Construction Resins Introduction The early uses of epoxy and polyester resins in the construction industry were somewhat

limited, in that the type of resin/ hardener system, which had been developed mainly for casting prefabricated items, restricted the application and performance properties of the resin. Polymer science had developed rapidly after the war, but twenty years or aso passed before resin manufacturers had access to a wider range of materials that permitted the production of truly useful resin compositions. It seemed that, until the early seventies, epoxy and polyester resins were materials in search of a product; since then, with improvements in production technology, the ethos of the resin industry has changed, and now resin systems are often designed to meet performance criteria for specific applications. With this change has come the responsibility of the client to make sure not only that the correct resin product is specified but also that the product is used in the proper way. Resin Type Essentially, there are five broad types of resin used in construction: viz. epoxy, polyester, polymer emulsions, acrylic and polyurethane, the first three probably being used more often than the other two. Some of these have limited ranges of application, quite often because of the very nature of the chemistry involved when they react. Epoxy Resin Epoxies are invariably supplied as two reactive components, a liquid base resin and a liquid hardener, usually with a mix ratio in the range 1/1 to 4/1. Occasionally one or both of the liquids may be promixed with inert fillers to produce more of a paste-like material, and often a third component, consisting of dried, graded aggregates, is included in the formulation. The base resin itself is made up of large molecules that have epoxy groups (usually two) attached. These epoxy groups are very reactive towards most chemicals which have active hydrogen atoms e.g. amines, amides, organic acids etc., and intimate mixing of epoxy resin with one of these will result in (two) molecules of the chemical attaching itself to the resin via each of the (two) epoxy groups. If the chemical itself has two reactive hydrogen sites then the second site can react with an epoxy group on another resin molecule and we then have the beginnings of a hardening process, where resin and hardener molecules attach themselves successively to each other.

It is important to note that this successive attachment relies on having the correct number of epoxy groups (from the base resin) and active hydrogen sites (on the hardener); the presence of an excess of one or the other simply results in completely reacted resin or hardener being present in the final product, with the resultant diminution of physical and chemical properties. By tailoring the chemistry of the hardener molecule e.g. by having three (or more) active hydrogen sites, changing the size or length of the molecule, or by using a different type of molecule the physical properties of the final cured epoxy resin can be altered by the producer. Applications Of Epoxy The chemistry of the curing process, that is the comparatively slow successive addition of molecule to molecule, means that epoxies exhibit almost zero shrinkage during cure; it also means that curing can be slow, particularly at low (five degrees) temperatures, although where significant volumes of unfilled mixed resin and hardener are allowed to stand the exothermic reaction can produce autoacceleration, possible resulting in thermal disruption of the system. The choice of hardener will determine such aspects as curing time, bond to substrate chemical resistance and , in conjunction with fillers, the application and physical properties of the uncured and cured system. Products are available which: - Cover the whole range of viscosity, from extremely fluid to dense mortar, Exhibit optimized chemical resistance, - Can be flexible, resilient or rigid, - Can bond to damp or smooth substrates. This plethora of application and physical properties has resulted in the use of epoxies in a wide range of projects: - Underplate grouting of heavy machine beds and crane rails (B. Steel, Grouting of penstocks in dry docks, Devonport Dockyard). - Bedding of rail track and bridge bearings - (Kap Shui Mun) - Crack injection (various) - Flooring (skid-resistant, self-levelling and trowelled screeds), (Lotus cars, Bridge strengthening by steel and carbon fibre plate bonding.) Polyester Resin Polyester systems usually consist of a liquid resin and a small amount of powder hardener (benzoyl peroxide), although, depending on the application for which it is to be used the powder hardener may be either blended with dry, graded aggregate (the classic polyester fixing grout) or in a paste form (twin pack cartridges and capsules for fixings and rockbolts). Typically, the amount of active powder hardener is 1-3% of the mass of resin.

Polyesters differ from epoxies in that the two reactive components, in this case unsaturated polyester resin and styrene, are both contained within the resin component. Each of these contains double bond reactive sites, the polyester having several along its molecular backbone and the styrene having one, and all that is required to initiate the reaction is the formation of a sufficient number of free radicles. The free radicles are produced by the hardener (more correctly called the initiator) when it is mixed with the resin and they start an extremely rapid chain reaction which results in the crosslinking of each long polyester molecule to several others via styrene-styrene links. Small variations in the ratio of resin to hardenere have no effect on either the setting time or the final properties, and therefore it is not always necessary to mix full packs. The setting time of the resin depends on the speed at which the free radicles are produced and, apart from the effect of temperature, this reaction rate is predetermined by the manufacturer. Formulations are produced which have setting times from twenty seconds (capsules) to over thirty minutes (mix and pour grouts or trowellable mortars). Applications Of Polyesters It is the rapid rate and type of reaction that determines the advantages and disadvantages of polyesters over epoxies The curing rate means that the polyester will achieve approximately 85% of its ultimate properties after 4x the gel time, which makes it ideal for applications where rapid return to service is required. However, because most of the curing reaction takes place after the resin has gelled (become solid), shrinkage occurs, despite the presence of fillers, and great care must be exercised over the use of polyesters in large volume applications. Provided that they are used in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations, they do offer rapid strength development and much work is being done to reduce the shrinkage problem particularly in twin pack cartridge dispensing systems and mortars for the bedding of street furniture. - Mix and pour grouts: safety fence anchors (Highways Agency et al) - Twin pack cartridge: masonry stabilization (Railtrack et al) - Fast setting mortars: manhole frames (BT, Mercury) - Bearing pads for rock anchors (various) - Resin capsules: rockbolting in water transfer tunnels (Malaysia, HK) - Road and rail tunnels, cuttings etc. - Coal and mineral mining throughtout Europe, N. America, Africa and Australia Emulsion Polymers

Whilst not strictly speaking construction resins, SBR, arylic and styrene/ acrylic emulsions play a very important part in the modification of cement-based mortars used in the repair of damaged concrete and floor screeds. Formerly, they were supplied as liquid emulsions, usually but not always as part of a pre-bagged mortar system, but now that they are available as spray-dried powders they are often compounded with the cement, aggregate and other additives and only require the addition of water. Whist they have little or no effect on the setting time of the mortars (that is a function of the hydraulic cement system) they significantly improve not only application and adhesion properties but also decrease the water/ cement ratio and plastic cracking and increase performance properties such as impermeability, tensile strength and abrasion resistance. Acrylic Acrylic resins are very similar to polyesters in that they cure by the same rapid chain reaction process, but they differ in that the acrylic monomer has a much lower viscosity than polyesters. This means that high levels of carefully graded filler can be added to produce a fast curing floor screed or repair mortar that exhibits minimal shrinkage. Once again, due attention must be paid to the manufacturers instructions, particularly with respect to preparation, thickness and bay size. Polyurethane True polyurethane resins are supplied either as a two-part (liquid or paste) system comprising a base (polyol) and an isocyanate hardener, or as a partially reacted system which needs moisture from the atmosphere to conclude the process. In a sense, polyurethanes are similar to epoxies in the way the molecules of polyol and isocyanate react, but they can be difficult to use. Their major advantages are that they can be very flexible and tough and have excellent chemical resistance, and therefore they are used as sealants and flooring materials. Urethane-type formulations are also used as an underground water-stop, where pressure injection into running water instigates a virtually instantaneous solidifying reaction.