- 1 -

Chapter 4 Polynomial Functions

n
n
x a x a a x P + + + = ... ) (
1
1 0
is a polynomial in x where
n
a a a ,..., ,
1 0
are the
coefficients. If
n
n
x a n , 0 = is the leading term and the degree of the
polynomial is n.
Eg. 1 2 5 3 ) (
2 3 4
+ = x x x x P is a degree 4 polynomial or a quartic function.

We will consider cubic and quartic functions in this chapter.
Firstly we investigate expansions of the expressions of the form( )
n
b ax + .
Summation Notation

=
+
< e + + + =
n
m i
n m m i
n m and J n m where a a a a , , .....
1
Expanded form
Also known as sigma notation since is the upper case form of the Greek
letter sigma.
Eg1. Write
=
5
1
2
i
i
in expanded form and evaluate.



Eg2. Write
2 2 2
30 .... 2 1 + + + using summation notation.



Ex A2 pg 699 all
Binomial Theorem
The expanded form of
( )
n
b ax +
can be written in summation notation.
( ) ( )

|
|
.
|

\
|
= +
n
k
k
k n n
b ax
k
n
b ax
0


For example, the first, second and (r+1)th term are,
( ) ( ) ( )
r r n
r
n n
b ax
r
n
t b ax
n
t ax
n
t

+

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
1
2 1
,
1
,
0

Eg3. Find the coefficient of
20
x in the expansion of ( )
30
2 + x .



- 2 -
Eg4. Expand ( )
5
3 2 + x .





Eg5. Find the 8
th
term in the expansion of ( )
10
4 2 x .




Ex A3 pg 702 Q1(1/2), Q2(1/2), Q3, Q6(1/2), Q8

Equating Coefficients
If
n
n
n
n
x b x b x b b x Q x a x a x a a x P + + + + = + + + + = .... ) ( and ..... ) (
2
2 1 0
2
2 1 0
are
equal then their corresponding coefficients are equal.
i.e.
n n
b a b a b a b a = = = = ,...., , ,
2 2 1 1 0 0


Eg6. If ( ) R x for b x a x x e + + = + +
2 2
3 4 6 , find the values of a and b.






Eg7. Show that 8 6 6
2 3
+ + + x x x cannot be written in the form ( ) b c x a + +
3

for real numbers a, b and c.








Division of polynomials
This was studied last year. In general for non-zero polynomials,
) ( ) ( x D and x P , if ) (x P (the dividend) is divided by ) (x D (the divisor),
then there are unique polynomials, ) (x Q (the quotient) and ) (x R (the
remainder), such that;
- 3 -
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( x R x Q x D x P + =

Either the degree of 0 ) ( , ) ( ) ( = < x R or x D x R
When 0 ) ( = x R then ) (x D is called a divisor of ) (x P .
Eg8. Divide 8 27 9 3
2 4
+ x x x by 2 x .







The Remainder Theorem
If a polynomial ) (x P is divided by b ax + the remainder is |
.
|

\
|
a
b
P .
The Factor Theorem
b ax + is a factor of the polynomial ) (x P if and only if 0 =
|
.
|

\
|
a
b
P .
Eg9. Find the remainder when 1 2 3 ) (
2 3
+ + + = x x x x P is divided by 1 2 + x .



Eg10. Given 1 + x and 2 x are factors of b x ax x x + + 6 6
2 3 4
, find the
values of a and b.



- 4 -
Ex 4A: 2ac, 3ac, 4, 6, 8, 11, 12(1/2), 13(1/2), 14, 16(1/2)

Quadratic Functions (Parabolas)
General rule c bx ax y + + =
2
, to sketch on:
- If 0 > a it has a minimum turning point.
- If 0 < a it has a maximum turning point.
- c gives the y intercept.
- Axis of symmetry has equation
a
b
x
2

= .
- Solve 0
2
= + + c bx ax for x for x intercepts. This may be done by
factorising, completing the square or the quadratic formula,
a
ac b b
x
2
4
2

= .
- Remember - if discriminant 0 4
2
> ac b graph has 2 x intercepts.
- if discriminant 0 4
2
= ac b graph has 1 x intercept.
- if discriminant 0 4
2
< ac b graph has no x intercepts.

Eg11. Sketch 7 12 3 ) (
2
= x x x f showing all intercepts and turning point.










Ex 4B: Q1-4(1/2), 5, 6, 7, 9
Ex 4C: Q1(1/2), 3
- 5 -
( ) k h x a x f + + =
3
) (
) 1 (
) (
2
3
+ =
+ =
x x
x x x f
) 1 )( 1 (
) (
3
+ =
=
x x x
x x x f
y
x
y
x
Cubic Functions of the form
Consider
3
) ( x x f = . It has a zero gradient at (0,0).
We will look at cubics with a dilation and/or
translation applied to
3
) ( x x f = .


Eg12. Sketch ( ) 1 2 ) (
3
+ = x x f Eg13. Sketch ( ) 2 1 ) (
3
+ = x x f










Eg14. The graph of ( ) k h x a x f + + =
3
) ( has zero gradient at (1,1) and
passes through (0,4). Find a, h, k.




Ex 4D: Q1(1/3), 2, 4

Cubics of the form
d cx bx ax x f + + + =
2 3
) (

For now we will look at the various shapes of graphs of cubic functions of
this form. Later on Calculus will be required to determine turning points,
since they do not occur symmetrically between x intercepts as for
quadratics.

Eg15. Eg16.








y
x
- 6 -
) 2 ( ) 1 (
2 3 ) (
2
3
+ =
+ =
x x
x x x f
) 2 ( ) 1 (
2 3 ) (
2
3
+ =
=
x x
x x x f
y
x
y
x
Eg17. Eg18.










Cubic Equations
You need to be able to solve cubics to find x intercepts. Use remainder
and factor theorems to find factors, then you may need to divide to fully
factorise.
Eg19. Solve 30 11 4 0
2 3
+ = x x x






Ex 4E: Q1-2(1/2), 3

Determining rules for graphs of cubic functions
Eg20. Find the rule for:








Eg21. Find the rule for the cubic function whose graph passes through
(0,1) , (1,4) , (2,17) , (-1,2) of the form
d cx bx ax x f + + + =
2 3
) (
.





y
x
4
-3 1 4
- 7 -
Using TI-Nspire












- Or you can set up simultaneous equations first and then solve for a,
b, c and d.

Ex 4G: Q1, 2, 3a, 4bd, 5a

Quartic Functions
The general form is e dx cx bx ax x f + + + + =
2 3 4
) ( . Here are some graphs of
quartic functions.




















y
x
y = x
4

y = x
4

y
x
y = x
4
+ x
2

y = x
4
+ x
2

y
x
y = x
4
x
2

y = x
4
x
2

y
x
y = (x 1)
2
(x + 2)
2

y = (x 1)
2
(x + 2)
2

- 8 -






















Positive quartics will look like or .

Negative quartics will look like or .


Remember if ) (x f has factor; ( )
1
a x , graph cuts x axis at a x = .
( )
2
a x , graph bounces off x axis at a x = .
( )
3
a x , graph has inflection point on x
axis at a x = .
Eg22. If ( ) 1 + x and ( ) 2 x are factors of b x ax x x x f + + = 6 6 ) (
2 3 4
, find
a and b.







Ex 4F: 1 (CAS), 2: Ex 4G: Q6: Ex 4D Q3, 5(1/2)
y
x
y = (x 1)
3
(x + 2)
y = (x 1)
3
(x + 2)
y
x
y = (1 x)(2x + 1)
2
(4x 2)
y = (1 x)(2x + 1)
2
(4x 2)
y
x
y = (x + 2)(x + 1)(x 1)(x 4)
y = (x + 2)(x + 1)(x 1)(x 4)
- 9 -
Solving Literal Equations (Non-Linear)

Note: If n is an odd natural number, then
i) if
n n n
a or a b a b
1
= =
ii) if q p + are integers, then
q
p p
q
q
p
a or a b a b = =

Eg 23. Solve for x
a) a x =
7
5
b) a d bx = +
3






c) 0 12 7
2 2 3
= + x a ax x d) 0
2
= + k kx x









Simultaneous Equations
Eg 24. Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of each of the
following,
a)

b)

Ex 4H Q1 (1/2) 2, 3ac, 4(1/2), 5(1/2), 7, 8, 11, 14a, 15, 17
Review 4 - Odds