Chapter One

Atomic Theory- Proposed by John Dalton, matter is

composed of small, scientic particles
Classications of Matter
-Solids-Denite shape, compressed molecules
-Crystalline-Arranged in a pattern
-Amorphous-No unique, long term pattern
-Liquids-No denite shape, compressed molecules
-Takes shape of container
-Gas- No denite shape, spaced out molecules
-Takes shape of container
Density D=M/V
Accuracy-Near Expected Range
Precision-Near Other Figures
Sig Fig Rules
-All Non-Zeros are sig.
-Interior Zeros (between 2 non-zeros) are sig.
-Trailing Zeros (after decimal) are sig.
-Zeros before Decimal need to go into Scientic
Notation
Addition/Sub.- Smallest Decimal Spot
Multiplication/Div.- Smallest # sig gs.
Chapter Two
Law of Denite Proportions: All samples of a given
compound, regardless of preparation, have the
same properties and ratios of the same compound
(i.e. HO=18g=16g H/2g O= 8.0:1 ratio)
Law of Multiple Proportions: When their are two
elements (i.e. A+B) the masses of element B
combine with 1 g of element A can be expressed as
a ratio of small #s
(i.e. CO= 1g C to 2.67g of O)
Experiments
-Cathode Ray Tube-Led to discovery of electrons by
sending them through a ray tube. This help
determine the mass per g of electrons
-Done by JJ Thompson
-Oil Drop Experiment- Calculated charge per
electron
-Done by Robert Milken
-Gold Foil Experiment- Determined structure of
atoms because alpha particles reected back,
disproving plum pudding model
-Done by Rutherford
Properties of Matter
Metals: Usually shiny, malleability, ductility, good
conductors of heat and electricity.
Non-Metals: Poor Conductors, typically gain
electrons
Metalloids: Mixed properties
Avagadros #= 6.022 X 10!"
Chapter Three
Ionic Bonds-Donates !e, between metal and non-
metal
Covalent Bonds-occurs between 2 non-metals,
involves the sharing of electrons
Differences: Matter properties, creation of lattices,
bonding type.
1 PPM= 1g per 10#g
Determining chemical formula based off weight
1. convert g to moles
2. divide by lowest # of moles
3. round out or multiply
Chapter Four
Molarity of solutions= amount of solute (in mol)/
volume of solution (per L)
Dilution Equation= MV= MV
Electrolytes=Solutions that conduct electricity well,
generally ions are the best.
Strength of acids= Ability to dissociate completely
Dissolved acids make great electrolytes
Titrations are not dilutions!
Convert amounts to moles then nd ratio then nd
appropriate amount of neutralization substance then
convert to grams
Redox- Ability to transfer electrons from one
substance to another
Reduction-gaining electrons
Oxidation-losing elections OILRIG
Oxidizing agent is, itself, reduced and vise-versa
Chapter Six
1st Law of Thermodynamics- All energy in the
universe is constant
reactants have high E than products
E`` > 0 E` < 0
reactants have lower E than products
Chapter Seven
Photon is a packet of light
Wavelength is the length of a wave
Amplitude is its height (relates to intensity)
The shortest possible wavelength is a gamma ray
Humans typically can see between 750 and 400 nm
Photoelectric effect- Chance for a photon to be
emitted when the proper frequency is shined on a
metal.
h= Plancks Constant= 6.626x10!34 JxS
c= speed of light= 3.00x10 m/s
m of an electron=9.11x10!31kg
V= c/I (frequency/speed of travel/Hz)
hv=1 (binding energy/energy to release a photon)
KEemitted photon= hv-1
emissions spectra= same for each particular
element, aids in identifying elements
de Broglie relation= I= h/mv
Ephoton=hc/I
E=hv
Quantum #s
principle=n (level electrons are at) (also # of sub-
levels)
angular momentum=l (species which orbit)(n-1)
magnetic number=ml (+,-, and 0 of l value)
Photon Calculations
En= -2.18x10!18(1/n)
AE=Enal-Einital
Chapter Five
Boyles Law PV=PV
Charles Law V/T=V/T
Avagadros Law V/n=V/n
Ideal Gas Law PV=nRT
R= .08206 L x atm/mol x K
DLPP=P+P+P...=Ptotal
Pa=XaPtotal (X=# moles in a substance)
P=Ftotal/A
Fcollision= m x 2V/AT
Grahms Law of Effusion rate a/rate b= vM b/ M a
Common
Diatomic or
Polyatomic
Molecules
H
N
Cl
P
S
SI Base Units and
Prex Multipliers
Length-M, Mass-Kg,
Time-Sec, Temp-K,Amt.-
Mol.
SI Prexes
Kilo (10!)
Deci (10!)
Centi (10!)
Milli (10!)
Micro (10!)
Nano (10!)
Pico (10!)
Acid/Base Strengths
Red denotes a weakness
Acids Bases
HCl NaOH
HBr LiOh
HI KOH
HNO Ca(OH)
HSO Ba(OH)
HClO NH
HCHO
HF
Redox Rules
1.Oxidation state of an atom in a free element is 0
2. Oxidation state of a monoatomic atom is equal
to its charge (i.e Na' is +1)
3. Neutral molecules have a charge of 0
-ion is equal to charge of ion
4. Metals always have positive oxidation states
Group 1A= +1
Group 2A= +2
5.In compounds
- O is -2
- H is +1
- F is -1
-Group 7A is -1 Entries at top take
-Group 6A is -2 precedence
-Group 5A is -3 those below
**Oxidation states of compounds must = 0
matter
variable composition?
pure substance mixture
separate into simpler substances? uniform?
element compound heterogeneous homogenous
pure substances
element compound
atomic molecular molecular Ionic
Chapter Ten
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
-Theory that lone pairs and bonds repel each other,
resulting a maximization of separation.
Electron Geometry-Lewis Structure Geometry
Molecular Geometry-Actual Geometry
Valance Bond Theory
-Electrons reside in quantum mechanical orbitals
-Hybridized orbitals are when two orbitals smosh
together
-This requires energy and central atoms are most
likely to hybridize
Sigma Only Bonds- sp3 (typically have only single
bonds)
Pi Bonds- sp2 (typically have a double bond)
Dual Pi Bonds- sp (typically in triple bonds)
Chapter Eleven
IM Forces
Dispersion-Temporary uctuation creating a
weak attraction
Dipole-Dipole- Molecules have a permanent
polarity allowing two polar parts to attract
-Hydrogen Bonding- With O,F,N. The H atoms
are strongly attracted to the O, F, N of other
molecules
Ion-Dipole- Extremely strong attraction of a
dipole to an ion.
Surface Tension-Tendency of Liquids to
minimize surface area by pushing and pulling.
Stronger IM forces result in higher ST.
Viscosity-Long molecules are sluggish
Capillary Action-Cohesive forces pull things up
tube.Only if stronger than adhesive forces.
Lewis Structures
-Write skeletal structure (H is terminal, more
electronegative is terminal) add single bonds
-Calculate # of electrons by adding valance
electrons
-Create Octets (or duet for H)
-Add double and triple bonds
-FC: # valance electrons-lone pair-
[1/2#bonds])
-Check for resonance structures (different
types)
Energy Orbitals
1s->2s->2p->3s->3p->4s->3d->4p->4s->4d
Gas Reactions
Suldes (S1)=H2S
Carbonates and Bicarbonates (CO3)=CO2
Sultes and Bisulte (SO2) + (SO2)2= SO2
Ammonium (NH4)=NH3