oscillator, The sevond method is ane in which basically phast modulation is penerated, but circuitry is sed to convert this to frequency modulation, Hoth methods are used in practice. OBJECTIVES Upan completing the aumerial in Chapter §, the student will he able ta: ‘Understand the theory of tnequency modelatios (FM), ‘Draw an FM waveform. Determine by calculation, the modiletion index (MI). Analyae the Frequency specirum using Bessel functions. ‘Understand the differences between AM, PM, and PM.@ ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS Explain the effect of anise om a frequency modelaiioe wave. Dhefive and explain pre-emphasis and deemphasis, Understand the theary of stereo FM. entity the various methods of FM. THEORY OF FREQUENCY AND PHASE MODULATION Frequency modulotion ia a systera ia which the arplitads of the modulated cartier is ‘kept constant, while ts frequency and mate af chasge are varied by the modulating signal, The first practical system was put forward in 1936-as an altersative to AM in an effart to make radio transmissions mare resistant to noise, Phase mouwdation is a ‘similar system in which the phase of the carrier fs varied instead of its frequency as in PM, the amplitude of the casrier remains constant. Let's assume: for the mamemt that the cartier of the transmitter ix at its resting Frequency (no modilation) of 100 MH: and av apply a madubating signe. The amgli- tude of the modulating signal will cause dhe carrier to deviate (shift) from this resting frequency by & cettain amosal. If we incresse the amplitude (loudness) of this signal (see Figare 5-16), we will increase the deviation to. maximum of 75 kHras specified by the FOC, If we remove she modulation, the errier frequency shifts back sy its resting frequency’ (11M) MHz}, We can tee by this example that the devistion of the carrier is propectional to the amplitede of the moculising voltage. The shift in the carer frequency from: its resting point compared to the amplatute of the modulating voltage is called the devia sien revi (a deviation tata of 5 is the masimuns allowed in commercially benadlcast FM) “The rate at which the carrier shifts from its resting poiat toe eontesting, point ix determined hy the frequency of the modulating signal (the iancaction berween the amplitude and frequency of che modulating signal an the carer is complet amd requires the we of Bessel"s functions tn analyte: the results), If the modulating sigaal (AP) is 15 ki at a certain amplitude and abe cartier shift (hecause of the modulating voltage) is 75 kM, che transmitter will produce eighe significant sidehaeds (see Table 5-1). This iskinown as the enanimum clevistiow rintio: TABLE 5-1 MODULATION 4 4 6 7 3 | | \ | ‘ (maxima)FREQUENCY MODULATION 81 Hace (ena) Fae tan Tf the frequency deviation of the carrie: is known and the frequency of the modulating volinge (AF) is known, we can now establish the modulation index CMI: Deviation ration = Modulation index = fe ‘Ar Both these terms are important because of the bandwidth limitations placed om wideband FM transmitting stations by the repolating agencies throughost the world this will be covered in desail lauer in this chapter’. 5-11 Description of Systems ‘The general equition of an unmodulated wave, or carrier. may be -writien as em Asin (aw + 9 en where 5 instantaneous value (of voltage oF current) neximuns) amplitude to = angelir velocity, radians per second radi) = phase angle, rad Note that wr repeesents an angle is radians. Tf any oae-of these thiee parameters is vared in accordance With avother signal, nonnally of 2 lower frequency, then the second signal ls called the modhutasion, and the First is said to be omafutaced by the second. Amnpilitede modulation, already discassed., is achieved when the amplitude A is varied. Alteration of the phase angle o will yield Phase modulation, [f the frequency of the canieris made to vary, frequesey-modulased waves arc obtained, tt is assumed that the erodulating signal i# sinusoidal. This signal tas two Genparant parsmeters which must be represented by the modulation process without distonion, specifically, its amplinde and frequency, | is aadersnond that the phase relatiogs of 2 carmplee esoduiation signal will be preserved. By the definition of fre~' quency modulation, che anowst hy which the ceerier trequency ix varied from its tintedulaled vallic, called Ihe deviation, is Maule proportional to the snacaannesis ampiinde of the mexivlanse vafnige. The nate at which this frequency variation changes or takes piace 1s equal to the mosulating frequency. ‘The situation is iMustraied in Figure 3-1. which shows the modulating voltage sod the resalting frequency. modulated Figure 5.1 also shows the frequency vesiation with time, which can be seen to be identical to the variasion with tine of the modulating vollape. The result af using that modulating voltage to produce AM is also shown for comparisos, As in FM, all signals having the ssn amplitude will deviate the carricr frequency by the same amount, for example, 43 kiiz, no maser what hed frequencies. All signals of che sane frequency, for example, 2 kHz. will deviate the a=82 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS bs decinate maint art | FIGURE $1 Baste modulution waveform, carrier at the same rate of 2000 times per second, no mater what their individual amplitedes. The amplitade of the frequency-modulated wave remains constant at all times, This i the greatest singe advantage of FM. +12 Mathematical Representation of FM From Figure is seen thet the instemtuncos Frequency f of the frequency-madulated wave is given by Ff (1+ b¥ ay 608 arat (52) where = unmeadulated (or wverage) carrer frequency = proportionality cunstast ‘Vp £08 stg? = instactencous modulating voltage (oosine being peelemed for slempliciry in exkeatations) ‘The maxim deviation for this partioalar signal will oscur when the cosine term has its maxiswurn value, 1, Under these conditions, the instantaneous frequency will be fr fib aay (3)FREQUENCY MODULATION 83 $0 thas the maximum deviation 6 will be given by oa MA (5-4) ‘The instantaneous ansplitade of the FM signal will be given by 6 forsvala of the vm Asin EF (ue uiqi] = A sin & 155) where F fo,.a,,) 14 tome function of the carrier and moduluting frequencies. This fonction represents an angle and will be celled for convenience. The peoblem now is to determine jhe insuuntaneaus value (i.e., formula) for this angle, ‘As Figure 5-2 shows, ii is the angle traced out by the veciow A in time 1. TPA were rotaiing wih constant angular velocity, for example, yo, this angle # would be given hy gt fin radiama), In this instance the angular velocity bs anything bet comsiant. It is governed by the formula fre ae obtained from Eqyeation (5-2), that ls, a = a2, 1 + AVg 204 tefl, In ander to find 6, or mast be integrated with tespect to Gime. This B= for de = fox, (1 AVL, con woth at of (1 + EV bod ot dt { kV, sin ant Hig, Hi Gnd =o, (:+ Set eet Hatt, Hl nl Hf, sin eat fn Sart mal + mmc i oat isp i The derivation utilized, im turn, the fact that , is constant, the formvala f cos ne dx = (sin meh and Equation (Soa), which had shows that AV, = 6. Equa: Hon (5-6) may now be szhsfitaied inte Equation (5-8) to give the instantanecus value of the FM voltuge; therefore a ve Asin (see + 2 sin sunt} on The modulation index far FM, wy, i defined a _ fmeximam) frequency deviation 5 my modulating Frequency fe el FIGURE 5-2) Freqwency-meduleted wectors,$4 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ‘Substituting Equation (5-8) into (5-7), we obtain ws A sim Got + may Bin Wat) oad {s ipontant to note that as the modulating frequency decreuses and the modulating voltage amplitude (8) remains constamt, the modulation index “This will be the basis for distinguishing frequency modulation from phase mocdulation. Nowe that my, which is the ratio of two frequencies, is measured in radians.S-1.3 Frequency Spectrum of the FM Wave When a comparable stage was reached with AM theory, i.e., when Equation (3-7) Ihad been derived, it was possible to tell at a glance what frequencies were present in the modulated wave. Unfortunately, the situation is far more complex, mathematically speaking. for FM. Since Equasion (3-9) is the sinc of a sine, the only solution involves the ese of Bese! functions, Using these, it may then be shown that Equation (5-9) may be expanded 10 yield v= Aleta) ain xt + Juliny) Lin dat, + 40 )F ~ si fas, ~ aby +m) [sin (on, + Bohr + sin (a, — Das} Fale) [alm (see + Seeeeht — Bin. bare — Fete) + Ailom,) [sin (oo, + dee,n ht + sin (as, — das dih “4 (5-10) fhean be shown thas the eurpur consists of a carrier and an apparently infinite humber of pairs of sidebands, cach preceded by J coefficients. These are Bessel functions. Here they happen tw be-of the first kind and of the order denoted by the subscript, veith the argument my, J4le4y) may be shown to be a solution of an equation of the forma ay typ 2 ef ae, * ini? — ely = oy ‘This solution, i.c., che formula for the Bessel function, is mo (mE eg tet ote, ‘ii: (3 nt Tn + I m+ 2 Sn + I | om in onder 10 evabuate the value of a given pair of sidcbands or the valec of che carrier, it ls necessary 10 know the value of the corresponding Bessel function, Sepa- rate calculation from Equation (5-12) for each case is not required since information of this type is freely available in table form, as in Table 5:2, or graphical form, as in Figure 5-3, Qservations ‘The mathematics of the previous discussion may be reviewed in a series of observations as follows: 1. Unlike AM, where there are only three frequencies (the carrier and the First two sidebands), FM has an infinite mumber of sidebands, 25 well as the carrier. They are separated from the carrier by, 2/.. 3f.. .. . . and thas have a recurrence frequency of f..‘86 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS TABLE 5-2, Mewel Functions of the First Kind 000) ug — = = = as om Le an Ls 133 2 138 = as was oc — 40 nas a 40 0.6 1s ans oe 30 os oth G1 oes Pe) 04 146 G3 O18 30 840 GON nyt OM ngs OM ors 20 O17 62-011 029 -o10 aie 634 One a Oi <0 007 hen 8x) 08 too 0 0. 006 -0.22 -025 -e01 0.22 (hb 988 G23 008 020 O18 -Ker -9.38 -0, 15.0 0.61 03 OMe 019 O12 ais Oat ea MoO 1208 nooo — G.0017 106 0.03 O81 GSP 020042 087 Oe Suis 0 be 34 028 025 0.18 2. The J coefficients eventually decrease in value as nm increases, but not in any simple mancer. As seen in Figure $-3, the value fhactustes an either side of zero, gradually diminishing. Since ench J ovedficieat represents the amplinade of 2 par. cular pait af sidehonds, these alsa eventually decrease, but only past a ceriain Value of #. The movkdlarion index determines huw snimy sideband components Fave sigmificand amplinudtes, 3. The sidebands at equal distances from fi have equal amplinsdes, wo that the tidebund distribution is symmetrical about the cartier frequency. The J coeff Clenls accusionally bawve wegalive values, signifying a L80" phase change for that particular pair of sktehandts, Lorine o.9) Votuer of Fatotyl e228 2 1 2 he T PIN Viale of rtp FIGURE 5-3 Hes functions,FREQUENCY MODULATION 87 4. Looking down Table 5-2, 0 omy increases, 9 dives the valot Of a partner J coefficient, such as Jip. Bearing in mind that amp is inversely peogetional te the modulating frequency, we sce that the relative amplitude of distant sidebands ingress when the modulation fregucncy is lowered. The previews stmement as ‘cumes that deviation {i.c.. the modulating voltape! hay resnainesd exsetnet 5. In AM, increased depen af modulation increases the sideband power and therefor the total transnaitted power, Im FM, the total trassmimted power always remains constant, but with increased depth of mantulation dhe required bandwidth is increased. To be quine specific, what increases ix the haacwichh required so teansinit relatively endistorted signal. Thus is true because increased depth of modubation mréans increased devintion, ard therefore am ixcreased modulation index, so that more distant Sdehands acquire significant ansplitudes, & As evidenced by Equation (5-10), the theoretical bacehwidts requized in FM is infinite. fo practice, the bandwidth sed is ont that has been calculated to alkaw for all significant amplimdes af sideband composents under the most exacting conditicar. This really nessa exsuring that, with maximum deviation by the highest modlming frequency, no significast sideband components are lapped off 7. In PM, unlike in AM, the amplitude of the cartier companent dees pot reauxin constant. [2s J coefficient is Jy, which is a Function of my. This may sound sorte ‘ehal Confusing but keeping the overall ampistude of the FM wave cosstemt would be very difficult if the ampliteds of tke cecrier were pot rechuced wher the ampili- ude of uke various sidlebands increased. 8. Tt is possible for the carrier component of the FM wave éo diseppear completely ‘This happens for certain values of the modulation indes, called eigenvalues, Fig- lire 5-3 shows that these are appronitmstely 2.4, $.5, 8.6, 11.8, and soem, These disappearances of the exttier for specific values of my foers a handy basis far mhessuring deviation, Handwidth ond required qpectra Using Table 3-2, in is posible to-evalaate the size of the carrier and each sideband for each specific or value of the modulation index. ‘When this is dane, the frequency spectrin nf the FM wave for that particelar value of mpmay be plotied. This is done in Figure St, which shows these spectrogrants first far increasing devintion (,., constant), and then for decreasing modulating frequeccy (6 constant). Both the table amd the spectrograms illusirate the oteervalions, especially points 2,3, 4. and Sit can he seen that 2s modulatinn depth increases, s0- does henclwidih (Figur 54), and also that reduction in moxdatation frequency increases the number of sidetands, though not necessarily the bandwidth (Figure Sti), Amcnlier pine shown very clearly is that altkough the number of sideband components is theo rotically infisie, in practice « kul of the higher sidebands have insignificans rebative aenplicudes, and this 18 why they are aol shown in the spectogreens. ‘Thearexclusian tm a practical system will pot distort the modulsied wave unduly. Inorder to calculate the eequised bandwith accurately, the student need only dook at the table to-ser which is the last J coefficient shown for that value of modulation ines,BH ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ee a eal. myn 25 mnie wl. Lh mynd my 05 (a) Constant fin increasing (b) Constance é. increasing f, FIGURE 5-4 FM spectrograms. (Ajier i. 2, Stary, FroyonncyMadulaind Radka, 24 ad., Grange Mewes Lid, London, 1938, fy permission of dhe publisher.) ‘a Jj. Thit means that all higher values of Blexzel functions for that mod ‘ve values fens than 0.01 nad may therefore be ignored. The. ‘i.ahe farthest froon dar esirréer tv be ineuded in this inatasce. Than A= fy * highest need sideband = 2 Tks x02 = 92 eH (From Table 5-1, it is.seem that the highest / coefficier included for this my A rale of thiamty (Carson's nale} states that (as « good approximation) the band- ‘width requized to pass. am FMV wave is twice the sum ef the deviation and the highest5-14 Phase FREQUENCY MODULATION 89 rodalating frequency, but it must be remembered that this js only an approximation, Actually, i does give a Girly accurate result if the modulation index is in excess of bout 6. Modulation Surietly speaking, there are two types of coetinues-wave modulation: amplinade madulation and angle modulating. Angle modulatian may be subdivided into two distinct lypet; frequency modulating and phase modulation (PM). Thus, PM and PM are osely allied, end this is the first reason for considering PM bere. The second reason is soemwhal more practical. [1 is passable in obtin Flequency modalation from phase modlation by the so-called Armstrong xystem, Phast modulation is sot used in practi cal analog trinsenission systems. Wi the phase ob in ebe equation » =A sis oo, > oh) ia Waried wo thar its mage unde is propeniogal w the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voluge, the rewulting Wave is phasr-mninubsied, The expression for a PM wave is we Asin ior + dh sin ath here oh, i the maximum value of phase change iniroduced bry this part ing signal and is proportional te the maxima aplitade of this modulation, For the sake of uniformity. this is rewritten as eo A sin (ot +m, sin of 1) where m, = ¢. ~ modulation index for phase modulation To visualize phuse nondulatlon, cowsider « horizontal metronome et pendula placedon arutating record numéable, (hs well as rotating, tke arm of this metronome ss swinging sinosoidally back and forth wbout its mean point. If the maximuira displace- ment of this swing can be muds propestional ta the sie of che “push” applici! 1 the meironoen, and if the frequency of swing can be made equal to the mumber of ‘poshes!” per second, then the evatice of the arra js emily the aime ax that of phuse:modulated vector. Actually, PM seems caster tn visualize tham Fh Equation (5-13) was obtained directly. without recourse ts the Jevividien me quired for the correspording expression fur FM. Exgoation (5-0), This oveurs becauve FM arveqgceiian Fur the angniar vefocity wus postulated, frum winch the phase angle for v= A sin (8) hail ta be derived, whereas in PM the jhise actacionship is defined sand may be substinuted directly. Consparisin of Equatkans (51-4) and (5-9) shows them fo be Mlonical, except for the different deftanioes wf the moduiation index, [tbs ctvi- ous that these fan forms of angle modulation are imdeed similar. They will exrw be compared and contrasted. $1.5 Intersystem Comparisons Frequiney and phase medullatios From the purely dhooretical point of view. the difference betwen FM aad PM ts quite sinipl—ahe madulation index is defined differently in each systens, However, rhis is not eearly as obvius as the difference1) ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: between Al and FM, and it must be developed further. Pirst the similarigy will he siressett, In phase modulation, the phase devianon is proportional tothe aeupletude af the modulating signal and therefore independem of its frequency. Also. since the phase- fiodulated vector sormctimes leads and sometimes fags the reference carer vector, its invluntancous angular velocily must be cuetinually changing between the limits im: posed by ch; thus some forn of Frequency change must be taking place, In frequency muxlulation, the frequency deviation is proportional to the amptivude of ube enodubating voltage. Alsi, if we take a reference vector, misting with » constant angular welocsty ‘which corresponds oo the cartier frequency, thea the FM vector will barre a phase lead or lag with respect bo the reference, since ils frequency oscillates between ff, ~ 6 and E+ 6 Therefore FM must be a form of PM. With this close similarity of the two forms of angle modulation established, it now remains to explain the difference. ‘Tf we consider FM as a form of phase modulation, we must determine what causes the phase change in FM. The larger the Frequency deviation, the larger the ‘phase deviation. so that the latter depends at ieast to 2 cerlain extent on the amplitude ‘of the modulation, just asin PM. The difference is shown by comparing the definition of PM, which states in part that the mextulation index is proportional to the modulating voltage onfy, with that of the FM, which states that the modulation index is alse inversely preportional to the modiwlation frequency. This means thal under identical conditions FM and PM are indixtingwishabte for a single modulating frequency. When the moduluting frequency is changed the PM modulation index will remain constant, ‘whereas the FM modulation index will increase as modulation frequency is reduced, and wice versa, This is best illustnited with am example, EXAMPLE 5-4 A:25-M1e carrier in modulated by a 400-He dia sine wave. Lthe carrier voltage is 4 'V and the muncimum deviation ic 10 ke. write the equation of this roodtulened Wave for (2) FM and (6) PM. ifthe modulating frequency ix Bow chatged to} kis, all else remaining constant. sariie s now equation far fc) PM and (a) PM, SOLUTION (Calcuining the frequencies in'ruiians, we hive wy =e KES 8 10 1.57 10 rm fo, De XQ 251) ra ‘The moniulation insted will Be This yes the equations a) em A in (1.37 2 OY + 25 an 20) PD GB) es sie C157 x 10M + 25 ain 25139 MD st at het exsrenion arr show he been sical: Now ‘the modalating frequency ix nmitinlied ty 5, the equation will uow'a fivetodl relics tenn’ idles feoeey ‘While’ the recdulstion index: ba PAE a peducea frepfold, for PM the modulation indies remains constant. HenerFREQUENCY MODULATION 91 te) vd an (87 X10 45 sin 12,5880 (Ee (adv = 4 sin (1,37 & 10M + 25 tin 12,565 (PMD ‘Note that thr difference between FM and Pel is not apparent at » single modlatog requency. see lhe rin lar of th te the daalng frequency is varied. ‘The practical effect of all these considerations is that if an FM transmission were received ona PM receiver, the bss frequencies would have considerably more deviation (of phase) than a PM transmitter would have given them. Since the output of a PM receiver would be penpostional to phase deviation (ar modulation index), the ‘signal would appear enduly bass-boosted, Phase modulation received by an FM system would appesr to be fucking fr hors, This deficiency could be corrected by bass boost: dag the modulating signal prior to phase modedarion, This is the peactical difference between phase and frequency modulation, Frequency and amplitade modulation Frequency and amptitude modulation are compared on a different basis from that for PM and PM, These are both practical systems, quite different from each other, and so the performance and characteristics af the two systems will be compared. To begin with, frequency modulation bas the fal. lowing advantages: 1. The amplitude of the frequency-modulated wave is constant, It is thus independent nf the modulation depth, whereas in AM modulation depth governs the transmitted power, This means that, in FM transmitters, low-level modulation may be wed but all the subsequent amplifiers can be class C and therefore more efficient. Since all these amplifiers will handle coestant pawer, they need not be capable of man- aging up 1 four times the average power, a3 they must in AM. Finally, al! the transmitted power in FM is wseful, wherens in AM most of it is in the transmitted carrier, which contains oo useful infoomation. 2. PM receivers can be fitted with amplimde limiters to remave the amplitude varia: tons cwused by ecise, as shown in Section 5-2,2; this makes FM reception a good deal more immune to noise than AM 3. Iris possible to reduce noase still further by increasing the deviation (see Section 5-2.1), This is a feanme which AM dots not have, since it is not possible ta cxceed 100 percent modulation without causing severe distoation. 4. Comercial FM broadcasts began in 1940, decades after their AM counterpaats, They have a number of advantages dec to better planning and other considera- tons. The following are the most imporane ones: a. Standard frequency allocations (allocmed worldwide by the International Radio Consultative Commines (CCIR) of the 1,T.U.) provide a guard band between commercial FM stations, so that these is less adjacent-channel interference than in AM; b. FM broadcasts operute in the upper VHF and UHF frequency manges, at which there happens to be: Jess moise than in the MF and HF ranges occupied by AM bromdcasss;92 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 5-2 ¢. At the FM broadcast frequencies, the jpace wave is used for propagation, a9 that the fading of operation is mised 1 slightly more thum line of sight, as shown in Section 8-2.3. i is this puacible to operte several independent iransmitien: on the same frogeency with coasiderabty less interference than ‘wold be possible with AM The atvantages are pat all one-sided, or there would be mo AM transmissions Sef. The following ars some of the disadvantages of FM: 1, Arauch wider channel Js required by FM, ap to 1) theses as large as that needed by AM. This is the most significant disadvantage of PM, 2. FIM transrstting and receiving equipment tends to be more complex, particularly for modutation. anel demodulation 3, Shee nception 43 lienited te Line of sight, the arcs of reception foe PM is mach smaller thin for AM. This may be an advantage fer cochannel allocations, but it is a disadvantage for EM motile comerunicitions over a wide ares, Noor that this: is due not se much to the intriesic pepertics ef FM, but oher to the frequencies sayployed for its transmission, NOISE AND FREQUENCY MODULATION Frequency mixtulation is mach more immune to noése than amplitude modulation and is significantly moe inuewne (han phase modulation. (n.ofdee wo establish the reason, fee this are to deseemine the extent of the improvement. it is necessary tn examine the effect OF mise on a cartier. 32.1 Effects of Noise on Carrier —Noise Triangle A Single-noise (requeney will affect the cutput of @ treeiwer aby’ if it Ealls within fis bascipess, The carrier and noise voltages will mux, and if the difference ts audible, it will naturally interfere with the reception of wanted signals. If such a single-neoise voltage is considered vectorially, itis seen thet the noise. vector is superimposed on the ‘carrier, rotating about it with a selative angular velocity a, — ar, This is shown in Figure 5-5. The maximum deviation in azsplitade from the average velue will be Vi, wheres ibe puaximurs phase deviation will be d= sin-! (V/V). FIGURE £-§ ‘Vector effect of nalse on currler.FREQUENCY MODULATION 93 Let the noise voltage amplitude be one-quarter of the carrier voleage arplitude, The the modulation iodex for chis amplitude modulation by soise will be ar © VM, = 0.18 0.25, amd te masimum phase deviation will be d= sin”! O.28/0 14.8°. For woire communication, an AM receiver will not be affected by the phase change. The FM receiver will not be bothered by the amplivode change, ‘which can be remaved with an amplitude limiter. a8 will be seen in Chapter 6. Ibis now fime to discuss whether or nat che phase change affects the FM receiver enare than the ampiinde change affects the AM receiver, The comparises will initielly be made under coeditions that will peowe 1 be the worw cast for FM. Consider that the modulating frequeocy (by a proper sigeal, this time} is 15 KHz, ami, for convenience, the modulanion index for both AM asd FM is unity. Under such conditions the relative noise-to-signal ratia kn the AM receiver will bed 25/1 = 0.23, For PM, we first convert [be unity modulation index Cram radians 40 degrees (1 rad = 97.3%) and then caleulate the soise-to-signal ratio, Here the ratie is (4.3957,3° = 0.253, just slightly worse: than in the AM case The effects of avise frequecey change musinaw be comsidered. In AM, thee ix no difference in the relative noise, carrier, and modulating vollage amplicudes, when both the noise difference and modulating fregucocies are seduced from 18 kHz w the formal minimum wedio frequency af 30 Fe Cin high-quality broadcast systems). Changes im the noise and modulating frequency der not affect the siyensl-to-saise (S/N) naiv in ABT. In FM the picture is encirely differem. As the ratio of evise w carrier ‘voltage remains constant, so does the vale af the modulation index remain constant (e., maximum phase devivtion|. It showld be noted thal che noise voltage phate modulates the éurrier. While the modulation index due ta noise remains constant (as the noise sideband frequency is reduced), the coodubation index caused by the signal ‘will go on increasing ia proportian to the reduction ia frequency. The sigazl-comuise ratio in PM goes on radacing with frequency, until it reaches its lowest value when both signal and Fare an oudio output frequency of 30 He, At this point the signal-to-noise ratio ig0,253 % a0/15,000 = 0,000505, a redaction fram 24,3 percent at LS kHz to 0.08 percent at Mi He ‘Assuming noise frequencies tn be evenly spread across the frequency spectrum of the receiver, we can see thal noise owiput from the reveiver decreases uniforraly with noise sideband frequency for FM. In AM it remains constant, The situation is iltus- ited in Figure Soba. The triangular aoise distribution for FM is called the raise mingle. The corresponding AM distribution is of course a rectangle. It might be supposed from the figure thet the average voltage impravement for FM under these conditions would be 2:1. Such a supposition might be made: by considering the averape audio frequency, at which FM noise appears in be relatively half the size of the AM noise, However, the picture is more complex, anc induct the FM improvement is osly Wir1 48 4 veltage ratio. This is a weetyetsile imprrtement—lt represents an increase: af 3:1 bathe (powes) signal-to-noise: netic for PM compared with AM, Such a 4. 75-dB improvement s certainly worth baring. Fr will be noted chest this discussion began wish noise valtape that as definieely lower than the signal voltage. This was done on purpose. The amplitude limiter peevi- ously mentioned is a device that ts actuated by the stronger signal and tenis to reject the weaker signal, if reo simultaneous signals are received. If peak maize voltages94 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS FIGURE 3-6 Nabe sideband distribution (noise trissgle. (aj orp= 1 at the maximum frequency; (1 my-= $a the eauximum frequency, execeded sipsal voltages, the signal would be excluded by the llnsiter, Under cond) ons af very dow signalo-noise rulia AM is (be superar aystert. The perckst value of ‘signal-to-noise nities at which this becomes apparent depends om the vabue of the FMM saodutation index. FM beconses superior to AM at the signal-to-naise rtio level esed in the chample (voltage rio = 4, power ratio = 16 = 12 di) atthe amplinede limiter ‘input Avnumber of other considerminns must now be aloe into account, The first of these is that ar = | is the maximum permissible modalatios index for AM, whereas in PM there Is such linsit. It is the maximums frequency de-viaticm that is limited in FM, 1 7S KHz in the widsband VHF broadcasting servier, Thus, cven at the highest audio frequency of 15 kbiz, the modulating index im FM is permitted to be ax high ax $, It may of course: be much higher than that at lower audio fregecacies. Por example, 7% ‘wien the modulating frequency is | KHz. if'a given ratio of signal vobage w noise ‘vallage exists at dhe auipst of the FAL areplituds lisniter whe m = 1. this ratio will be reduced ia proportion 10 an increase in nodulation indea. When m is made equal 0-2, ‘the ratio of signal wollage ta notes voblage ar the linuiter outpet in the receiver will be doubled. It will be tripled wen et = 3, and scom, This satho is thes prvpactincal to the modalation index, and so the sigoal-io-nnise (power) ratio is ihe output af an FM receiver is proportional to the square of tbe modulation index. When m = 5 (highest permined when f= 15 kHz), there will be a 25:1 (J4-dIB) improvement for FM, whereas no sch improvement for AM is possible, Assuming an adequate initial signal~ to-noise ratio af the receiver iapul, an overall improvement of 18.75 dB at che receiver surpet is shown 98 this point by widehand FM compared with AM. Figere 3-6b shows the relationship when m = 3 is ied at the highest frequency, ‘This feads us to the second consideration, that PM bas properties which permit the trading of bandwidth fer signal-to-noise ratio, which cannut be dace in AM. Ia connection with this, one fear should be allayed. Just because the deviation (and consequently the systers bandwidth} is increased in an FM system, this does not neces sarily mean that mers eascom noise will be admitted. This extra random noise has no effect if the noise sadehand Gequencies lie outside the bandpass of the neceiver, Frows this particular point of view, maximam devistios (and hence bandwidih) may be in- teased without Foss.FREQUENCY MODULATION 95 Phave modulation also has his peoperty and, in fect, all the niise-inumaunity Properties of FM except the noise iriangie. Since noise phusse-modulates the carrier (like the signal), there will naturally ke oo improvement as mxsdulsting and noise sideband frequencies nne lowered, so that under identical conditions FM will always be 1075 dit better than PM for noise, This relation explains the preference for frageency modulation in practical transenitters. Bandwidth and maximum deviation cannot be increased indefiediely, even for FM. Wien a pulse is applied wa:s tuned circuit, its peak amplitinte is peopoetianal to the sagoare root of the beadwidih of the ciccuit. La noase impulse is simidasty appilied to the towed circuit in the IF section of an FM receiver (whose bandwidth is unduly lange throwgh the use of a very high deviation}, a large noise pulse will reeule, Whe noise pulses exceed about one-half the carrier size mt the amplinide limiter, the Limiver fails. ‘When noise pulses exceed carrier amplitude, the Limiser goes ane better and limits the signal, having bees “captured” by noise. The normal maxintuen deviation perminied, 7S KHz, is a compromise between ibe two effects described. Himay be shown thar tnder ordinary circumstances (2V, < V,) impailse neise is redaced in Fim to the same extent as sandost noise. Tre arplisnde linsites found in AME communications receivers dees mat lint random noise at all. and it Limits impulse soise by only about I0dB. Frequency modulation is better off fin this regard alec. 5.2.2 Preemphasis and De-emphasis Tee malse clangle showed that wolse has @ greater etfect on she higher modulating frequencies thea on the lower anes, Tas, if the higher frequencets were artificially boosted ar the transmitter eed comespandingly cur at che receiver, an Inaprowement in aise immunity could be expecied, thereby increasing the signal-to-noise entio, This housing of the higher modulating frequencies, in sccordance with a presreanged curve, ix termed preenehocis. and the compensating at the reoiver is called de emphasis. An example of a circuit used for each fanction is shown in Figure 5-7. ‘Take (wo enodulating signals having the same initial amplitude, with ane of them pre-emghasized to twice this amplinde, whereas the coher is unaffected (being 21 pov to.78 mf vant EIR TB as disceiminater! AF out Aro ROH sy t ¢ e (FE ei | METS a a) au eet =e) Reet ‘tal Pro-omphasis 1b} De-omphasia FIGURE £7 782s emphosts elreaits,$6 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: a much Mower fheguency}. The meceiver will naturally have so de-eenphisie the first signal by a factor of 2, vo ensure that both sigaals bawe the same aemplicude in the output of the receiver. Before demadulanon, i.e., while susceptibte to ooise imerterence, the emphasized signal bad twice the deviation it wonld have hed without preeemphanis and was thus more immune io poise, Whea this signal is de-emphasieed, any poise sideband voltages are de-emphasized with a and therciowe have » comespondingly lower amplitede than they woald have Bad without emphasis, Their effect on the outpest is pedlaced. ‘The amount of pre-empéasis in US. FM toudcasting, amd in the sound orans- missions accompanying television, has been staadandized as 75 jus, whereas & number cof other services, motatly European and Awstradian broadcestieg and TY sowed trans mission, use S01 jas, The usage of miceeacconds for defining emphasis is standard. 75.25 de-emphasis conrespoods Io a freaency response curve that is 3 «Bb dow at thee frequency whose time constam RC is 75 ys. Thus frequency is given by f= W/2eRC aod is therefore 21.2) He, With 50 ys de-eamphesis it weld be 218) Hz. Pigure 3-8 shows pre-emphasis and deemphasis curves for a TSus emphasis, as wsed in the United States It is a litte more diffieuly to estimaes the benefits of emphasis chan iF is 10 evaluate the other FM advantages, but subjective BAC teats with 50 as give a figure of about 4.5 dit; Ansericin tests hove showin an even higher figate with 75 ys. However, there is = danger tha must be considered: the higher modulating frequencies mast not he avererophusired, The curves of Figure 5-8 show thet a 1S-KEEe signal is pee-empha- Sheed by abou 17 Bl; with $0 jus this Figure would bave bers 12.6 4B. It crust be made cemzin that when such boasting is applied, the resulting signal cannot over: modulate the cartier by exceeding the maximum TAH? devistion, since distortion will be intraduced. Ht is seen ibat 2 limit for proemplasis exists, and any practical ‘value used is ulways n compromise between protection for high modulating frequencies con the coe band and the tisk ef vermedalation on the alher, If emphasis were applied wo amplitude modulation, some improvement would also result, but it is not as great asin PM because the highest modulating frequencies in AM are no more allected by maise than any others. Apart from that, if would be FIGURE £8 15.5 emphasis carves.5-23 Other FREQUENCY MODULATION 97 difficult no introduce pre-emphasés ant de-emphasis in existing AM. services: sisce extensive cvilifications would he woeved, particularly is view of the huge numbers of receivers im use. Forms of Interference In addition to noise, other forins of Emeetenence found ie radio meccivers include the mage frequency, transmitters aperaring on an adjacess channel and those asineg the same chinnel, The frst form will be discussed in Section 6-21, and the other owe are discussed bere, Adjacent-channel imerference Frequency madulstion offers nce only an improvement in the SIN ratio bat slso heer discriminstion ageinst othe interfering signals, oo mater what their source, [t was seen in the yrecesding section that PM having 2 mani: rum deviation of 75 KHz and 75-as pre-emphasis gives a noise resection at least 24 4B bener than AM, Thus, if an AM receiver requires an S/N ratio of 60) dB at the detector for almost perfect reception, the FIM receiver will give equal performance for a fate no bemer than 25 dE. This is repandiess af whether the tstertcring signal is dust ba noise of signals being adiitied from: an adjacent channel, The mechanism wherchy the PM limiter redaces interference is procisely the same ae that used to deal with randen nite, ‘Oue more factor shoul! tre includes! in this discussion of ailjacens-channel intct- ference. When FM broadcasting eystens began, AM systems had been in operation for nearty 3 years, @ lot of experience with henadcasting systems had been obtained, and Planners coal peofit teem cartier mistakes. Thus, as already mentioned, each wideband PM broadcasting channel occupies 200 kHz fof wetick only 180 KH is Used), and the remaining 20-kHe guard beed gocs a long way toward roddcing adjaccet channel interference ever further, Cochannel interference—capture effect ‘The amplitade timiter works on the princi ple of pussing the stronger signal and elimdnnting the weslker This was the reasan for mentioning earlier shat noise nadwetion Is ebeained ofly when the signal is at least tice the noise peak amplitude. A relatively weak imertering signal from another transenimer ‘will also be attenuated in this manner, as much a6 any other Farm of teserference, This applies even Hf the other granamitier operates on the same frequency as the desined iransmitier. In mobile receivers, craveling from one transenitier toward anolser (exctannel) ame, the interesting phetamenen of capare occurs, However, Mt ousst first be mentioned that the effest weuld be very straightionward wih AM trarsminerr, The nearer tansinitier would always predominate, but the other one womld be heard ax quite significans interference allbough | might be very divine ‘The sloaation is fact more: interesting wih FM, Uneil che signal frors the second trancmitter fs Jess than shout half of that from the first, the second transmitter is viroally inaudible, causing practically eo imerference, After this point, thie mansmiter toward which the receiver is mewing becrenes quite audible at a background and eventually predominstes, finally excluding the first transmitter, The moving seceiver8 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ius been capmred by the second transmitter. Ifa receiver is between the two transmit ers (roughly in the ceater aone) and inding conditions prevail, fast ane signal, and then the eeher, will be the stronger. As a result, the receiver will be captured altemna- lively by clther transmitter. This switching from one program to the other is mast distracting, of conrse (ence the iinitial novelty has worn off), and world nes happen in an AM eyetem. £24 Comparison of Wideband and Narrowband FM By convention, wiehand FIM his been defined as thal in which the modulation index normally exceeds nity. This ts the type so far discussed, Since the maniniom permissible deviation is 74 Kitz anal modulating frogucarcics range fron HM) Hi wo 1S KEE, the masicnumn modulation index ranges trum $0 2500, (The eaximum pernissible devia- Gan For the sound accompunyang TW transmissions ix 25 kM in the Lisited States” NTSC syscem and $0 kHz in che PAL system used in “urope and Anstralia, Both are wideband eystems.) The modolstion index in narrowkand PM ix near unity, simce the masimem modulating frequency there is usually 3 KH, and dhe masisnuna deviation is typically $ kHz The proper bancuddils to use in an FM system depends on the application, With a large deviation, solse will be beer supgressed (as will other interference), but care most be taken to-ensure that impulse noise peaks do. noe become excessive. On. the other hand, the widekand system will occupy ep to 15 times the bandwidth of the nanowturd system. These considerations have resulted in wikiebund systems being used in eniertainent beowdcasting, while namowband systems ane employed far com munications, Thus marrowbend FM is used by the so-cilled FIM mobile communications services, These inciude poliet, ambulances, uxtculs, talbo-costtralled appliance repair services, short-range WHE ship-o-shore services and the Australian “Flying Ductns"™ service. The higher audic frequencies are amenaated, at indeed they ate in nsost carrie (long-distaree) telephowe systenns, but the cesulting speech quality is still perfectly adequate, Maximenn devianions of $ to 10 RHz are permitted, and the choarune] spect is net much greoter tham for AM broadensting. i.¢., of the order of 15 to 3} ee. Nar- rowband systems with even lower maximum deviations are cxvisaged. Pre-emphasis and de-emnphasis are used, 23 indeed they ore with all FM cunsmissions, §-2.5 Stereophonic FM Multiplex System Steres FM transmission is amedslation system in which sufficient informatice is sent (to the reotiver to enable it to reproduce original stereo material. li became commer: cially available in 1951, several years after commercial monaural transmissines:. Like color TV (which of course cane alter monockrunie TV), it suffers from the disadvan lage of having been mack: more complicated than if needed to be, to eneure that it ‘would be compatible with the existing system. Thus, ia stones FM, it is wot powsibe to have «two-channel system with a fe chanoe| and a rigiy channel cranemited sismulta~ neously and independently, because & monaural systera would net receive all the infor mation in ee appeptable form,FREQUENCY MODULATION 94 Seabee 18 we Metts |pitteonce {LB 2-83 ier deter b-ae|Proauoney EM Wake orulirtor ‘cua 58.8-74.5 kHe f+ | punta] scm | y In] genenecce FIGURE 59 Sterns FM iniultiples peuerator with optional STA. Ag shonin The block diagram Of Figure 5, the two ehanriels in the FM stereo multiplex systers are passed theoogh 2 matrix vehich praduces two outputs. THe sttm (L © Riimodulates the cartisr in the same manner as the signal in a moosateral transmis sion, and this is the signal which is demodulated and reproduced by 2 moco reteiver tuned bo a sterec Inmémistion. The cther output wf the matrix ix the difference signal (LR). After demodulation ie a stereo reveiver, (L = 0) will be maded w (2. + A) to Produce the left channel. wtile the difference between the two signals will produce the right channe!. This will be explained farther in Chapter 6. In the meantime it it necessary Ib understand how the defference signal is wnprossed on the caries What happens, in essence, is that the difference signal is shifted in frequency from the $0 to 1S KKH range (which #¢ woul otherwise co-occupy with tne susn signal) no 4 higher Inequency. As will be seen im Chapter 15, such sigmal “sacking” is known io mudiplering, hence the cane of the systert. In this come, as iin other enulti- plesing, a form of single sideband suppressed carrier (SSESC) is wed, wish the sigreals to be iultiplesed up rodulsted ueso a subcarrier at a high sadio or supexscnle, frequency. However, there is 9 snag bere, which makes this form of multiplesing different from the move commen ones. The problem is that the Inwest audio frequency is $0 He, much Dower than the nornal minunars of 300 He encounters’ ia commen: ations voice channels, ‘This wakes ip difficult to suppress the wowanted sideband without affecting che wanted nee: pilot curmer extraction in the receiver is equally difficult, Some ior of carrier must be transmitted, to ensure that the receiver has 1 stable reference frequency for demodulation, otherwise, distortion of the difference signal will result. ‘The feo probleme are solved in similar auye, In the finer place, the difference sigead is apphied wo balanced modulator das #t wawld be in any naltiplesing sytern) which suppresses the carrier. Both sedebands ure then used es modulating signals amc duly transmitted, whereas nomsatly one might expect one ef them to be removed prior 1p transmission, Since the sbearrier frequency is 48 kElx, the sidebancls produced by the difference signal eccupy the frequency sange from 23t0 53 kB. Iti seen that they do net interfere wth the stim signal, which occupies the range af $0 Hz we 1S He ‘The fusion that the 38-KH2 subcarrier is penewiod ty a -KHe oscillagor whose frequency is then deabled may sow be explained. indeed, this is the trick msed100 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS te aveid the difficulty of having to extract the pilot carrier from among the close ssiteband frequencies in the receiver, AAs shown in the block dingram (Fagure 3.5}, the cutpat o€ the [S.4lfe uahearrior generator is added to the sum and diflerence signals in she output adder preceding, the modulator. [a the reveiver, as we will see is Chapies 6, the Frequency of the 19-kHe sigeal is doubled, aed it cam then be reinserted as the carrier for the difference signal. It showld be noted that the subcarrier fs inserted st a level of 10 percent, mbich is bath adequise and not so barge as to tale undue power from the sum and difference signals (or to cause avermodubation), The frequency of 19 kFle fits ently into the space hetween the top of the sur signal and the bottom af the difference signal. {tis far enotagh ftom each of them so ehet sv difficulty is encoun tered in the receiver ‘Vhe FM steveo cuultiples syscen described bere is the one used in the United Stones, and & i6 accondasice with the standards exablished! by the Federal Communica tions Commission (FOC) it 1961. Stereo FMV fas bry now spread 4» beundcasting in mnvst other prams of the ward, whore the syserens im use are either identical or quite Nimilar tothe obowe, A Sulsitiy Commiasications Authorization (SCA signal enay else be mange US, stereo cewlupdes syssem, [tis the remaining shenal feeding in q he upon adder, It is shown dashed in the diagram because i is not always present (See Figure 5.10), Some sinfions provide SCA as a second, mediem- quality transmission, sved ax background music in slores, restaurants and other sirgilar sctlines, SCA uses 9 subcarrier af 67 kHz, modulated 40 a depih of 7-5 kite by the aedio signal. Frequency modulation is used, and any of the methods described ln Section 5.3 cun be employed, The freyuency bord thes wocupied canges from 59.5 ta 74.5 kchtz and (is sufficiently above the differesce signal as not to interfere with i, The saverall frequency alloestioe wishin. the crodulating sigeal of sa Fit siercer imatiptex inaamission with SCA is shown in Figure $-t0, The amplitade af the sam and differ- cence signals must be reduced generally by 1M) percent} in the presence of SCA; ather- wise, avermodulation of tbe mpin carrier could result. 5-3 GENERATION OF FREQUENCY MODULATION ‘The prime requirement of a frequency modulation system is a variable owtpur fre- suency, with the variation propartivaal to the instantaneous amplitede of the moculal- ing voltage. The subsidiary requirements are that che uumodulated frequency should be Sum charnel Di#ference channal Optional SCA it+Al {LR baraeascer Sub t py cacti ; 1 ' ! . Lae é is wa = oS 5 67 MB tne Auuttion Deuble-sideband, suppressed FA FIGURE $10 Spectrom af stereu FM medtipler modolating signal (with optional SCALFREQUENCY MODULATION 101 constant, and the devistiog independent of the modulating frequency, If the system does Bot produce these characteristics, corrections can br inrodueed during the modutation proses, $3.1 FM Methods One meitaad of FM genciation suppests ihelf immedianly. If either the capacitance or indwctance of an £¢° oscillator ennk is varied, frequency modulation of some form will result, I this variation can be made directly proportional to the voltage supplied by the Modulation circuits, (rue FM will be obtained, ‘There are sewers! controllable electrical and electronic phenatsena which provide a variation of capacitance as 3 result of voltage change. There are also some in which an induetanoe may be sbmilarly varied, Generally, if sock a system is used. a voltage-variable renctarice is placed aerass the tank, and the tink is Untied se that (in the absence of modulation) tht oscillating Cequency is equal to the desared career trequency. The capacitance (or inductance) of the variable clement is changed with the Modulating rokage, increasing (or decreasing) as the modulating voltage increases positively, and going the «het way when the ovdulation becvenes negative. The larger the deparnare of the modulating voltage from xeto, the larger the reactance variation and therefore the frequency variation. When the modulating voltage is tera, the vari- ‘ahle renctance will have its average value. Thus. af the carrier frequency, the oscillator inductance i waned by its ewe (Fined) capacitance in parallel with the average reac ance of the variable clement “There ant a umber of devices whose reactance Cun be warked by the application ‘of voltage. The three-tercuinal anes include the reactance field-elfect inansistor (FET), ‘the bipolar transistor amd the tube. Each of them is a normal device which has been ‘hiused to as to eshibit the desired property. By far the mst commen of the twe-terminal devices is the varacior diade. Methods of generating FM shat de ner depesed an varying the Frequeney of an oncillator willl be discussed under the heading “Infarct Methad "A prioe generation of phase modulation bs inwelved, $3.2 Direct Methods ‘Of the variows methods of providing 0 voltage-veriable reactance whyely can be con nected across the tank circuit of an oscillator. the most common sre the reactence snpdulator and the varaciur diode. These will now be discussed in tar, Basie reactunce modulator Provided that certain sirople conditions are met, the impedance x, as sen ot the input terminals AA of Fagure $0, is almost ecairely resetive, The circuit shown is the baste einit of a PET meactance madulator, which phaves as a theee-terminal reactance that mary tee consected acres the tank eineuit of the oscillaine to be frequcney-stesdalated, 1k eas he sade incboctive ot caparcetiiee boy a simple component change, ‘The value of this reactance is proportional to the granscan- ductance of the device, which can be made to depend on tbe gate bias and igs. veria- tiogs, Note that an PET 1s used in the explanatsen bere for samplicity only. [dentical reatoning world apply (oa bipolar tmmsistor ot a eacaum tube, or indeed lo any ather aunplifying device.102 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS FIGURE S11 Basie reackmee moister, ‘Theory of reactance modulaters In onfer todctermine :, « voltage v is applied to the terminals A-A between which the impedance is io be measured, and the resulting current J is calculated. The applied voltage is User divided by this current, giving the impedance seen when toaking inte the terminals, In ender for this impedance im be a pure reactance (it is capacitive here), two eequirements mist be fulfilled. The fire is that the bias network current fy avast be negligible compared to the drain current. The impedance of the bias nereock must he large cacagh to be ignored. The second 1e- quirement is that che drain-to-pate iepedance (X< here) must be greater chan the gate- to-source impedance (R ia this case}, preferably by swore than $21, The following analysis may then be appleed: Rv me hR= Zoe a) ‘The FET drain curem is ‘ fale = 15-16) OO hate ie Therefore, the impedance seen al the terminals A—A is fae Reb Xe wtaty Ro Be bt) Be Pert "RR ER zl ® | HA. ® 8 in Equation (3-17), the eqeaton will reduce to Me j a (S18) This impedance is quite clearly a capacitive reactance, which enay be written 2s he ea © ExfeeRO Dailey From Equation (3-15) itis seen that ander such conditions the input impedance of the device al AsA is a jure reactance and is given by Cay BRE (8-20) The following sbauld be ose! fever Equatine: (3-20): X= (5-19)FREQUENCY MODULATION 103 L. This equivalent capacitance depends on the device trenscomductance and can therefore be varied with bias voltage. 2. The capacitance can be originally adjusted to any valoe, within reasoe, by varying the components & and C. ‘The expression 7.AC has the correct dimentios of capacitance; R, measured in fs, a fms ensured in slemens 1), canoe each thers clneasos, ening © 4 Itcnt ited calc Get be ate ddeainlngedaoe mite pach eps iam galé-to-source impedance. This is ilbastrated by Equation (5-17). If XR had not been much greater than unity, z would have had a resistive component ax well. IPR is not euch Jess than X- (in the particular reactance modulator treated}, the gate voliage will no Jonger be exactly 90° out of phase will the applied voltage ¥. nor ‘will the drain current i. Thus, the input impedance will no longer be purely reactive. As shown in Equation (5-17), the resistive component for this perticwlar FET reactance modulator will be 1g... This component contains 2, it will vary with the applied modulating voltage. This variable resistance (like the variable reactance) will appear directly across the tank circuit of the master oscillalor, varying its @ and therefore its cutpul voltage. A certain amount of amplitude modulation will be created. This applies to all the forms of reactance modulator. If the situation is unavoidable, the oscillaioe being modulated must be followed by an amplitude limiter. ‘The gate-to-drain impedance is, in practice, made five to ten times the gate-in~ source impedance. Let p= nif (at the carrier frequency) in the capacitive RC remc~ tance FET so far discussed, Then, 1 Koma = ak i 1 Cor Tene (S21) Substituting Equation (3-21) into (5-20) gives - = ink, Cay" Ba = =f 527 Coy ana Equation (5-22) is a very useful formals, In practical situations the frequency of operstion and the ratio of X- to Rare the usual starting data from which other calcula~ ons are made. EXAMPLE {4 Desermine the value of the capacity reactance cbtamsble fom 2 reactance FET whic: gm br 12 mlllisiencea (12 mS). Assume that thc pale-to-sonoce resistance is ose-nint of the reactatce of the gate-to-dain capacitor and that the frequency is 5 MHz.14 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMSFREQUENCY MODULATION 105106 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS tae SRcne cae io “3H Saag ee = 0.021 eH Example 5-7 is typical of reactance modulmor calculations, Nowe, therefore, how appeorimations were used where they were warranced, i.¢., when a senall quantity ‘was ibe subtracted from or added toa large quantity. Cn the other hand, a ratio of wo almost Wentical quantities, J,//,. wad expanded for maximum accuracy. It will also be noted that the easiest posable units were employed for each calculation. Thus, 1 evaluate C, picofarads and megaherte were used, but this was oot dans in the inductance calculation since it would have led 10 confusion. Note finally ubat Equation (5-23) is universally applicable to this type of situation, whether the reactance modulatne is an FET, a tube, a junctioa transistor or a varactor diode. ‘Types of reactance modulators There arc four differcet arrangements of the reac- Cance mendulator (includiag the one initially discussed) which will yield useful results, ‘Their data are shown in Table 5-3, together with their respective prerequisites and oaiput reactance formulas, The general prerequisite for all of them is that drain current must be much greater than bias network currest. It is seen that two of the arrampemness ‘give w capacitive reactance, and the other two give an inductive reactance In the reactance modulator shown in Figure 5-12, an AC capacisive sransistor reactance modulator, quite a cammon one in use, operates on the tank clrcalt of » ‘Clapp-Gouriet oscillator. Provided that the correct component values are employed, any reactance modulator may be connected across the tank circuit of any LC oscillanor (wot crystal) with one poovision: The oseillwor used must not be one that requires two ‘tuned circuits for its operation, wach as the paned-base-uned-collector oscillator. The Hartley and Colpis (or Clapp-Gouriet) oscillasors are most commonly used, and each TABLE £3 NAME iy Zp CONDITION. AE eapeciive ie a Keb R RE indbective & REX, A inddsctive t ® MPR AE capacitive 8 L amexFREQUENCY MODULATION LOT FIGURE $12 Tronsistar reactance medulanar, should be isolated sith a buffer, Note the RE chokes in the circuit shown, they are exec ip isolate variaus points of the circuit for alternating current whale still providing a de pails, Varactor diode madulatoe A varacter diode is a semnicanducier diade whose jon tion capacitance vurics linearly with the applied voltage when the dinde is reverse~ biased. 1 may alsa De uses! to produce frequency modulation. Varactar diodes ane -ortlainly employed frequently, together with a reactance modulator, tn provide aul rai ftequoncy correction for an FM transmiver. The cenit of Figure 313 shows sucha modulator. [iis seen that the diode has been hock-biased to provide the jusctian ‘capacitance effect, and since this bias is varied by the modulating voltage which is in series with if, the junetion capacitance wall also vary, causing the oscillator Frequency to change accoalingly Alihough this is the stenplest reacuece radulaine circuit, it dues brave the disadvantage of asing « two-tecmaaal device: its applications are snae— what limined. However, if is offer used foe automatic Leequency custo! arvd reenote tuning. Tommie 5 tank coe FIGURE 5-13 Varactor diode modutatar.FIGUBE 5-14 A typical transmitter AFC gpviem, $3.3 Statsilized Reactance Modulator—AFC Although the oscillaine on which a reactance modulator operaies cunno. be crystal controlled, it mst nevertheless have the stability of a-crystal oucillator if itis to be part ‘of a commercial transenitter. This suggests that Frequency seablizsting of the reectance modwhator is nequared, and since thes is very simibar to an automatic frequency controy system, APC wil slay be comsidered. The block tliagram af a typical system: is shew in Figure 5-14, [However, to acquire a fill understanding of the operation of this circuit, it is necessary to be fansiliar with the phase (Foster-Soekey) discriminator, ‘which is tremed In Section 6-4.3] Asean br scen, the cactiner modulator openiies on the tank circait of an LC ascillator. is isolated by a trelfer, whose output goes chiough an aenplitucle limives 1 power amplification by class C amplifiers (aut shown). A fraction vf the entput is takes from tbe liminer and Test w x mixer, wich also receives tie signal from a crystal oscillate. The resulting difference signal, which has a frequency usally bout one Iveenticth of the tamer oscillator frequency. is ammplifical and fod to # phase discsianiina~ tor. The oulput of the discrinsinator i connected to the reaclanse modalator and pra vides a de voltage 1 cormct mslurnatically any dP in the average frequency of the master oscillator, ‘Operation The time coestant af the diate load of the discriminator is quite large, ie che onder of 100 milliscoonds (MK) mst. Hens the discriminator will react to show changes im the incoming frequency but not to normal frequency changes dice: to fre quency modalation (since they are tow fast}, Now: also that the: discriminator mvs be cnesected 10 give a positive utp if the ingul Frequency is higher than the désceienina~ tar tuned frequency, and a negative autpat if it is brwer Consider what happens whos the frewotsicy of the master ascillanor drifts high. A higher frequency will eventually be fed io the mixer, and since the output of the ceryetal oscilisnir omy be considered a8 sable, a somewhar higher drequteey will also be fed sa the pihwse discciminator. Since the discriminator is wned wo the correct fre- qeericy difereace which should exist betweea the tw oscillators, aime! its input fre- wperncy is now somewhat higher, the ourpet of the discrimisanor will be a positive de voltage, This vollage is fed in scries with the iapwt of the reactance madlulatoy and therefore increases its (rmsconductance, The curpat capacitance of the reactance modFREQUENCY MODULATION 10% lator & given by Cy * gat, and a is, of course, increased, therefore lowering the ‘uscillator's center frequency. The frequency rise which ceased all this activity has been cmrected. When the master osuillator drifs low, a negative conecting voltage ia obtained from this circuit, and the Frequency of the oscillator i increased correspond- ingly. This correcting de voltage may instead be fed tc 2 vaructor diode connected ‘scrote the oscillator tank and be used for ARC only. Altemalively a systern of amplifying the de vollage and feoding i to a servomotar which is connected to a trimmer ‘capaciloe in ihe oscillator circuit may be used. ‘The setting ef the capactine plates is them altered by the motor and in tum corrects the frequency. Reasons for mixing [f it were possible io stabilize the oscillator frequency directly ineiead of First mixing it with the omtput of a crystal owcillator, the circuit would be much simpler but the performance would suffer. It anust be realized that the stability of ithe whole circuit depends oe the stability of the discrieninator. If its frequency drifts, the cutpat frequency of the whole system must drift equally. The discriminator is = hastive network and can therefore be expecied io be somewhat mare stable than the master oscallaiee, by a facter of perhaps 3:1 st most A wellesiened 10 oscillator could be expected. to drift by about 5 parts in 10,000 an mast, o¢ about 2.5 kHz at S MHz, so that direct stabilization womid improve this only tw sbout 800 Hz at best. When the discrisninator is tuned 1a a frequency that is unly one-teentech of the masier oscillanor frequency, then (although its percentage frequency driftimay stifl be the same} the acteal drift in hertz is ane-rwentizch of the peeviows figuee or 40) He: in this case, The master oscillauor will thus be held 1 within approsimately 40 He of its S-MF nominal frequency. The imprevernent over direct stabilization is Usereétore in direct proportion to the reduction in cenmer frequency af the discriminator, cr twenty fall Bstre. Unfortunately. 0 is not possible to ake the frequency redection much greater than 20:1, alibuagh the frequency stability would undoubtedly be ioypreved even further. The reason for this is a practical one, The bandwickh of the discrisninate’s $ curve could then econ insufficient (see Sectine 4.3} ta encampass the enaximaaen possible feequency deift of she master osctllator, so chat stabilization could be fost. There is-u cure for this also, If the frequency of the output of the mixer is divided, the frequency drift will he divided with at, The discrimination ca aow be toned to this divided frequency, zed stability can be improved wichout theoretical limit, Although the previoes discussion is concemed directly with the stabilization of the center frequency of an FM transmiiter, it applies equally to the frequency stabifira- tion of any oscillator which cannot be crystal-contolied, The only difference in such af APC system is that now no mextalation ix fed oo che reactance inodelater, and the 28. The frequency deviation has quite clearly doubled 1 $78, with the result chat the modulation: itelex has also doesiled. Ln tis fashion, bots danke frequency aad deviation may be increased by the same factor or, if frequency division should be used, reduced by the sume factor, ‘When a fequency-modalmed wave is mixed, the resulting output contains difference frequencies (among others), The original sigeal might again be /- £ &, Wheo mixed arith » frequency fe, it will yield f,— fy — Gand f. —fe + Sas the owe extreme frequencies in its oatput, [is seem that the PM signal has been translated too lower center frequency f- — fox brit the maxinvem deviation bas remained a = 6. 1h ts possible to reduce (or increase. if desired} the center frequency of an FM signal without affecting the maximum deviation. Sines the modulating fregetacy has obvinowsly reniained constant in the two eases wemed, the modalutiom index will be effected im the same manner as the deviation. It will this be multiplied sopriber with the cesicr frequency or unaficcied by fixie, Also, it i posaibie 1 rose the modulation index without affecting the center frequescy by enultiplying bosh by Saad mising the result with a frequency eight sans the original frequency, The difference will be equal ip the initial frequency, but the modulation iandex will have been multiptied ninefold. Further consideration in the Armstrong system One of the characteristics of phase modulation is that the angle of phase deviation must be proportianal tn the modulating voltage. A careful look at diagram 3 of Figure 5-16 shows that shis is aot so iin this cand, althugh this fact was carefully glowsed over in the initial description, I is the vompent of the angle of phase deviation that is praparriomal te the amplitade of the modiiating volage, not the angle inet The difficalty is nea impossible to resolve. It is a trigonometric axiom that for sinsil angles the tangect of an angle is equall to the amele itself, measured in radians. The ange of pst deviation is kept small, and the problem i solved, Ducat a price. The phase devtabon is indeed tiny, corresponding to a maxicam frequency deviation af aboot 6) Ha at a frequency of | MHz. Ae ampli- rude limiter bs no longer really necessary shace the aenaunt of aaplitude rrodutation is ow insignifices Te achieve sufficient deviation for bcadcast purposes, hoth mixing and mubti- Plication are necessary, whereas for nasrowband PM, cutltialication may be sufficaent by itself, In dhe latter case. operating frequencies are ia the vicinity of 180 Mids. Therefore, starting with am initial f= 1 MHz and 3 = 60 Hz, itis possible to achieve 4 Ueviation of 0.8 kM at 180 MH, which t&% mene than adequate for FM mobile work ‘The PM broadcasting station uses a higher maximuns deviation with w lower center fenquescy, so thal beth mixing aad muiaipitcabion mast be used. Por instance it the starting conditions are as above and 75 KHy devianes is required at 100 MHz. fo Foust be rieoltiplicd hy I0KI = LOOtimes, whereas # muss be incressed 73 1000/0 (250 bimes. The mince and crystal oscillator in the muddle of the mudtiplier chain are used to meconcile the two nalliplying factors. After being raised to about # Mix, the Frequency-modzilaied carrier is mised with the output of 2 crystal oscillator, whose5-4 FREQUENCY MODULATION E13 Frequency is such as to prodoce a difterence of 6 MHZ/12.5, The cemer frequency has been reduocdl, tet the deviating is left unadfected. Bots cam now be multiplied by the same factor bo give the desired center frequency and enaximum devistion. ‘which is a Gorm of costinucers wwe or analog modulation whose chief charncteristics are as follows: 1. The anplivage of the seodulated carrier is kept constant. 2. The frequency of the modulated carer is varied by the mostulating wohage, fn frequency modulation, the cartier’s frequency deviation i proportional to the instantaneous amptitude of the reodulating wellage. The formula for this is Deviscion matic = Aztona Farman In phise moxtufation, the carrier's phase deviation is proportional to the iastan- laneous ampiitude of the modulating voltage. This is equivalent wn suving that, in PM, the frequency deviating is proportional tothe insteotancous smplituide of die moxtulea- ing volage, tu ia is alsa proportional so the modulscing frequency. Therefore, PM played Giroegh an FM receiver wool! be intelligible bea would sound as though 2 uniform bass cut (or ete bouat) baad Been applied co all the auctio frequencies. ft also follows that FM could be generated from an eeentially PM process, provided that the modulating irequencies were first gassed through a suatwble bass-boesting network ‘The major mvansages of angle modalation aver amplitude modulatign are; 1. The transmitted amplivade is constans, and thus the receaver can be fined with an cefficien! amplitude limiter (since, by definition, all amptitede variatioes see spurt ous). This characteristic has the advantage of significastly improving imeranity 10 noise and interference. 2. The formtala used to derive mndulation indies is: fae ‘Since there is 00 satural limat to the mextulation index. ai bs AM. the modulation ‘index can be increased to provide addtional noise immunity, but there ix a indeott invented, system bandwidth must be increased Preqeency modulation additionally has the advantage, aver bo AM and PM, cof providing gremer proteetian from naise for the krwest modulating frequencies. The resubting noise-signal distribation is here seen asa triangle, whereas it is rectangulas bs ‘both AM and PM. A consequence af this is that FM is ied for analog Iricrsmassiogss, wheres: PM is oot. Because PM broadcasting is a latecomer compared wit AM broadcasting, the system desiga has benefited feos the experirace gained with AM. Two of the exat notable benefits ae the provision of guard bantls between adjaceot sransmissions ae the use of pre-emphasis and de-eraphasis. With emphasis, the bigh- Moudaletion index =114 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS est modulating frequencies are aniificially boosted before tranamiscsiees and cverespemd- ingly attensated after reception, wo reduce the effects of noise. Wideband FM is wsed for broadcast mansmissicms, with or without stereo multiplex, aad forthe sound accompanying TY transmissions, Narrowband FM is used for COMMunicabns, in competition with SSB, having its main applications in variows forms of mobile coemusications, generally at Frequencies above 30 MHr. It is also asod in conjonction wich S58 in freqarwry division muitipie-ting (FDM), which will be diseussed in Chapter 15, FIM is a technique for combining large numbers of channels in beoadband links used for terrestrial or satellite communications ‘Two basic methods of generating FM sre in general use. The renctance modulator is a direct method of generating FM, in which the tank circwit nenctence. and the frequency of an LE oscillator, ix varied clectronicslly by the moduleting signal, To ‘ensure adequate frequency stabélity, the catput frequency ts then compared with that of 4 crystal oseilluioe ad corrected automatically xs required. The slernative means of generating PM, the Armstrong sysicm, is one in which PM fs initially generated, but the nindulating frequencies are correctly bass-hoosted. FAC results in the outpest. Be- cause only somall frequoacy deviaiions are possible in the bashes Arartrong system, extensive frequency mulliplicetion amd mixing are used to increase deviation 10 the ‘wunted Vali. The power and wusilitey vixgts of FM tnenmétters are sinsilar to those is AM irumminers, except that FM hay an advantage bere. Since it is a constam-ampti- fade modalatiog system, al! the power amplifiers can be operated inclaas C, i.e. very sefficicaly. MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Back of the fattawing muftiplesckuice questions comsistr of aa waramplete stacement Jollawesi by four choices fu, hc. and dj. Cirle ake letter preceding the line that correctly completes each sentence. 1, In the sinbilieed reactance modslator APC bb the amplitude of any sideband depends syiom, fn the enixdulation inde a. the discriminator smust have a fast time 6. the total number of sidebandls depends constant to prover demedalating fn the enodulaticn iad by the higher the cliscriminatar frequency. d. the carrier frequency canmot disappear the bener the ascilistor Frequency stabil- 3. The difference between phase and frequency modkalation e A. is prunely theoretical hacause they are the toe ow, car the system will fail same im practive od phinse modulation is converted into FM ba is foo great to make he Teo systers boy thse equalizer circuit compatibte 2, In the spectnam of a frequency modulates! c lies in the poorer sano response wave phase modular &. the cartier frogentey. disappomrs when dd. lies in the dlifterent definitions of the the modulating index is lange fwatatution index,4, Indicase the fate starement regarding the Amnstmog modulation system, a. The system is basically phase, not fre~ quency, modulation. b. AFC is noteeeded, as a crystal oscillator is used ©. Frequency multiplication must be satd, od, Eguslizarion is unnecessary §. An FM signal with a modzwlation inde my is passed through a frequency tipler. ‘The ‘wave in the cestput of the tripler will bave a modulation index of pd be mp e. Imp Sry, 6. An PM signal with o deviation 4 is passed through 2 mixer, and has its frequency reduced fivefold. The deviatian ia the outpat of the mixer is a 38 ‘indeterminate e. ANS ao 7. A pre-emphnsia circuit provides extra noise immunity by 8. boosting che buss frequencies b. amplifying the higher audio frequencies (€ preamplifying the whole audio band id, converting the phase modulation ta FM A. Since noise phase-reoclulates the FM wave, a ibe nuise sideband frequency approacies the curier frequency, the noise amplitude n. FREQUENCY MODULATION LLS a. remains constant h. is decreased ‘% is increased d, is equalized . When the misdulating frequency is doubled, the modulation index is halved, and the modulating voltage remains constant. The mmodutation system 4s a, ampliteds modulation 4. phase modulstine fe. Frequency modulativa d. any one of the three Indicate which one of che following |s mar an advantage of PM aver AM: 2, Better molse ieumunity is provided. b, Lower bandwidth is required. &. The tranamiied power is more useful. od, Lese modulating power is required, ‘One of the following is an indirect way af penctating FM. This. is. the: a. reactance FET modulator b, varactor dbode modulator Armstrong modelmor d, reachuee bipolar trasistor modulator In en PM stereo malitplex transmission, the ‘Ay sum signal modulates che 19 kid subcarrier b. difference: signal modisiates the 19 KEE subcarrier ¢, difference signal modulanes the 38 KHe subosarier d, difference signal cwoclulates the 67 kite subearrier REVIEW PROBLEMS 1. A SO-H2 modolming valtage ft ints PM penerslor produces.a frequency deviation of 2.25 kHz. What is the modulation index” If the amplitude of the modulating valtage is Kept constant, bue its frequency is raised 10 6 KH2, what is the new deviation? 2. When the modulating frequency in an PM systeen is 400 He and che mostulating voltage fs 2.4 V, che modulation index is #0. Cukulate the maximem deviation. ‘What is the tiadulating isdex when the medelating frequency is reduced ta 250 Hz and the modula- ing volage is shmaltaneousty raised a 3.2 V? 3. The equation of an angle-moduisied voltape is += 10 sin (14: + 3 sin L0G. What116 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS Teem af angle modulation is this? Cabulate the carrier and modulating freqetncies, che modulasion index amd devistlon, and the power dissipated in a 1O0-() resistor. 4. The center frequency of an £C oscillate, to whieh a capacitive renctance FET modula: toe is connected, is 70 MHz, The FET has a gq which varies lincerly from 1 io 2 mS, and abiss capacior whose reactance is £0 times tho resistance of the bias resistor. If the fined tuning capacitance across tbe oscillator coil is 25 pF, calculate the maximam available frequency deviation, 5. An RC capacitive reactance modulator is used to vary the frequency of a 1-MHe sucillator by = 10K) kifz, Am FET whose trenscorductance varies linesrty with gate wollage from 0 60 0.628 mS, is use in conjunction with a recisiance whose value is one-tenth caf the capacitive reactance used, Culculate the inductance and capacitance of the oscillator samik circuit, ——— REVIEW QUESTIONS 1, Descrite frequency and phase rmodetation, giving mechantcal etabogics for cach. 2. Derive the formula for the iastantancous value of aa FM voltage xnd define the mods lation index. 3. fevnn FM systens, if my is doubled by halving the modaluting frequency, what will be the effect on tbe maximum deviation? 4, Describe an experiment designed to calculate by meastrement the maximum deviation in an FM system, whack makes use of the disappearwnce of te carrier comporent for certain values af the modulation index. Draw the block diagram af such a setup. 5. With the gid of Table 3-, estimate the wneed bondwidh required by an FM system whose marimam deviation is 3 kHz. and in which tse modulating frequency may eaage: From 30 to 2000 He Nove that any sideband with 2 relative amplitude of O.10% or less may be ignored, ‘6, Gn graph paper, daw to scale the frequency spectrum of the FM wave-of Question 5-5 for (a) f= 300 Hz; (>) f 2000 Hz. The deviation is eo be 3 kHz im each case, 7. Explain fully the difference berewen fregaene'y and phate modulation. besinning wilh the definition of cach type amd che meaning of the modulation index in ech case, B. OF the various advantages of FM over AM, identily and discuss those due to the intrinsic qualities of frequency modulation, 9D. With the aid of vectur diagrasns, explain what happens when acarvier is modulated by 2 single poise frequency, 10. Explain the effect of random saise on the eatput of an PM receives Fitted with on -amplinnde limites. Develop the comept of dhe anise triangle. 11. What is pre-emphasis? Why is it used? Sketch a typical gie-conphaais eiveuit and explain: why de-cmphasis must be used also, 12, What determines the bandwidth nied by any given FM communications system? Why are nwo different types of bandwidth used in frequency-modulated transmissions?FREQUENCY MODULATION 117 13, Using o block dingram and a frequency: spectrum diagram, explain the operation of Ihe sicreo muatiplex FM transmission system, Why is tt differeece sebsarrier originally penerated at 19 kHz? 14. Explain, with the sid of a block diagram, tow you would design an FM stereo transmission system which does mot need to be ceenpatible with mongural FM systems. 15. Showing the basic cirewit skeich and staring the essential assumpkinns, derive the formule for the capacitance of the AL reactunce FET. 16, Why is it sor pencticable 1 use 9 reactunce modulator in comjunction with a crystal sseillntor? Draw the equivalent circuit of a crystal in your explanation and discuss the eficct of changing the evicrea! parallel capacitance wcrnss the crystal, 17. With the ald af’ block dingram, show how an APC system will counteract 2 down. ward drift in the frequency of the oscillaiot being stabilieed. IB. Why should the discriminator tuned frequency in the ABC sytem be as low as possible? What lower fimit is there on its value? What part can frequency division play here? 19, What is the function of the balanced modulaior in the Armstrong modulation eystem? 2, Draw the cansplete block diagram of the Armstrong frequency modulation system aril explain the functions of Ue mixer and muhipliers shown. Ia what circumstances can we dispense with the mixer? 21, Starting with un oscillasar working near $00 ke and using @ muximam frequency devialon not exceeding 230 Hz at that frequency, calculate the following for an Armscrong system which is 10 sell a center itequency precisely 97 MHz with a deviation of exactly 75 KH: (a) staring feequeney; (A) exact bnikeal deviatbon; (c) freysency of the erystal oscillator: (a) amount of frequency multiplication in cach group. Note that thee are several powible solutions 1 chis peoblem,Radio Receivers As shown ip Chapeers 3 to $, a signal ta be been to a certain extent standardized, Eack block of the receiver will be discussed fn detail, ay will its functions and deslgen llmite- tions. This will be dome for receivers corresponding to all the modulation systems sa far studied, be they for domestic or professional purposes. Fur ease of understanding, each block will be discussed as though consisting of discrete circuits. In practice many circuits cof indeed whole receivers are Likely tu be irete- grated in current equipment. Itis understood tht seceiver haa the signals, amplifying and demodulating it, and displaying it In the desired manner. This outline of functions that must be performed shows that the major difference: beewerm revelvers of various & Hhely to be in the way in which they de- madulate the recelved egnal, This will depend on the type of modulocion employed, be it AM, FM, 58B. or any of the forms dis» sumed in later chapters. OBJECTIVES Upon complesing she mareric! in Chaprer 6, ole ssudent mitt de able so: Draw a simplified block diagram of an AMT wned-radio frequency (TRF) receiver, Explain the teary of supesheterodyne (supertt). Draw and identify the parts of a simple superhes block diagram, [List at least five reasons for including an RF amp in a eeseiver, Draw schematic representation of a basic transisicy RF amplifier. Define the tems seleenivity, image frequeney. and dowble sporing.RADIO RECEIVERS 119 Understand the theory and operation of a communications receiver. Identify and understand the terms aniamatic frequency canine! (APC), squelch, beat. frequency ascitimor (AFO, aarumaric gain contre (AGC), and frequency aynthe- er, Draw a simplified block diggram of an FM receiver, 6-1 RECEIVER TYPES. Of the various farms of receivers propaied af one de ar anolher, ealy two have any’ real practical or commercial significance—the tuned radic-frequency (TRF) receiver and the saperheteradyne ceceiver. Only the secoead of these is ued bo a large extent today, but it is convenicas to explain the nperation of the TRE receiver first since It is the simpler af the two. The best way of justifying the existence and averwhedening popularity of the superheterodyne receiver is hy chowing the shortzomizgs of the TRE ype. 6-11 Toned RadioFrequency (TRF) Receiver Uniil shorily before World War Il, most radio receivers were af the TRE type, whowe Bloch diagram ix shown in Figure 6- The TRF receiver is a simple “Jogical” receiver. A persoe with fast a litte ngwledge of communicaticns would prohably expect all rwdio receivers to have this form. ‘The viriues of this type, which i now oot wed excepl as a fiaed-frequency reaeiver in special applications, are its simplicity and high seasitiviny, 11 mast also be mentioned that when the TRF receiver wat find introduced, it was a preat improvement on the types used previcusly—mmsinly crysis, regenerative and superregenezative receivers, ‘Two ot pethaps three RE amplifiers, all tasing togesher, were employed to aelcel and amplify the incoming frequency and sirculanccusly to reject all others, Aller the signal was amplified to a suatable level, it wes denaodaladed (detected) and ie Fool] T j a tat RF ang nF Avaio | amuses amolitier Datei amalities FIGURE 6-1 The TRF receiver.120 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION S1STEMS fed to the Ioedspeaker after being passed throegh the approgeiate audio amplifying, slages, Such receivers were simple to design and align at bruarlcast frequencies ($35 ta ‘1640 keiz), beat they presemed difficulties at higher frequencies. This was maindy because of the instabtlity associated with high gain being achieved at one frequency by a maltistage amplifier, If such en amplifier has a gain of 40,0000, all that is aeoded is 1/80,000 of the oatput of the last stage (positive feedback) to find itself back a the input te the first stage, and eselllsiions will cccur, af the frequency at which the polarity of this sparious feedback is positive. Such eneditiens are almost enavoidable at high frequencies and is cerainly not combacive to pood receiver operation. In adldi- tian the TRE receiver suffered from a vasiation in bandwidth over the tuning range. It ‘was unable to achiewe wulficient selectivity a high Irequencies, partly a a result of the enforced use of single-tuned circuits. It wat not possible to ue dovble-tined RF ampiifiers in this receiver, alchough it was alized that bey would naturally yicld better selectivity. This was due to the fact chet afl auch amplifiers bad to be tunable, and the difficulties of making several double-tuned amplifiers tane In unisen wore tow seat (see Section 6-2.2). Consider a taned clrcuit required to have a baadeddts of 10 kHz at a frequency of 538 Kia. The @ of this cineait must be @ = fray = "Yo = 33.5. An the other end of the broadcast band, Le,, at 1640 KHZ, the indective reactance (std thenefoee the Gi ‘af the eail should in theory have increased by a factor of 1680/535 tw 164. in practice, however, various tosses dependent cn frequency will peevert so large an increase. ‘Thus the Gat 1640 kHz is unlikely to be in excess of 120, giving a bandwidth of Af = 1600/20 13.7 ki aod cosuring that Gre receiver will pick ep adjacent rea ‘thoes a8 Well as che one lo wisi it ik bane, Considee again a TRF poceiver required 40 tune to 36.5 MBir, the upper end of the shortwave band. IF the () required of tbe BF scincuits is again calculated, still ov this busis of a WekHla bandwidth, we have @ ~ 36,500 10 = 36508 ft is obvious that such a @ is impossible to obtain with ordinary ‘tuned circaits, ‘The problems of instability, imsuffickens adjacear-trequency rejection, and bandwidth variation can all be solved by the use of a auperheterodyne eesniver, which introduces relatively few problems of its own. 6-1,2 Superheterodyne Receiver ‘The Bleck diagran of Figure (-2 shows 2 husic superteteradyne receiver and ie a more practical version of Figare 1-3, There are slightly differem versions, but they are Jogical modifications of Figure 6-2, and most are discussed in this chapicr. In the superteterodyae: receiver, the incoming signal vobtege is combined with a signal penex- ated in the receiver. This local oscillaioe voltage is sormally converted inte a signal of a lower fined frequency. The signal at this damermedtiore frequency contins the same nodulation a the arigimal carrier, and it ix now amplified and detected tn repeodace the cxiginal infurmation. ‘The superker has the same essential componcats as the TRF Feceiver, in addition ¢o the mixer, local oscillator and intermedtinte-frequency (TF) amplifier. A comsuat frequency difference is mainmined benween the fecal asciliarar ant the RF cirewits. normally ehrough capacitance toning. in which all the capacitors are,RAIN RECRIVERS 121 chess st eat { _ Geant ree FIGURE é2 ‘The superheterndyne revelver. geviged logethor and operated in enison by one control knob. The [F amplifier genet- ally uses twoor tres Gansformers, each consisting of a pair of musually coupled tamed cireuits, With this large mumiber of double-tined circuits operating al a constant, spe- cially chosen frequesey. the IF amplifier provides most of the gain (und therefore Sensitiviny) and handeidth meprinements of the teceiver. Sines he charscterisizes af the TF amplifier are independent of the frewoemey io which the receiver i tuned, the selectivity and sensitivity of the supetber ae wiually fairly usiform chrouphout ais fuming Henge ated not subject to the variations thar affect the TRE receiver. The RF circuits are pow used mainly to select the wanted frequency, to reject interference suck as the image freguesiey and (especially at high fregaencies) tw reduce the poise figure of the receiver. For further explanation of the superbejerodyne receiver, refer to Figure 6-2. ‘The RF stage is normally 2 wideband RF amplifier tunable from approximately S40 kHe to (654 WH (standard commercial AM band), ft is mechanically tied to the loca! oscillator to ensure precise tuning charucteristics. ‘The Incal oscillator is a variable oscillaice capable of generating a signal from 0.995 MHz sa 2.105 MEz. The incoming signal from the tansmiter is selected snd amplified by the RF stape. Ik is thea combined (raixed) with a predetermined local ‘oscillator signal in the mixer stage. (During this stage, a class Cnontinear device processes the sipnals, producing the sum, sfference, and eriginals.) ‘The signal frum thre nainer is thers sopptiod tx the If {imormeutiace-trequency) aenplifier, This amplifier is 0 very nariow-bantwidth class A device capable cf select: ing a frequency of 0.455 KH: + 3 KHz and rejecting all others. The IF signal cugna is an amplified composite af the mesdulared RE from the Mansmitter in cecubinaben wilh RLF from the locel oscillator, Neither of these signal asatle whieut iunter processing, The nest process is in che detectar stage, wi eliminates one af che sidebands still present and sqparates the RP from the audio components of the other sideband, The RF is filtered to genund, end audio is sepmlied co fed to the audio stages fovr amplificating: and thers to the speakers, io. The Following example shows the tuning process:122 ELECTROSIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 1, Select an AM station, be., G40 He L. Tene the REF amptifier vo the lower end off the AM bund, 3, Tune the RF amplifier. This also fumes the jocal oxcilleior to a predetermined frequency of 10S kiilz. 4 Mix the 1083 kHz and 640 Kite. This produces the following signals al the oxput cof the mixer cirewit; these signals are thett fed wn the IF amplifies: a. LAWS-MHlx focal oscillutor tregpeney bb, GHO-KHEE AIM station carrier (requency c. MS-KHe diffrence inequency dh 1.735-Mliz sum frequency Bocause of fis narrow bandwith, ths iF amplifier rejects afl osher frequencies fut 455 kHy. This rejecting process reduces ihe risk af interterence: from ather sla- tions. This selection process i the hey fo the suigethesercdyne’s exceptional perfor mance, wench is why iis widely accepted. The prooess of tuning the Yocal aseillater ta a predetermined frequency for each siniion ihrougheut the AM band is known at racking and will be discussed lanes: A simplified form of the superheteroalyne receiver is alsin existence, in which the raiser cusput is in fact audio. Such 2 direct comversian receiver has been used by amueurs, with good neswits ‘The adwantages of the supetboterrnlyae receiver mabe itthe ment suitable type for the great majority of radio receiver applications; AM, FAM, cocumunscations, single-sisleband, television and even radar receivers all use it, with anly siglbt mextifi- calnons in principle. It may be considered a toilay"s standart form off rai receivte, ped 1 will mow be cxansined in sone detail, section by section, 6-2 AM RECEIVERS Since the type of receiver is much the same for the various forms af modulation, it has been found most convenient io explain the principles of a supstbeterodyne eeceiwer in general while dealing with AM receivers in particular. In thes way, a basis is formed ‘with tbe aid of a simple example of the use ef the supeebeteradyne principle, 90 thet more complex. versions can be compared and comtrasted with it afterwards; at the samme lime the overall system will be discussed from a practical point of view 2.1 RE Section and Characteristics A radio aoceiver always tes an RE sccthon, which isa nanable circuit comnected tothe antenna terminals. 11 is thers wy sekect tht wanted frequency and mject some of the ‘anwaried frequencies, However, suc a receiver need wot have an RF smplifier fal. jerwing this tuned ciecult, If bere Is.am aroplifier its cutpal is fed oe the miner-es whose input arother penuble circuit is present, In many instances, howeves, the tuned circuit consected tthe antewma is the aetaal input circuit of the mixer, The eeceiver is then said tn have no RP amplifier,RADIO RECEIVERS 123 Reasnus for ase snd functions of RE amplifier The receiver having an RF stage is undoubtedly supenor in pertormance to the receiver witha! one, all etse being enpail Dn the other hand, there are sonic beatanccs in which a RE anaplifice is uneconomical, Le., where its inclusion would increase the cost OF the receiver signidicantly while lemproving performance only maggenally, The test example of this kind of mecewwer is a domestic ne used in a high-sgnaltrengi area, such as uke rectropetian area of any laree city, ‘The advantages of having an RE araghtier one as follows (reasons 4 to 7 ane ‘either mon: specialingd or bess ierpertant) 1. Greater gain, i.0., beter eensitevity 1. Improved imagesrequency rejection 3. Improved signal-to-noise ratio 4. Improved rejection of adjacent unwanted signals, i.c,, better selectivity §. Bemer coupling of the receiver to the antenna (imporunt at VHF and above) i. Prevention of spurious frequencies froen entering the mixer and heterodyning there to produce an imerfering fregecacy equal t the IF frum the desired signal 7. Prevention of reradiation nf tee focal oscillator through the antenna of the receiver relatively rare) ‘The singie-tuned, transfarmer-coupted amplifier ts most comenanly empbayet for RF amplification, as iltestented in Figure 4-3, Both diagrams in the figure are seen fo bave an RF gain conten’, which is very rare with domestic cecelvers but quite comenon in communications receivers. The medium-frequency amplifier of Figure 63a is guile straightforward, but the VHF amplifier of Figure 6-2 contains 2 eomber ef pefinements. Feedthrough capaciiors are used as bypass capacitors and, in cunjusic~ tion with the RF choke, te decouple the qutpet from the V... As indicated in Figure 3b, one of the electrales nf a feedihrowgh capacitor is the wire renning through it. This is surmoended bry the dielectric, and eround chia i the grounded ower electrode. This arrangement est stray inductance im series with the bypass capacitor. Pesdihrosgh capacitors are almost invariably provided for bypassing at VAP and often have a value of M00 pF. A sangle-tuned circuit is eed al the input and is coupled to the antenna hy means of a trimmer (the latter being manually adjustable for matching to different mmennies), Such coupling is used here becesse of tbe bigh frequencies in- ‘volved, In practice RF amplifiers have the input and cutput toning capacitors ganged to tach other and to the ene tuning the local oscillator, Sensitivity The seositivity of sadio receiver is ins ability io amplily weak signals. It fs ofien defined in terms of the voltage that must be apptiod to the receiver inpat lermaisals 20 give a standard euyput power, mexsured st che curpul terminals. For AM broadcast receivers. several of the eicwant quemitics tive been standardized. Thus percent modulation by 2 4{K-Hz sine wave is weed, and che signal ts applied ta the Tecelver through a stendend coupting network known. as a dummy aatenna. The standard nutput is $0 pailfiwarts {$0 mW), and foe all types ol reesivers ihe loudspeaker is replaced by a laad resistance of equal value.124 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS Lae rr FIGURE 6-3 ‘Transisior RF amplifiers, (a) Mediom-trequency; (b} VF. Sensitivity is ofter expressed in microvolts or in decibels below | V and measured at three points along dhe wining canpe when o production mocives is lined op, It is seen ftom the sensitivity corve in Figure é-d that sensitivisy varies over dee 1uming band. Ar 1000 KHa, thes particular receiver has # sensitivity of 12,7 eV, or -98 abv (dB below 1 VW). Sometinnes the seasitivity definition is extended, and the manufac turer of this receiver may quote: it yo be, not merely 12.7 a, bur “82.7 wY foe a signal-to-noise ratio of 20d im che output of the receiver" For professional receivers, there is a tendency to quote the sensilivity in terms of signal power required to produce a misimum accepluble owtpul signal with x mini- mam acceptable signaltnoise ratio. The menturements are made under the conditions described, and the cninimum ingel power is quoted in dE belaw | mW or dBm. Under the heading of “sensitivity” in the specifications of a receiver, « manufactures sight quote, ‘a ~85-lltm. |-MM zignal, 30) percent muxdulesed with » 4O0-H site wave will, whes applind to the ingul terminals of this receiver trough a dusnmy antenna. produce an cutpa of at least 54 mW witha signalte-notse ratio not less than 20 dB in the ounput,”*RADIO RECEIVERS 125 \ i = a os onsen, He FIGURE tot Sensittrity curve for good domestic receiver. ‘The most important factors determining the seesitivity of « superhoteradyne ‘receiver ar the gain of the UF amgilifier(s) and that of the RF amplifier, if there is ane. ty ia obyeicus that the noise Hgure plays an important part, Figure 64 shows the: sensi tivity plot of a rather good domestic or car radio, Portable and other seal receivers ‘used only for the broadcast tard might have a sensitivity in the vicinity of 150 pV, ‘whereas the senaltiviry of guilty communications receivers may be temer thas t ja is the HP band, Selectivity The selectiviny of a receiver is its abitiny to reject unwarted signals. It is expressed as a curve, euch as the one of Figure 6-5, which shows the attenuation that the receiver offers to signals al frequencies ecar to the ane ta which it is tuned, ‘Selectivity is measured at the end of a sessitivity test with conditions the kame as for sensitiviry, except that now the frequency of the generaioe is varied to either side of the frequency tn which the receiver is tuned. The cutpet of the receiver naturally falls, inet the ingat frequency is mow incorrect. The input voltage must be increased ursil ‘the ootput is the same as it was originally. The ratio of the vultype required of reso-124 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS nance to the voltage required when the generasor is waned to the mceiver's frequency bs culculuted at a number of paints asd then plotted in decibels w give a curve, af whicd the one in Figure 6-5 ix representative, Locking at the curve, we see that at 30 kHz below the receiver baned frequency, an imerfering signal would have 0 be 60 dE ‘grester then the waned sigzal to come aut with the same amplitude. Selectivity varies with receiving frequency if ordinary tened circuits are weed in the IF section, and beromes somewhy worse when the receiving frequency is raised. In general, it is determined by the response of the IF section, with the mixer and RF amplitier inpat circuits playing a smadl but significant part. It shold be noted thas its selectivity that determines the adjacent-channel rejectiom of a receiver. ‘Imuge frequency and fits rejection In 2 stundand brosdeast meveiver (and, in fect, in the vast majority of all receivers made) the loeal ascillaior frequency is made higher than the incoming signal frequency for reasons thet will become apparent. IL is made ‘eqqual at all Gimes to the sigral frequency fnlus the imermediale frequency, Thus fi = A+ fie orf, = fy = fis m0 mailer what the signal frequency may be. When j, andj, are nied, the difference Frequency, which is one of the by-products, is equal tof. As such, il is the only one passed and amplified by the IF stage. If a frequency f,, manages to ceuch the miner, sack that f, =f + fis that in, Ja fe + 2fi, the thes frequency will also produce fj when miued with f,. Ths relation ship of these frequencies is chown i Figure 3-2, though in a differemt context. Unfor- furaely, this spurious ietermnediiate-frequcncy signal will also be amplified by the IF stage and will therefore provide interfercoce. This has the effect of twa stations being rectived simultaneously and is mezurally undesirable, The terms fi, is called the image (frequency and is defined as the signal freqeency pluss (wice the intermediate frequency, Retteraling, we have fart fi (6-1) ‘The rejection of an image frequency by a single-tuned cirewit, 1.¢,, the matic of the gui al the signal frequency t the gain at the image frequency, is given by ae Vitor (od) where aft bare (6-3) @ = loaded @ of tuned circuit [i the receiver hes an RF scage, then there are two taned circuits, both tuned to f, The rejectiog of each will be calculated by the seme formula, and the total rejection will be the product af the two, Whatever appli¢s wo gain calculations applies alto in thase involving rejection. mage rejection depends on the froot-eod selectivity of the receiver and must he achieved before she IF stage, Once the sperious frequency emars the first IF araplifier, in becomes impossible to remove it from the wanted signal. It can be seen that iff, is large, as itis in the AM braadeast band, the use of am AF stage is nat essential for good nmage-frequency rejection, but it does besome necessary above about 3 MHr.RADIO RECEIVERS 127 (EXAMPLE 6-1. Ina broadcast supecheiesodyse reocives having no BE amplifier, the landed oot is sania come chek (x el Mis ny 6 100.0 ‘intermedia ‘in 453 KElz, calculate fa) the image ad ratio at 1000 Hix and (b) the image frequency and ies rejection ratio wt 25 Mie. SOLUTION Birt P10 ke oo eae ba 0524 = 1386 a= Vis ies (ae = VIF ne Sue oat combi eau ge En fy <5 + 2 0455 = 25.0 Me pa 9 nap LOM — 09s = coms ea V0F 1 OTIS! = Vi is = 7.22 ccovicres that thin eejection will be ixautficieat for practical receiver in the HF Example f1 sbows, 2s it was meant to, that although image rejection need mot be a problem for an AM broadcast receiver withoul am RF stage, special precautions mast be taken at HF. This will be seen in Section 6-3, but two possibilities can be explored now, in Example 6-2. sie frequency that would be mended (if there is to be no RF emplifier). soLUTION (a) Since the mixer ulveady has a rejection of 7.22, the image rejection of the RE stage will have to be 1386 eesg eVTF 07 § OO = Oe Tons Vers o'er A receiver sould have the same (for bth tuned circa. Here this ‘works oot tn 164 each, ihat being the geomeiric mean af 100 and Ifthe rejection is 10 be the sume es initially, through 9 change ‘Seeermediate Itt apparest that p will have to bo the samme as in Example |. Since the @ is abso the same. Thus128 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ‘a i mo 1000 Boi iter oa “wo io aT 131 BEM ein 254 Yi Lat x 25 je ORES er Adjacent channel selectivity (Double spotting) “This is a well-known phenomenon, ‘which manifests itself by the picking up of the same shortwave station at two nearby points on the receiver dial. It is cwased by poor front-end selectivity, i.c., inadequate image-freqoency rejection, That is to say, the front end of the receiver does not select different adjacent signals very well, but the EF sage tabes care of elininating almast all of them. This being the case, itis obvious that the precise paning of the bocal oscillator is what determines which signal will be amplified by the IF stage. Within broad limits, the setting af the tened circuit at the input of the mixer is far Jess important (it being assumed that there is no RF amplifier in a eeceiver which badly suffers from double fing). Consider such a receiver at HF, having an IF of 455 kHz. If there is a strong station at 14.7 MHz. the receiver will naturally pick it up. When it does, the local oscillator frequemcy will be 13,153 MHz. The receiver will also pick up this strong station when it (the receiver) is tuned to 13,790 MHz. When the receiver is tumed to the second frequency, its local oscillator will be adjusted to 14.245 MHz. Since this is exactly 435 kHz below the frequency af the strong staiion, the two signals vill produce 455 khtz when they are mixed, and the IF amplifier will not reject this signal. If there bad been an RF amplifier, the 147-MH signal might have been rejected before reach ling the miner, but without an RIF amplifier this receiver cannot adequately reject 14,7 MHz when it is tuned 1 13,79 MH, Lock of selectivity is harmful because a weak station may be masked by the reception of 2 searby strong station at the spuriows paint on the dial, As a matter af interest, double spotting may be used to calculate the intermediate frequency of am uniknawn receiver, since the spurious point on the dial ix precisely 2, Below the correct lrequeecy. (As expected, an improvemen in image-frequemcy rejection will produce a corresponding reduction in double spoming.) 6-2.2 Frequency Changing and Tracking ‘The mixer it a nonlinear device having two sets of inpt terminals and ove set of outpat terminals. The signal from the antenna or from the preceding RF amplifier is fed wo one ‘set of input terminals. and the output of the local oscillator ix fod to the other set. As was shown im Equatiog (4-4), such a nonlinear circuit will have several frequencies resent in its Outpat, including the difference between the two input frequencles—in “AM this was called the lower sideband. The difference frequency here is the intermediate frequency and is the one to which the output circuit of the mixer is tuned,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,130 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS FIGURE 6€ Sepacately exelied FET mlzer, sary that the tuned circuit £y ~ Cg be placed beween collector and ground, but only for ac purposes. The construction of a ganged capacitor (Ce is one af its sections) is ssoch that in all the +arious sections che rotating plates are corsacied to one another by the rovor shaft. The rater of the gang is grounded. One end of Ca must go 90 grownd, and yet there has to he a continoous path fordinect curreet frem HT to coilectar. One of the sofations to this problem wohl be tbe use of an RF choke intiead of Ls, and the FIGURE 4-7 Self-erctied bipolar transistor miner,RADIO RECEIVERS 131 FIGURE 8 Miser equivalent mi J. connection of a coupling capacitor Irom the bottom of 2 wothe top af £4, The arrange: ment as shown is equally effective and kappens to be simpler and cheaper. |t bs merely indactive coupling instead of a coupling capacitor, and an extra transformes winding instead of un RF choke. Now, at the signal frequency, the collector and emitter tuned circuits may be considered a5 being effectively short-cirewited 0 thal (at the RF) we have as amplifeer with an kxpat tuned circuit asd an cusput that is indeterminate. At che TF, on the other hand. the bass and emitter circuics are the ones which may be considered short chevied, Thus, at the IF, we have an ansplifier whose ingest cames from an indetersni- nate source, asd whose oxtput ts tuned tn te FF. Bots these ‘amplifiers’ are comenon- emitter amplifiers. “At the local asciflasor frequency. the RF and F paned circuits may both be considered as thowgh they were shest-cincaited. so that the equivalent cireult of Figuee 6-8 resalis (at f, only}. This is seem tp be a tuned-colector Armetang osciltatce of dhe conmos.base variety ‘We have considered cach function of the mixer sndividually, bet the circuit performs them all simalianeausly of course, Thus, the circuit oscillates, the iranscon- ductance of the transintor is wasied in x soolisear manner at the local oscillator ruts snd this variable g,, isused by the transistor to amplify the incomming RF signal. Heterodyn- ing occurs, with the resulting production of the required intermediate frequency. Superheteradyne trucking As previously mentigned, the AM receiver is composed of 3 group of RF circeits whose main function is te amplify » paticelar Frequency (as preselucted by the toring. dial) and to minimsie intesference feven all others. ‘The superheteradyne receiver was developed to accomplish this as an improve: mest ower some oF the earlier stlempts. This type af receiver iscurporated some extea siecultry to-cnsure maxinsem signal reception (sce Figure 6-9), Referring to the simplified Mock diagram is Figure 69, we can follow the sigsal process step by step. The signal is received by the first-stage RF amplifier (which is a wideband class A amplifier) whose resonant frequency respanse curve can be tumed fies Sei KE to 1680 kHe ithe standard brondcast band). The modulsied signal is arngplified! anu! fed to fe miner stage (aclass © cirewit capable of prodecing the sun, difference, and original frequencies), which is receiving signals from two sources (the RP armptifier and she local oscillator), The unmodulated signal frem the local oscillator is fed 0a the mixer simulimneously with the modulated signal fram the RE amplifier (these twe circuits are132 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS eae t+ FIGURE 6.9 Superieterodyne recelver. mechanically linked, as will be explained Inver in this section). The local cscillaiar (LO) is a tosuble circuit with a tuning range that extends from 995 kHz uo 2105 KZ The output from the mixer cirewil is conmected io the intermediate-frequency amplifier (IF sap}. which amplifies a nacrow band of select frequencies (455 kite + 3-kHz), in sone receivers Uhis class A circuil acts not only as au amplifier bal also afiler for mewanted frequencies which weed interfere with the selected exe. This new AE frequency conuaiss the sane modulated infimnation as that tansanitted fro the source bel ala Trequtacy range lower than the standard broadcast band, This conver slan process helps reduce unaanted interference from outside sources. The sigual is rectified and filtered 10 elimisane aoe sideband and the cartier {conversing fiom RE vo AP) and ix finally eenplified for Gutening. ‘To understand the piocess mathematically, fallow these five step: J, ‘The reselwer Is tuned to S30 KHz 2. The lead ascillator (because of mechseical linking} will generate a frequency of 1005 kHz (always 455 ki above the station carrier ‘A 3. The mines will produce a usable owiput of 485 klix (the difleresee trequeery: of LO = RF, 1005 ki = 550 kite) 4. The mixer oueput is fed w the IF amp (which can resposd anly eo 48% kHae = 3 Hla; all the other frequencles. are rejected 5, The converted signal ig rectified and filered (detected), w eliminate the unusable portioes, and amplified for listening purposes ‘This procedure is vepeated for each station in the standard broadcast bend and bas proved ta be ane of the most reliable methods for receiving {ower a wide band) without undue interference from adjacent transmitters. The sepcehetcradyne eoceiver (or any receiver for that matter) has # number of hanabis cercuits which must ait be tuned correctly af any given statiew is bo he received ‘The various taned cireuits are mectanically coupled sa that only one caning control and dial are requited. This means thet no mamer what the received frequency, the RF ane! mixer input tuned cirewits must be func to if. The local oaeillatoe nest simmuBacacoeasly be tuned ton frequeney precisely higher than this by the intermediate frequency. Anya ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,RADIO RECEIVERS 135 6. The intermediate frequency mes not fall within the tesing mange of the reeeiver, vor else instability will occur gad heteroctyne whisiles will be heard, making it lepassitile to mane tothe frequency band immediately adjaceet 10 the intermediots frequency, Frequencies tssed Aa acomult of many years’ experience, the previous requirements have been tanslued iota spectiic Irequercies, whose use is fairly well standardized throughout the weeld (but hy no meaes compulsory), These are as folbows: 4, Standand broadcast AM receivers [tuning w 540 to 1680 kHz, perhens 6 to iit MHz, and possibly even the European long-wave huad (1 to 330 kH)) use an TP within, the 435-0 S65-kH2 range. with 434 kHa by far the most popular irequeney. 2. AM, SSB and oifer receivers empdayed for shonwave of VHF reception have a first IF often im the range from sbowt 1.6 to 2.3 MHz, or efse above Mi MHz. (Such receivers have two oc more different awedmesdiat: fregecaries) 3. PM eeceivers esing the standard 88- wn f0-MHg band have an EF which a almost abwnys 10,7 Miz. 4, Television reocivers im the VHF band (34 to 22 MHz) and in the UH band (440 ty M0 MHz} use an IF between 26 and 46 Me, with appeosienately 34 and 44 MH the two most popular values §, Microwave and radar receivers, operating on frequeesies |n the 1-9 MMGHe ~ fange, use intermediate frequencies depending an the application, wish 30, 60 and 70 MHz arong the mest popular. By and lurge, services covering # wide frequency range Save IFs somewhat below the lowest receiving frequency, whereas other services. especially fixed: frequency microwave ones, may use iniermediaiz frequencies es mach as 40) times lower than the receiving frequency. Lotermediate-frequency amplifiers The IF amplifier is a fined-fequency amplifies, ‘with the very impectant fantion of rejecting adjacent unwanted frequencies. It shoud have a frequesicy response with steep skins. ‘When the desire for a flal-topped response is ndded, the resulting recipe is for a doubje-tuned or siagger-tuned amplifier, Whereas FET and integrated carcuit IF amplifiers generally are (and vacuumetube ones alveays ‘were double-taned at the imput and at the output, bipolar transistor amplifiers offen re single-tuned. A typical bipolar IF amplifier for a domestic receiver is shawn in Figure Se, Wissen ta be a teo-stage amplifier, with all IF transfarmecs single tuned, This depanure [rem a single-stage. double-tened amplifier is for the rake of extra gain), and meoeiver sensitivity. Although adouble-tuned circeit, such ss those shown ie Figures 6-12.20 6.3, rujects adjaceat frequencies far betier than 2 singletened circuit, bipolar transistor amplifiers, on the whole. use single-tuned cizcuits for interstage coupling. The reason ‘in thar greater gnin is achiewed in this way because af she oeid fir tapping cess in taned siecuits, This sapping may be requized ta obtain maximum power eranster az a reduction of tuned circuit loading by the transistor, Since transistor impedances may Ose kaw, tapping is employed, together with somewhat lower inductances than would bave beesa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,RADIO RECEIVERS 140 FIGUHE 6-16 Dixgunal clipping. in Figere 6-16, instend of following the #avetorm, This is called agora clinging. bt does not normally occur ube percentage modubation (at the highest modklation: fre~ quency) is below sbout 0 percent, 20 that it is possible to design a diode detector that fs free from this type of distortion. The sade should be aware of ins exinence as a lieniting factor on the site af she RF filter capacitoes. 6-3 COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVERS A commusicatiuns receiver is one whose main function is the reception of signals used for communications rather than for entertainment. It i a radio receiver designed to perform the tacks of low. and high-frequency recepiion mulch better than the type of set found in the averape household, In wm, this cakes the commmnications receiver usefel in other applicaties, such as the detection of signals from high+frequency impedance bridges where it is used virtually as a high-sensitivity nuned voltmeter). ssignal-strength measurement, frequency measurement and eveo the Getectiog and dis~ lay of individaal comporents of a high-Freqiency wave (mich as an FM wave with its many Sdebunds). It is olies operated by qualified peuple. so that any ndded comptica- tina i its ening ard operaGen are nol necessarily detrimental, as they would be in a receiver te be ised by the general public. ‘The coenmunicatians receiver has evolved (rom the erdinary home receiver, as the block diagram of Figure 6-07 aed the photograph of Pigure 4-18 demonstrate. Hoth ee sperhotemsyne reettvers, but in veder te perfor iis task the communications eoeiver has a number of modifications ame added features. These ane the subyject of this sectan, in which the strange new blocks of Figure 6-17 will also be discussed, 6-3.1 Extensions of the Superheterodyne Principle Somme of ihe circuits found in comenunications receivers, suck 2 isting iedicatons snd beabfrequency oscillators, may he said to be mere additions, dller circuits are rally extzasions of the supssheteradyny principle, Delayed AGC ant double comeersing se” ft two of these circuits. [t fas been Found conveniens io usbedivide the inpic into extensions of the superbeterextyne prirsiple aed adaitiness rt Input stages [ris common to have cee, oF sometimes even twa, stages of RF amp! cution, Two stapes are qeferabte if excremely hig sensitivity and how excise are 1e>a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,RADIO RECEIVERS 15] frequency. amd some point on earth, it is extremely unlikely that signals at different points or different frequencies will fade simultaneously, (See alse Section 8-2-2 for a devailed description of fading, its variows Causes and its effects @pon reception.) Both systems are in constant use, by comiuntcaions suthorities, comercial point-to-point links and the military. In space diversity, two o¢ more receiving ante fas ae employed, separated by aboot nse or more wavelengths, There are as many receivers as anieseas, and utrangcineats are mide to ensure ehet the AGC from the reveiver with the strongest signal al the moment cuss off the other receivers. Thus oly the signal from the strongest seceiver is passed 10 the commns ouput stages Frequency diversity works in mach the saime way, bu mow the same arterona is used for the receivers, shich work with sinahancods Gansinissiums al two ar more frequencies. Since Inequency diversity is more wasteful of the frequency spectrom, it ib used only where space diversity cannot be cmpioyed, such as in restricted spaces where receiving antennas could pot have been separated sufficiently, Ship-to-sere ated ship-to-ship communications are the greatest users of frequency diversity at HE. Both systems are known as doubie-dierrsigy systems, im chat there ate cwo receivers, emphiyed tna diversity pater, Where conditions sre known ta be critical, as in iropospheric scurter commenications, qudraple diversity is used, This is a spact-diversity system which has receiver arrangements 2s just described, with two iransneltters of each end of the link arranged ft the dame way ax the receivers. This ensures that signals of adequate quality will be received under even the worst possible comlitions, (See Section 5-24, where tropospheric scatter is described fully and the use of diversity with iL is discussed.) ‘There is one snug Ura applies to diversity systems ane Limits their wee in voice communications, Since cach spnal avels aver a slightly different path, the a ouipet will have a phase difference when compared with that of the cher seceiverts). As a tesudl, diversity reception @& used very often far cebegraph oe dala tramantesicn: (i.e, pubes}: however. present diversity systems for vice communications leave much io be desired, unless some form of pulse movaletion is employed, 2 desceibed in Sectiog 13-2, 6-3.3 Additional Systems ‘The preceding soction dealt with aciditsond circuits that mimy te inclaBed in cormuni- cations receivers it urder io nprove dear performance, This section will c tiogat, large-scale systenss similarly included in peofessioeal commen eos. They are frequency syouhesis and miceopecessce control, aml will now be discussed in barn, Itshould tbe aided that these systems.can aso bee found elsewvere in eoenmusications squipment, for example in tunimilters or sigeal generators Tete dewcripeion bere is mostly for convenience af presenzation, Frequency synthesizers Synthesis is the making p of » whale by corvbining the elements, aad this is just how a frequency synthesiaer proslares its outqun freucocy. Bt is a piece of equipment capable of penerwting a very large number of extremely stable frequencies within some design range, while generally employing caly cee crystal, Afr the first synthesizers of the carly 1940s left the faboruiory, their first common152 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS application was im ralitiry mubichunnel single-sideband generaring equipment, Tixtit use ther spread to Commercial SSB tumble Cransanitners, awl thers to high-quality SSB receivers and lest-bench signal generators, With selvances in intzproted circuit and digital techniques, the use of frequency sythesizers has specail ta cmost applications where a range of stable freuencies ny be required, including amas HF commercial receivers and signal generaines. The application af symthesis hes outgrown the HF Tange to very ouch higher frequencies. The frequeney range of the synthosiver shew in Figere 6-25 extends to S00) MHz, ase still higher frequencies are camman ‘Driginal spothesiners were of the sliiphe-crystal variety. They fred as msaniy oscillators as decades, and eaci oscitlator was furnished with [0 crystals. The wanted Frequency wax objained by seriching the appropriate crystal intis each oscillate, and the symahesizer then mixed the oumpans to produce the desired output, This. was dece 10 avai the bull: of fllurs sow vacuumetabe maltiptiers, dividers and spectrum xenera: rors {see next seclice). The biggest peublems of sock a syntbesine was trying to keep all Ibe crystals fo the atcurscy and sability demanded by modern standards, Ths spare Paris Sittin was alker a majer heakache ‘Tro allvent of transistors, integrated carcwis, and then rinialice Filters ensures! thaw. the multicrystal symihesirer was superseded, Modern types ise generally only one erysial escillatos (und cee crystal) ext which ail due cane may be Livighed ta-enstire the required stability, Current synthesizers fall into a number of cecgaries, Direet synthesizers A direct synthesizer by a piece of apparatus in which mmliples and subrmlliptes of 3 single cryseal useiblaaer Frequency are combined by s3éition andor subiraction lo peovide a very wide selection of stable outpat frequencies. The great alvantage of suck a system is that the accurecy and frequency stability of the Duepul sigeal are equal lo Uhose OF the crystal oscitlaker, The prabloms invnitved in ihe design and waintecance of a single-Friquency oscillator oF etrecne precision and sta. bility ane mach siinpor chan those associated ‘sith multifrequency ascillanors, As crys tals and pechniquics imipeowe, the stability of this syathesizer is ampeuvedd 4if desired) singly hy replacieg the 4 This the reason shy many synthesizers fovwe master uscillecors as scpenite: modes, (As sbomn thy thit block agvame of Figure G24 and the tllustration of Figure 6.24, the ditect synthesiser lends itself ideally to modular comstruction, with extra seif-comained decwies akied 2s required. The circuit fms alsa lene itself 1o the use of Large-scale integration sLSi} snvenicnt mettual of exph ! yf te operation und reasons far certain iret arrangements i to show how a typical Inequency is selected. Let this frequency be 34,570,265 kx, an shown re 6-24, Ht-will be seen immedistely, for intlance, ha the kiloertz humaineds decade is mat made io selec WM) kERs an this case, tna rather 800 KE. In foe. it te scum thu all circuits except the Fiew and last are made tw select F +9 waits, whetee f anits 4s abe fre one might have expected that Gece 4 select, The isespolating ose f+ 0) nies, Coupled with the: extra nie wants added by every dacede. this means that Uhe sigval fed by the megolerts units decacle torthe last mixer is 1h Mz Langer than the eal shows, "Thee bast decade is enade to poovide 10 MHz less, and the comect frequency is abtalne,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,158 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS [Reema nom Pel FIGURE 6-28 PM receiver block diagram, FM RECEIVERS ‘The Ph receiver is a supertetemdyee receiver, and the block diagram of Figure ¢-25 shows just how similar i is 40 a AM receiver. The hase differences are as fallows: 1. Generally much higher operating frequencies in FM 2. Nocu for limiting and de-cmphuasis in FM 3, Totally lifferent methods of decewakaign 4. Detfereat methods of obtainieg ACH" ‘4.1 Common Circuits—Comparison with AM Receivers A number of sections nf the (Hv eoeeiver correspond exacsly ta thase uf other receivers already discussed, The same critenia apply in the selection of the iweretealiane frequency, asd IP amplifiers are tusically sindler, A umber of concepts have very sumilar meanings so tha: only ihe differences and special applications need he polsted ut, HF amplifiers An RF amplifier os always used ia an FM receiver. [es main perpose ts Jw reduce the nose figan., which could otherwise be a problem because of the large handwidtis nected for Fd, IL ix also requires 1o match the inpet isipedance oF the receiver to that of Ihe antenna, Ter meet tbe second requirement, grounded gate (oe basc}aw cascode amplifiers are employed. Hoth types hawe the prapery of low inpast impedance arat matching the anicsua, while pewher requites nexralization. ‘This i becawie the input elecimade is grounded on either type of amplifier, effectively isolating input fiom oulpet. A typical FIST grounded-aate RE amplifier is shown in Figure 5-20. [thes all the good points menciuned ard the added fesures of low distoctican and simple ‘operation, ‘Oscillators aod mixers The uscilior circuit takes any of the usual forms, eth the ‘Colpins and Cfapp predominues, being suited to VHF operation, Tracking is not morRADIG RECEIVERS 159 ie} Yen FIGURE 6-29 Groanded-gate FET RF anspiifier. mally much of a problem in FM troadcest receivers, This is Because the mining trequency sange is only (24:1, much less then in AM broadcasting, Avery swinfigtory amangement for the trot ead of an PM receiver consists of PETs fev the RF amplifier and mixer, and a bapolar tressistog oscillator. As implied hy this statement, separately excited owcllators are normally used. with an arrangement ws shown in Figure 6-6, Intermediate frequency and [F amplifies Agaie, the types and operanan de nog differ auch from their AM counterparts. [Lis warth noting, howewer, thas the interne diate frequency andthe haxclwidibs required sre far higher than i AM trcadeest rectiv- ve, Typical figures for receivers operating in the 88: 10 108-MHz band are an IF of 10.7 Miz and a bandwidih of 200 kHz. Asa consequence of the lange bandwidh, gain per stage may be low. Two IF amplifier stages ane often provided, in which case the shrinkage of bandwidth as stages are coscaded must be taken inte account. 64,2 Amplitude Limiting Is onder to make full use of the advantages offered hy FM, a demodulator must be preceded by an amplinade limiter, ax discussed in Chapter 5, oo the grounds that any amplitude changes in the signal fed to the PM demodulator are spurious, (This does mot apply toa recelver with a ratio detcceor which, as bi shown in Section 6-44, provides a Tair amon of lieniting.) They must therefore be removed if distanion ts ip be avoided, ‘The point is significass, since most FM deroodalators react ta amplitude changes ns well as drequency changes. The limier is a formof clipping device, a circu whase coolplt Serads hy seneaie constant deepite ehanpes in the input signal. Mex} limiters Behave in this Fashion, provided that the input voltage reensing within 9 certain range The common type af limiter uses two separace electrical effects 90 peowhde a relatively constant ougnit, There aro Ieak-type bias aed early (eollector) saturatian. ‘Operating of the amplitude limiter Figure 6-30 shows a typical FET amplitude limiter, Esemination of the de conditiowss shows that the drain supply voltage has been dropped through resistor Ay. Also, the bias ex the gate is leak-type bias supplied by the parallel R, — C, combination, Fially, Une FET is sown neutralized by cans af capacitor Cy, in coraiderstion of ihe high frequency of operation160 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS FIGURE 630 Amplitude limiter, Leak-type bias provides Limating, ax shown im Figure 6-31, When input signal voltage rises, curren flows in the R,—C, bias circuit, acd a negative vobtage is develaped actoss the capacitor, [t is seen that the bias on the FEET is increased im Proportion io the size of the input vollags, As 2 result, the gain of the amplifier ix lowered, and the output vallage tends to remain coestunt. Although some Finsiting is achiewed by this process, itis insufficient by itself, the action just described would occur only with rather lazge input vallages, To ower carly saturation of the cutpul cerrent is ase, achiewed by metas of = how drain sppily voltage, This is the reason far the drain deopping eeshstor af Figure 6-30, The supply vallape for a limiter is typically ane-hall of the normal Ge drain valle, ‘The result of early eanaration |= to. ensure limiting for conventertly lowr baat soltages ' FIGURE 6-31 Aimplitnde limiter transfer characteristic.RADIO RECEIVERS 161 bay FIGURE 6.32 Typical limiter respanse characteristic, ft is possible for the gate margin for safety (typically 1-3 dB} The lost must be lose than, or equal to, the gain. Le EE) © ENpatecat iN, # NMED oe By (18-16) where: J, = length of cable. Lo = master alienation oF cable, dite af the wawetength of internst Ng = umber Loom = Masiavan connector Ins, JB N= cumber of installation splices 2M, = number of repair splices L., = maximum splice fess, 4B dig. © passive comporest loss, AB (couplers, switches, WIM etc. F commectonrs ‘The unused margin, which should not be less than cena, is tote Figure 18-29): MeG-i IR IT) ‘Insesatetions with losses that exceed the power budget by a small amouss will iit work, However, they da so by cating inéa the margin allocated fcc repair, safety, and aging. Power buciget analysis is typically aot perlocmed for each and every link ina ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,INTRODUCTION TO PIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 739 LZ. The theee aaajor groups in the optical system are a. the components, the dats rate, smd te- sponse time b. the soerce, the fink, and the receiver ee the transmitter, the cabbe, and the re- oever dL. the sone, the Link, and the dletoenar 13. AAs light is coupled im a moultipan reflective device, the power is reduced by ai$di «OS UB b. did d. 0.001 ds 14, Whos connector losers, aplice lasses, amd coupler lasses are asBed, what is the final limiting Factor? a. Source power b, Fiber uiteauation €, Connector and splice leases d, Detector sensitivey 18. ‘The term rexponstviey as it appties so a fight detector is best described ss a the time required far the signal 9 go from 141 i 90 percent of maxinmm am plitude b, the ratio of the diode oupur coment w optical togut power the fatio of the input poser to outpat power d, the ranio of ounpat current fo inpat cure rent 16, Less comparisons between fasion splices und meckanses! splices are Hite, ane bit da 17. The mechanical splice is best suited for a. quicker installation under ideal condi- ows: (bh. minimum amenuation losses €. field servicer coaditions di. situations in wbscl cost of equipment (s meq e focaor HA, EMD is best described by which seiterneat? ‘70 percent of the core diamnetes and 10% cof the fiber NA should be filled with: ight B70 percent of the fiber diameter and 70%. ef the con: of acceptance should be fitked with fight 6. TO percent of input light stot he mea- sumed at the ourpen 70 percent of the unwanted wavelengths showld be attenuated by the fiber 19. Which of the following cables will bawe the highest launch power capabilisy’? a. S01 250.2 b. 8 0.275 E, 8251250275 d, Woes ag 3 20, The teren power duafersing refers to a, the east of cable, connectors, equipment, and inesallation by the toss of power due ta defective com ponents £6 the total power available suimis the altenuation bosses dL. the comparative costs of Fiber and cop: pe instullatians REVIEW PROBLEMS L. Assuming the worst-case scenario, what Is the matio of repeater vequiremients Far fiber cable compared to copper cable? 2. Determise the system bardwhdlth that bas a souece nection thine of 6.25 ns,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Index A A scope dispiy, 620-621 Absorption, of lig, 706 Mapsive equalization, £15 ‘Aarials (see Amternss) (AGC (ace Auomatic gain comrol) ‘Alphasumerc code, 539-540 Altineters, radar, 637-639 Amplifiers, 11-13 ssromint-fiekd, 406-410 ‘Gun dinde, 454 IMPATT diode, 455438 Mmogative-roviniance, 44—446 video, 667-668 {See aiza Klyseron, multicavity amplifiers; Parametric amplifiers) -Amplicade discriminators (see Slope deteciony) Ampiitede limiters, 171 veupture of, by noise, STS, 19916) double, 162 ‘openeion, (31-16 ratio detectors as, 170 Ampiitede modulation (AM), 15-53, 5-59, 105 applicacions, 51-52 hase-rmodaiaied class C amplifier, $1 ccollector-madulated class © amplifier, 4} ‘comparision with FM, int definition of, $6 demodulation (see Receivers, AM) feats of noise on, 92-95 Forse of, G2-70. Teequency spectrum of, 36-38 ‘penecratiom, 43-52 clfect af tank cecuil cm, (Sod modulation levels, 43-66 ‘Frid:moduloned class C amplifiers, dtinst? modulation index, 26-37, 34, 4-3 plse-rodinted cliss € amplifiers, 47 power in, 23-4) sateans cument calculation, 0-4] sideband power, 382 Amplitede: modulation (AM) (Con) esevivers (are Receivers, AM} ‘Analog signals, 317-318 Anode-B medulation, 47-30 Antennas, 255-308, 335-336 arrays of, 276-278, 300-301 fenadisde, 277 end-fine, 277-278 log-peviodic. 300-301 ppurmiti: elements im, 276-277 Phoned, MI2-MO (See ato Radar, phased amy) Ibendmidth of, 248 beamwidia of 265, 2820284 explore aren of, 290 circular polarization of, 261, 207-254 coumterpolse far, 260 ‘coupling wo, Z72—273 current cakulation, 41) Sipoke, 257-B61, 267 strectional (HF). 275-281 directive grin of, DS2~263 ddiscone, 248-300 dooblet, 287-258 sdumnmey, 124 effective length of, 20-278 effects of ground on, 266-271 efficiency of, 264-265 ees potaa of, 272-273 innpestance, 273, 274-275 field intenniry. ft liokded dipole, 778-280, 296 gain of, 262-364, 263284 grounded, 207-208 grounding vystems for, 268-264 hefical, 281, 297-258 Heree, 287-288, 267 high-fbequeney, 275-281 bom, 289, 290-293746 INDEX, Amietinas (Cum) eis, 200291 Casha, 291-293 oghorn, 291, 293 Impedance matchang. 74.27% fens, 293-204 smancrials for, 24 principles of, 293-204 ees of, 204208 ma Jog-periic, 300-101 loop, 301-302 leases in, 26-265 Marseni, 287 micrownve, 241-295, $73 (Ser avo fadividuad types) noreesonane, 261, 20-281 optics lenges of, 220 with paraboi: reflectors, 251~290 bearmeidih, 22-284 capiure area, 298 Caseprain feed, 285-287, 289 cn parabolnss, 247.258 Gifexcnon in, 244-299 (See also ‘Electromagnetic waves} eccaly fed, 284-288 feed mectanéuns, 284-257 gain, 283-284 geomeny of parnbola, 281-202 ore fed, 285 offses parahokinl, 285 serus, 2 pi couplers for, 274 Placemem of, in waveguides, 15-336 Polarization of, 25), 281, 265-266, 297-298 pomer gain of, 243 radar, 617-620 radiation fusdamestals, 26-257 radution pamems of, 239-261 radiation tesistance of, 364785 receivers fare Recenvers, AM) resent, 259-26 thomibic., 2RO- 28 summary. X11 inp boeding For, 268-270 20T swine radiator, 259-261 Yaghtda, 279-2an, 296 Applegme diagram, 348 ‘Asmsong madulesion aystest, LULL See also Frequency modalation) ARG (automatic resqeest for repetition} code, 488 490, Sat ASCII (American Stundand Cade for Informasioa Imerchanges cine, 458-539 Aumospbene naise, LS Anemic clack, 465—a86 Aftermatio (ser Lansses) Anenenicrs, waveguide, 151-352 flap, 350-351 mowable-vane, 350 potn, 282 Aptomatic frequency costal (NPC), 105=108, 149 ‘description, 108 ‘operation, [G12 Tor radbo tecerrees, 14 in TY rescivers, 679-680 Astomatic gxin control (ACC), 137-109 delayed, 1ia145, in PM receivers, 162 principles of, 138 Avalanche effects and dikes, 454-401, 470-477 fundamentals, 484285 IMPATT diode, 455-458 amplifiers, $80, 401 applications, 260 negalive rexmtance, 44455 nemne, 460 operation. 456-458 ecillators, 460, 461 Performance, 45960 shinee, 616-477 RIMPATT dinde, 458 TRAPATT diode, 438-461 applications, 46 opermion, 454 peifoemance, 461 Pemtical considerations, 47 5 Backwanl dioues. 44165 Balanced molars: ‘cartier suppression with, 62-08 demodulation with, 176 Bialance-tn-unbalance transformers, 216-207 Balun, 216-217Fndeidth, f=1 of antennas, 265 for data traremissions, 54-534 Fourer series review, S11 ior nonsinasoidal waves, £1 for pulse transmission, 30 of eadar receives. 615 sine wave teview, 78 for TY cransmisaons, 12-74, Fine modulation of class C amplifier, 3 Batch processing, $19 Baud, 510 Baudet code. 485-90, 536, 537 BCD (binary-coded-decimal) codes, 537-535 Bescoas (xe Radlar} Beam-spliening couplers, 220 Bem-feeyuency oscilla (BPO), 146, 137 Bends, wmerguide, 41-347 Bessel functions, 8587 Binary digtal system, 486—t87_ 519 Binary rember sysem, 98-447, 519-325 amddition, $2252 binarydecimal conversinn, £21 .822 imiraduction, $19-528 sutmraction,, 322-523 Bi thinary digit, 488497, 519 Black-and-white TV (sre Receivers, TV; ‘Television, trarmmissinny Blind sperds (see Maving-taepet indication) Blocking fin moeiver. 145 Boie-chordri code, 386-547 Broadband systems, $6245 ‘coundal cable. 509-571, 974-575 iber-optic limes. STI See also Fiber optic techaolegy) historical inonmduction wo, 362-343 ong-faul, 57H 2 sicrwane links, 571-878 sultiplesing in, 564568 ahort- arab medient-hisil, $68—576 submarine cobles, 478-381 fiber-optic. S88 telephony, laaglistasce, 2805 mopuspheric scener links, 575-576 (ee alse individual spies) Bulk effect (see Gann effect) c Cables: ‘poanial (see Craxial cables) INDEX 747 Cables (Conn submarine (ser Submarine cables Lee abo Fitoroptic itnokogy; Transzlssion lines Camera bes, 55-656 \Capoare: area: of amenna, 290, 607 of target Grader), G11 ‘Capoure effect in FM, 92-55 Carer, 2 reimection, Ti sappression, Sha er alse Single sidebar ‘Canon's rule, 88-9 Castegrain feed, 248-287, 280 (See alse Antennas, with parabolic reflectoes) Cavity mapretrun (ser Magersron, cavity) Cavity resonators, 353-357 spplications, 155 coupling to, 355-355 Operamon, 333-353 principle of simitiude fox, 87 (of, 358-359 reentrant, 344-554 unaag of, 830-357 wanemeters, 14-355 CCITT eras (Contité Cunsailat Tnermuaional de Tékigraphie «4 Télephosie; we Codes aad coding) ‘Characteristic impedance: of free space, 225-238 of trarsmissiom lines, [= 192 of waveguides, 525-226 ‘Choke talin_ 216-207 ‘Choke flange, 359 (ee afsu Joins, wuecguide) ‘Chroma modulation, Hoh (Cimulators, 363-364 Faraday rrmation, 363-364 Yaype, 164 (See afgo Rerites; Isolanors) ‘Cladding, 709-710 Cheawving, 727 ‘Clipping in descetors, 140-14 iiagests., 140-141 negative peak, 140-141 Coaulal cables, 54371 comparison with microwave Unks, 374-573 description, 56 equalizers in, 370, repeaters ts, 365)748 INDEX (Coanial cables (Corr.) terminals fee, 570-571 {See aiso Sebmarine calhes) ‘Connia! tine, 185.2885 (Codes and coding, 487-491, $35.-54l ipharrmiesic, 519-480 ARQ, 488-490, S44 ASCH, Sa8-S39 Buundot, 488490, 536, 537 BCD, $3758 CCITT:2, 488-490 OCITES, 492-593 CCITT-A, 492-593 ERCDIC, 379-540 Holesith, 0-341 requirements for, 487-488 routing, 92 tekepraph, 508 (Uftr other digital cers, see Ferrur detective: and exerection} (Collector-medulated class © amplifiers. St Color TY (see Television, color; Receiwess, TY) ‘Commanications system, Lo5. 485485 channel, ot information in, 2-3. 48S—263 ise ia, 4, 49a (See no Information theory ‘Companding. 504-505 Cone of acceptance, 715 Connectors, fiberoptic, 723, 727, 7B ‘Constant ratio codes, 341342 ‘Comlinaous-wave (CW) signal. § ‘Conversion trazacondactance, 120 ‘Convener (rer Mixers; Parametric amplifices) ‘Convolutional codes, 544 ‘Corners, waveguide, 341-242 Coumlc noise, La Coumerpeise, 269 ‘Couplers: wleana, 273-274 hearn-aplinng, 220 coupling af, 216 directional, 215-216, 357-358 trarsemiasion Fie, 215-216 seavervide, 357-358 Critical angie, 707, 708 Critical frequency. 241-242 (Cromad-feld amplifiers (CFA), 40810 spplications, 200 deal mods, ‘Cenesed-field nenplifiers (CRA) (Cont,} operation, 48410 performance, 400 ‘Ceocalk:, $33-534 \Cryogrnic cooling, 468-469 Care i 360) ‘Catolf wovchongth, 317-322, 331 (See ato Waveguides) Cyeliz codes, S44 D Dek cerrent noise, 71H Deer communications pysiem fundseessals, 528— “7 adaptive equalization, 435 bendsrith requirements, 530-831 compuser symems himory, 520-527 evoawaalk, 533-538 distortion, 534 echo suppressors, 54 equalizers, 534-535 Jatreduction to, 428540 solve. 432-533 anamnision spends, 531-532 ‘See alka Coder; Error detection and correction: Data sctwarks) Dats rertworks. 553-580 ‘centralised switching, 555 ‘ince types. 588 network inercoansction, 346-447 erwork ccpaniuation, 453-555 etwork peosocls, 337-397 character insertion, 551-59 cuntention pratucails, 558 pouheg portent, § Proiocal phasce, 356 horiecmtal, 679-662 vertical, 674-679 (See alco Receivers, TV, black-and-white) Delay lines, 600 Deka modulation, $07 Detectors (see Diode detection: Ratio detectors; ‘Slope detectors) Dichonic filtering, 721 Diffraction, 233-290, 24289Diffraction (Com) of Fight, ‘5-706 (See sls Bectromagnesic: wera) Diffraction grating. 716, 721 Digital circuits, $1527 Aip-fhop, 323=526 ales, 524-525 inverter. 324-525 shift regier. Si ewer, S4 Digital modstation (ree Pubse-code modulation) Digital sechology, 517-827 analog sd digital signals, $17-51B binary digital system, 446-487, 509 ‘(binary number system, 486-187, 519-57 slectronics, $23-527 (See azo Digital circuits, Palso-code medulation) Diode detecioes, 136-141 Sansitson in, 139-141 diagenal clipping. 140-141 nepative-peak clipping, 140-[4] smicrmernse: hacked diode, s6445 mounts for, 303-387 Sehorky-bawrisr dinde, 467-468 ‘operation, 136-137 practical, 137 Diodes: avalanche, 454-61. 476-477 backward, d6nt—a6i Guan, 4454 IMPATT, 434261 RgbLeniming (LED). 475 photodiodes, 475477 PIN, 368, 462-463, 475-476 Poind-contact, 165 RIMPATT, 458 Schooiky-barrier, 446 sep-recawery, 430 (See afia Varactar and alep revewery diodes} TRAPATT, 458-461 vinnel. 80247 verter, 427-492 (Sere alas Veractor and step- tecowery diodes) (See abso specific typesi Dipoles (aee Antertas} Direction finding, HK 301 (Gee also Radar) Directional rewplers (nee Couplersi INDEX 749 Dhacone antennas, 2594-300 Discriminatoes dare Phase discriminators) Dispersion, of light, 705, 706 Diversity reception, 150-151 Domains (see Gur diodes: Gimnn effect) Doping. 713 Doppler effect, 625, 626-127 Doppler radar (are Radar) Double sporting fin receiver), L2E Doutie smb, 214-215 (Bual-med= operstion: of CFAa, 400 of THT, 407408 Ducting, 247-248 Dummy antenna, 11 Duplesers, 170-371 fee else Switches, mitowave) E Earth stations (ree Satellite communications} BAICDIC (Exteaded Binary Coded Decimal Inmerchange Code} code, 534140 Eiao, 394-995 Ecko seppresor and cancelers, $64, 594-995 Flectromugactic specteuss, 756 Electromagnetic wives, 223-236 ataonplion of, 28~229 sberation of, 227-228 chancierisic impedance of tree space, 25-226 diffraction of, 283236 ‘elu iacensiny, 228, 2164 ia free apace, 223, 224-226 fmdammentals of, 223-220 inieeference of, 12253 wverse-square Law, 225-226 inntropic source al, 235 plane wavefront, 284-264 polarication of, 225-227, 249-250 power deasity, 225-225 radiation of, 223-236 reception of, 227-220 reflection of, 229-230 refraction af, 230-232 rofroctive index, 231 Snell's law, 231 ‘Ser aiso Amieanas, bees} vwelocay of, 22 (See alse Propagation of waves)750 INDEX Equalizers: fom coaxial cables, 370 for data circults, 354-334 Equanorial mounts, 251 Etlasg, 595 Error detoctivn anal curreetion. 541-547 cokes, 541-34 ‘curmuant ratio, 40-542 ‘comeolutional, 544 eyelic, Sta parity-check, 342—S44 ‘eMUINGARE, 542 forward efear comection cudes, 44-847 ‘hose-chaue\, 46-547 Regelbearpce, 6-347 harming, SH eatin vm, $4555 seyusirements fae, SE4-S45 introstaction tn, 54] ‘Evanescem mocks in wavepides, 151 Extraterrestrial raise. bi Extraterrestrial waves, 249—251 F Fahry-Ferot revemator (are Lasers) Fading: of aky waves, 244~245 fe Irepencaticr, 43—249 Feeaalay effect, 249-250 Faraday rotation, 389-361, M3164 Perrine, 50 Ine caculators, M6) Curie temperamire of, 6t Farzlay rotation in, 159-361, Biba EYTURapnet: resonance in. 3o~Seht isolators, 361369 fine width of, 380-361 singkefiber, TH sampanenis, 713-121 Tight wave, 731 oie, 718 optical link, THH=721 rexpume time, 718-719 Riber-optic technology (Coat.) source, 717 epersion. MS, TO history af, 712-703 installation, 722-727 connectors. 723, 127. 1H splices 723-727 light and use of, 703709 refraction, TOS, MUT, TOR seaBering, 706, 707 wavelengths, 703, Tit Fisks diesresirialh. $71 ‘optical fiber in, 708-711, 712 characteristics, T12=718 schssification. 114-715 eros section, 710-TLE fowses, Tid mabarmode. 71 single wands, 713 vresons for using. 13 wepair, 732-735, fausive cemippanents, 732-733 receivers, Uii= Tas submarine cates, Sa aysiems, 722 vesting, 727-782, 734 optical power meter, 727.724 optical time-domain refiectornetes (COTER), m7 syatern budget, T3722, 734 Fie imensiny, 736, 254 Filmer system of generating SSH, GL-£5, (68 ‘See allay Single steady Filters: ceramic. 04 eongsial, 64 mechanical, 6. atch, 14 Manges tsee Joins, waveguides Flap atteauators, 330-381 Hicker (see Television) Flip-fhop circuits, 525-326 PM (ise Prequesry modulation) PMVET (Irequency-modulated voice frequency selegraphn), 309 Foster Seeley discriminators (ae Phase discrimminatocs)Pourier series, $210 Frequency, bands (radar), 605 division rvalriglen (see Multiplexing) multipliers, 430-432 Gee alte Viewetoe and aep-reconery diodes) speciram (clectromagnetic|, LJ, 236 spectrum of AM wave, 3h spectrum of FM wave, £589 spectrum of stereo multiples FM wave, 99-10, 173-194 spectrum of TW channel, 23-24 simadarés, 465, eytibesis, 141-155 {See also Frequency sqmbesizers) (eansrmissions, 233 Freqeescy-division muliplesing (ste Metplexing) Frequescy modulacon (PM), TJ 4, 390, 637~ er) applications, WI=L4 ‘Anmistrong xpstem, LLL} comparison with AM, 1102 comparison wis phase modulation, £901 decmphasis in, 15.07 definition of, 80 demodulation (sre Receivers, FM description of, 62 frequency change, effecs of, [K-ign@, 211 uz pereraticn, HE 13 Mficet- mettre, [0-1 inndircet metal. Littl imerference, effects of, 1-58 adjecent-chareel, 7 ochamne! {capture effect), 79s of Klystren escillanr, 394 muthemutical repeesemtution ef, 61-12 Flessel functions in, REET eviatice, Bilaibd Enequency spectrum, S64 modulation sede, Bll narrowband, 5 noise, effects of, U2a!7 Boise Uargic, 52-915 Ppre-txophasin in, 95-07 tadar, 637-638 reactance meadulsior, 10=B0S besie mexdabncr, Li Frrquency-siabilined. (8. Ltd requirements for, U1] INDEX 751 Freyoancy modulation (FM) (Cont) theory of, Uib=Li types of, DET receivers (are Receivers. FM) stereo mulliples, 23-14), 173-174 syirems, 1Lbatld theory, bil vranainities, LILES varactir meatulator, Lt sideband, 2 Frequency multipliers, 429-432 Frrqusney-shift keying (PSK), $08, $40.550 (See also Telearapty Frequency synthesizers, 181-155 corerolled encitlainr, 135-156 indwect, 155-156 principles of, 151-15. SMO. 156 yoo, 199-150 Fresnel reflections, 707-708 Found coupilers, TM ‘Gates, digital, 524-525 ‘Grade of service, 595 ‘Graded.indes fiber, TLS Grid raendulacion: of class C amplifier, din vf etulticanity Klyston, 586-387 Grownd waves, 251.734 See ales Propagation of waves Growps (see Multiplexing) Gunn diodes, 451-454 amplifiers, 484 applications, 434 ‘consaruction, 431 ‘cacillaunrs, 452-489 pertoerance, 431-482 Gann effecr: domains, 450431 venerey levels in GaAs, 489 imrodaction 1, S191 151 megalive rostaance, 449-450 Gyromaperic mone, 30-361 Ser alse Ferrites! Gyrowun, 402752 INDEX H Mapelbarger code, 540-567 Hamming code, $46 Mantey law, 250-451 Mertzian dipoie, 257-258, 257 Hollesitn code, 340-341 Horizcatal scaraing. 68 Hore (ive Aniempas, horn) Hasyppern’ principle, 24-295 E ipral, GIR Miler frequency Ler Parametric: amplifiers) IF (intermediate frequency amplifiers (eee Receiver, TY) Eexnge frequency and rejection. L2i=178 IMPATT impact avalache and transit time} diodes, 454-461 (See alee Avalanche effects amd diate) Independem-sideband (158) systems, 7, IL-7 Tadeurial posse, 15-17 lafceration theory. 485454 ‘Bander code, 444-490, $30, $37 binary system, ¢84-4M7, $19-523 coding, 487-491 (See also Codes and coding’ fuacamentats of, 2=5, 485-467 Hartley law, 490-191 mesustement of safcernal ise in channel, 49149 capacity of noisy channel, 490498 elects of noise, 491-402 Brarnon-Hmrley theorem, 402—#i1) redundancy, 3 490-404 Integrated circeits, micrumave (MICs), 424427 aeplications. 25-47) hybrid, 424-438 rmowolithic, 425 performance, 425-427 See aro Transistors, microwave INTELSAT (International Telecomauricatlons Saielioe Consortiuas, sre Satellite ‘commusicatiogs) Interference Gurr Electromagnetic: waves} Interlacsag (see Televi Intermediate Irequcrey, sooeiver, 134-135 Inverse-sqquare Iw, 225-226 46-487 Inverters, dipial, $24-525 locaapbere, 28-248 critical frequency, 241-242 descripoon, 239-240 fading, M4745, 248-249 layers of, 29-240 maxinem labile Ureguency (MUP), 242 reflection (rom, 240-241 secant law, 242 skip distance, 242-241 trammissiom path, 244 varios, 245-246 ionoapherie orm, 145-24. mudien ionospheric disturbances, 245-246 virtual beight of, 241 Iris (waveguide), 147 Ibolaiors, 361-343 Faraday rotation, SL-382 resonunce absorption, 342-363 Asenropic media, 734 sonropic sources, 225 J foins, waveguide, 3734~340 flange type. S38— 239 choke, 39 routag, 340) Junctions, waveguide, 143-347 hnpbrict (magic tee), 344-346 hipbrid. ting (ratrace), 66-347 T type, I-48 K Kiyo: ralticavity sroplifier., 361-387 Applegate diagram for, 383 spplications, BHA346 busching im, 384 sescripsion, 31-82 wri modulatim of, 186-367 interroeseve emities For, BEL coperarion, 382-34 performance, 334~386 singer tuning. 384 refles cucillainn. 38759) applications. 350 description, 387.3Kiyeran (Cone) modes in, Ha operation, 138 performance, 359 epeller peoteetisn, 390 feansit time in, 188-389 aning, 389 two-cavity oscillators, 382, 384 Lasers, 4, 470-475 applications, 475 as, 473-474 inerduction to, 471 ruby, 471472 Fabry-Perot ersonaior, 471 performance, 472 pumping, 471-472 spoiling, 472 semiconductor, 474475 (See ato Maser) Launch power, 732 Layers of ionosphere (see hemospbere} Locker line, 217-218 Lens, 9-295 (See also Ariennas, lens} Ligh, 703-709 absorption, 706 ‘diffraction, 71S - 706 dispersion, TOS, 708 reflection, 708, 707, 78 reffaction, 705. 207, 708 seabering, 106, 70T sevekngths, M3, Tbh (See also Fiber-optic techaolagy) Ligtt-emining diodes, 473 Light waves. 721 Limiters (see Amplitude fimsters: Noise limiters} Lincomges, 7 Line width, 300-361 Local oseillanors (ser Receivers, AM) Logic gates, 524525 Log-periodic amennas, 300-301 Lease ‘fiber-opeie, 716 fe transaiasion lines, 147, 192-193 im suveguides, 313, 350-352 Luminesceace, 708 INDEX 753 M Magic tee, 34-346 Magsctran, cavity (raveling-wavel, 390-00 applications. 400 back-boating in, 395 busching in, 1950965 comnial, 398, 37 descriptin, 10-392 dither tuned, 399-400) fields im, 592-354 ‘combined, 395 cuted, 383354 magnetic, 392-193 mappeta: and eieztrse, 393-398 frequerny-agile, 399400 frequency pulling and pushing. 38738 hote-and-siot, 347 fong-anode, 398-399 made jumpieg in, 296-397 reeds in, 390-34 operation, IH 396 performance, 400 phase-focusing effecs in. 195-396 pi mode, Rieke diagram foe, 398 fsing-aun, 397 strapping, ¥i6-—397 traveling waves i, 396 lypes, 374400 ‘voltage-tunable (TM), 404 Masley-Rowe relatines, 435 Mieconi antcras, 267 Maur. 45-470 pplications, 470) comparison with parametric amplifiers, 440, 470 cooling of, 468~28 energy leeds in, S080 fundamentals of, &63 464 pas, at nose ba, 4658489 performance of, 490 fuby, 4674609 (See otro Lasers) Midis sain cade, 5-545 Manimurn usable (requcncy (MLUIF), 242 “Mirruprocessean: seunttol of ralio weetivers, 156158 inmmdsction 10, S2i—S27 4lT-ae ‘Micronsript circ784 INDEX. Microwave waieanas, 281-295 (See eles Amterinas) Microware integrated circuits (ore Integrated ccincaits, microwave) Microwave finks, ST1=$75 capacities of, $74 ‘comperison with oamial cables, 374-573 description of, 371-373 ‘opening Frequencies, $71-$72 power peovisions for, $73574 epeaners for, ST1-574 antennas, 573 block diagram, 572 ‘output powers and devices, $73-874 receivers, STL-573 Microwave propagation, 247-248 Microwave receivers, 571-573 Microwave transistors (nee Transistors, microwave} Microwave tnbes, 310=d12 ‘backward-omve osrilinene (BWC), 408, 410411 ‘crossed: field amplifier (CFA), 908410 ‘zyrousn, 412 ilyewen, 361-387 molicavily, 381-387 rallex, 387-390 magnetron, 3490-410 uveding-wave ute (TWT), 400-308 ‘siodes, 37-381 myatron, 411 Ser alse apesific types Miner microwave, 165-367 ssoise in, 20 jin recemver, 1-110 See also Receivers, ABE) Mode field diameser (MPD), 714 Mode of opertion. opticel-iber. 713 mattimode, 713 mangle mode, THI Modes, 547-552 selucalfication, 549 fundamezeals, 348 interconnecting, $4449, 552-553 ‘sserfacing. 550-552 seadulition methods, 549-889 ‘operation, modes of, 548 S-232 interface, 486-552 Modies Lree Klystron: Magnetron, cavicy: Waveguides) ‘Modified chemical vapor deposition (MCVD) process, 709 Modalation, 3 amplitode (eee Amplitode modulation) ddefmition of, 5 delta, S07 frequency (see Frequeacy modulation) Index (see specific mostatatioe forms) need for, Soi hase (see Phase modulation) Poise (analog) (ree Pulse: moxulation) radar, 612-617 singiesideband, S215 iereo FM mites, 98-100, 173-174 Wien, 509 See atro spesific types; Multiplexing) Monopulee, 619-420 (See wire Radar} Movable-vane azemuators, 150 Moving-turget indicasion (MTT), 62-891 rea-type, 4 blind speeds of, 630-631 coho, 628-629 Alay’ lines for, 630) digi, 631 Doppler efit in, 625, 626-627 fendamemals of, 673-690 nosecherent, 640 Hilo, 628-629 Multicavigy Kiysiron {ser Buysiron) Multimode gradedindes fiber, 713 Multimode stepeindex fiber, 713 Multiplesing. $10, 444-368 Po micro, $ii=tiK), 173-174 frequency-division (EDM), 44-568 CTE: and GTEs, $45-$66 group formation, 561-366 uperaresrp formation, 566 pute modelation, 510, 564-568 uf telegeaphy, 510 time-division (TDM), $6368 description, 479-460 sfgital hierarchies, $68 hhigher-ooder levels, $64 ppeimary level, 307-08 Multipliers, frequency, 43-432 (See alee Varncior aad steprecavery diodes) Mating, 147-148N Nepativestsisiaace amplifiers, theory of, 444-346 Networis, data (ser Data eetearks) Noise, [432 207, 405—408, SOLS aenplisede Viniter aed, 9758, 1851 atmonpheric, LS calculations, L230 for amplifiers In exscade, 2221 of equiviken distance, 22-23, 12-28 ‘of noise figure, 26-21 cof noloe temperature, Mia in radar reception, 68-61, &2t in reactive circuit, 24025 for resistances, [B—') for several sources. 21 le communications sprtew, 34. 491994 soumic, It in data trammistion, 532-533 tdode geserainr, 19-10 effects of: ‘om ampiinode modulution, 2. mt channel eapaciey, 491292 nt Frequency modulation, 027 a pabbe movulation, SOi—S08 radar systems, GOEL, 621 on signaling speed, 441-492 squivaleat input resisinace, 22-23, 2229 ceaiemal, [3=17 eulralerresrial, Lh in fiber-optic sechneclogy, TI figure, 2535 ‘calculation, 2-27 definition of, 24026 measarement Aieker (sedatavion), 20 in IMIPATT diodes, 400 impolite, U7 interes, 172) limiter, 14? in masers, 408469 in micromwve amplifiers (comparison), 439, 440 in sages, 20 (See alto Pulse-code modulation) random, L221 resistance. 211 INDEX 755 Noise (Cont) in reskors, 1219 shoe, <2 sighal-to-soise ratte (S/N), 25 solar, U6 stale, LE vemperature, 30-12 thermal aptation, 1219 in enasisions, 19-20 trannietime, 20 in traveling-wave bubes, 15408 irangle, 92% in tunnel dinds amplifiers, 417 in waceum wbea, L201 white (ee Noise, random) ‘Noalinear cepachors, 429-430 Noalineas resaace, (002 Nossinusvidal wires, Notch filers, 198 Nemerical aperture (NA}, TIS oa ‘Optical link, 719-T21 Optical power meter, 727-729 (Optical time-darsain reflectomerer (OTR, 729- Tal Optoelectnonic devices, $6547 Ser aleo Lasers) Oscillators: backwantornve, 4019, 410-411 bear-frequency, 146, 147 controlled, 145-186 Gean diode, 452483 IMPATT diode, 4190, 461 eeciver, 133-14 vefles, 387109 ‘ewveling-wave babe, 413—104 beo-canity, JBL, 184 Parabolic reflectors, 281-290 (See abe Anienzas, with parabolic reflectors}:756 INDEX Parametric amplifiers (Caer) coating af 4.88 degenerine. 433, 414 fundamentals. 433 masers compared to, 4401, 470 narrowband, 436-437 noise i, nondegenerate, 434435 performance, iables of, 43%, 6409 Pumping, 433, 434 twaveling-wave, 437-234 3k Pasasitic chervemis (asicanal, 276-277 Parity check codes, 62~S4 Phase discriminators, 165-164 applications, 173 ‘description, 6c) frequescy reeponie, 109 muthematical wtalystt, [S5—169 Phase modulation, 491, 109-113 ‘comparison with FM, #9241 definition of, 80 cof PM carrier by noise, 93.85 FM gescration by means off (dftaLL3 Meedulation indet in, E264, 21 Prased arrays, 302-303, G3 tel {See ervey Radar hase-shitt keying (PSK). H-S10 Viawe-shift method of S816 generation, (5-2 {See aise Single sideband) PRotndiodes, 438-477 Picture tubes, 6819-0503 See ailne Receivers, TV, enlor) Piloa-carrier systewss, 20, TI ee alter Singhe-sidebanad) (PID (p-imerinsic-n} chee, 462-48) spplications, 149, 469 cunstmuetion, operation, 462-46) performance, 463 photodiodes, 475-476 switching ua (Pisioe attenuators, 543 Plan position indicators (PPE), 021-22 Planar arrays, 42-063 Plate modulation of class © amplifier, 42-0 Pount-conencr diades, 365 Paar impedance dlugrarns (ser Smith eats) Polarization, cof satesnas, 250, 251, 268-26, 207-258 Polarizanon (Come) of waves, 226-227, 269-250 Power tudgeting, T3132, 14 Pre-emphasis, 4.97 Preatuet demedulsnoes, 175-176 Propagation of waves, 236-251 ‘extraterrestrial. 249-251 Faraday effect, 249-250 transionospheric, 249-250 (See alvo Satellite communicaticas) Brnnd-wane, 257-209 Gehl strength, 237-138 tik of, 237-258 a VLF. 238-230 rmethers of, 236~237 sky-wuve, 29-248 ‘See also Lonosphere space-wave, 246-248 ienerfereace in, 247-248 ‘of seicrumrres, 247-248 radio: borieon for, 46—207 ‘by soperrefraction, 147—24 troposcater, 148209 fSer also Electromagnetic waves} Pulse-amplinude modulation (PAM), 394295 Pulss-cooe modulation (POM), 40-507 abeaniagges of, 506-507 applications of, 36-507 sditesentisd, 307 peserition apd demedulatien of, 508—$03 riulliplesing in, $10, $6456 {ee atrw Muliplesing, time-tivision) oise immenity of, 50304 Feinciples of, 500-01 ‘quantizing noise in, 501 Pulse forming networks, 614 Pub modulation, 1=07 rouliplexing of, $10, Sé4—$68 See airo Multiplexing, time-ti sampling theorem in, 46 ‘pes of Live individual eypes) Pulse-position modulation: demodelation of, 408-499 deserigtion of, 494 effect of pense on, SSDS peseneee of, #199 Pulse-time siadulation (PTA), 456408Pulse-up ratio, of TWT, 407408 Pulse-width modslition, 496-498, derestulation of, 497405 Poraping (ree Lasers; Mavens; Parametric amplifiers) PWM (2ee Pulse-wicth medulation) Q ‘@ (magnification factor): oe cavity resoxsgces, 386-357 effect of on scise. 24-25 ‘Quamtising soise, $01 ‘Quamem-mechanical devices (ser Lasers; Masers) ‘Quiner-wave iansformess, 196-199, 200-207 ‘Quan enysial, 419420 delay lines, 630) in SAW devices, 419-420 R tie Radar, 600-647 Avscope display, 620-621 akimeter, 637-438 antenna scanning, 617-618 amensa tracking, 618-620 ‘conical scanning. 618619 lobe-suitching, 614 monopulse, 619-629 ‘See also Phased arrays) applications, 605, 632, 616 smatomatic target detection. 62:3 basic principles, 1-611 beacons, 632-14 applications, 632 range equation, 652-664 Distatic, fbb blind speeds, 630-41 (See also Moving-target indication) capmere area vod amen, &77 vof tanges, 611 ‘countermeasures, 61M =f05 CW, 64098 display methods, 621-423 INDEX 757 Radar (Cont. Doppler, 634-037 sudvwsinges mad applications, 638 description, 624-636 Tiriaations, 636 requency Bamads, é0 lrequeney-mndulited, 637-634 history of deweSopmend of, 604-605 jaresing, 604-405 maximums range, factors influencing. (07—#0% minimem range. 616 mndalitors, 612-617 active ewiteh, 614615 line-pulsing. 614 monostatic. 626 MTI. 626-631 Lee also Moving-target indication) noise. effects of. 04-611, 21 Phased array. OM fundamentals, 638-64) Fic zapectt, 64-6] n indicator (PPL), 621-628 ein 42-643 powers sed in, 608 pulse characteristics. 614607 (pulse-forming networks in, 624 (pulse: repetition Mrequency (PRE), O16 ‘pulsed, description, 602-817 pulsed systems, 621-228 ‘range equation, 06-607, 632604 range resolution, 614 receiver bandwiddh, G15 receivers, 149, 612617 ‘beaech systems, 623-624 target properties, 611 tracking syitena, 625-026 track-while-sean (TW), 625 framamitters, 602-617, 628-631, 638—-O42 ‘ranspomders (sre Radar, beacons} Rackation of wiees, 223-236 See also Electromagnetic waves Rado. | Radio boritun, 246-247 Radio receivers (ier Receiver; Receivers} Range equation (redse), O6—H07, 632-615 Rat-race, MB—347 See nian Junctions, waveguide) [Ratio detectors, 18-172 additional limiting for, 172 amplitede limiting by, 171‘788 INDEX Ranio detectars (Cont. applications of, {73 derivation of, from pase diveriminator, 104-170 seperation of, 170 pesical coessderaions in, 171-172 Rayieigh enterion, 230 Reaciance mochelaice, (0-160 Ice atso Frequency modobation| ‘Receiver, Lda19 blocking, 145 direct comversica, L22 Functions, penaral, 45 image rejection, “128-128 okie fipure lee Moise) rscillazee, 133-134 selectivity, 125-128, 146 semitivity, 123-125, 145 superheterodyne. 4, E0122 Ui1=133 wracking, LAL133 TAF, 119-130 lypes, LS122 Receivers: AM, Las AGC in, 137-199 IF amplifiers, b3%<135 devectors, 136-141 frequency changing, L2H.134 inpermedisne frequency toe, 14-133 RF section, [22128 sommutications, 141-157 AFC fee, 149 beal-Ireqeency ovcillasce for, 146, 147 blocking br. 146 delxyed AGC in, 4-145 diversity reception with, 180-151 ‘double conversion in. L42=144 fine tuning for, 142 Pl and 88H reception, 10 frequency syrthesizees im, [41-18% (See aio Frequency synthesizers) peneral description of, Lit input cuges for, L414? menecing in, 149-150 microprocessor cnamral cf, 156-158 odie Reenter in, 147 neéch filler for, 186 sxjeckh (rmuting) in, 147-143 luning cabibeation for, 1@6=147 variable selectivaty in, 145-146 vvariabie seraitiviny in, 148 Receivers (Cent) smsplitude limiting in, 159-16 demodulacor requirements in, 162 general principles, (58-14 phase discriminator in, [6-164 tee afsa Pease disceimiratoe) ratio detector fa, 19-172 {See alsa Ratio demswon) shope detection in, 162168 (See also Slope detectors stereo mmikiplen, $4—[00, 173-174 micowave, 571-573 radar, 149, 612-617 snellte, 488 ‘SSB iad 158, 174-179 emedolation in, 175-176 peneml requirements, 174. pidol-carricr, 176-177 seppresed-carier, LIT=|7% TY, black-and-orhite, 68-2 ‘block diagrams, 661-662 horizoncal deflection carcuils, 679~682 picture IF amplifiers, 657-668 sound section, 670 sysetrenizieg cleus, 670-674 tuner, 665-667 vertical deflection circeits, 624-679 TY, pater, 689-697 basis cacuitry, 693-697 block diagrams, 687, 680) borat separaice, 696 Brome ESEUIIS, 695-696 color killer, 6-607 picture tabe and requirements, 689-609 synchroeous demodalances, 156 Wide sages, 66670 Redundancy, 3, 4932 Hedundant codes, $42 ‘Reflection conducting plane (are Wavepeides) from ioncephare, 240-241 af light, 70, 707, 308 af waves, 229-230 Reflective star coupler, 720), 721 Refiex tlyssron (see Klyston} Releucsiod, 230-252 af light, 705, 707, 708 Refincaive index peel, 113Repeaters: microwave link, 471=5T4 submarine cable, $77-380 Resimance nowe, 20 Resenators (ser Cavity etsomatoes; Lasers: SA devices) eponse tira, in fiber optics, 718-709 IRF radio frequency’) amplifiers éxee Receivers, AM) Rbowibe: arscneus, 280-281 RIMPATT (Read-IMPATT) diodes, 458° Ring rcalulators, BS.2%9 interface, $50-852 Ruby tasers, 47 ad T2 ‘Samplicg theorems, 496 Salellve comenunbeasions, SEL—292 comparison with submarine cables, $48—589 domestic, 591-382 penstationary arhits for, S88 international (LNTELSAT), $82.50 carth stations, 386-347 ssaelltes, $32-SRB, $89 inweduetion w. SBI-S42 aritime (INMARSAT), SBE-S89 propagation delay in. 558 regional, $49.59 SAW (uurface acoustic wave) devices, 419-430 Sewiooth wave, U1 Seaaning (eer Radar, amenta scanning; Television} Scariering, of light, 708, 707 Schotihy-barrier diode, 463468 Secare tow, 242 Selectivity. receiver, (4-126, 146 Sensitiviny, receiver, LL1=-I28, 145 Se, 2-4 Shanton:Hartiey theorem, 492-493 ‘Shift register, $26 Shot nose, 1820, 71H Sideband suppression, (2-09 Ser adr Single sidebeed) Sipsaling (ie Telepiuony. lemg-cistance) Sipral-in-acise ratin, 24 (See alse Noise) Singic-moge step-indes fiber. 7/3-T14 Single sidebend (888), 8, 86-75 advantages and applications af, 75 balanced modefstor in, ft INDEX 759 Single sideband (SSB) (Cont) carer reinsertion im, 2 caer suppression in, $2-t64 demmadulation (sre Reotivers, SSB and ISB) effects of xonlisear resistance in, =f Faker system of generating, to-85, 68-09 ‘comparison with other spsiems, fff jer requiremets, fn65 ieear amplifiers in, £4 forms of AM, 09-70 lncepersiear sideband sysoems, 70. 21-23 Phesve-shift method of generating, 65-67 ‘comparison with other systems, BE=69 effect of incorrect phase shift im, G9 theory, ft pilot-carrier symems, 10, 21 power eelations in, 47-49, Tecelvers (ee Receivers, SSB and LSB} fidehand superessioa in, ft “thind™ method of gesencing, (7-hE comparison with other sywiems, 62 description, 67-68 trancmaiers, 22, Uh ‘vestigial sideband transmission, Ti, 28.28 Sine waves, Taf Skip divtance, 242-243 Sky waves, 239-228 {See alo lonenphereh Slope desestore, 162-165 balanced, 161165 principles, 162-163 shortcomings, 163 Slowed lise, 217-218 Slorw-wave structures, 408 Smith chars, 202-203 applications of, 25-206 description of, 202-208 problem scluiion with, 26-213 fects of frequency variation, 200-213 munching with quarter-wave tremnformer, 20% 27 manching with short-circuited stob. 206-210 Shap-olf varuciers (see Varactor and siep-recovery Salar oiwe. Lf Space waves, 46-248 Spices, Nber-upekc, 725-727 Square wares, 7.9, Li Squclsh (muting), 147-155 Stalo, 628-629

Electronic Communication Systems by Kennedy

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