Home for Human Rights July 2013

Female ex-combatants of Sri Lanka Literature Review

In Sri Lankas post-conflict period, the female ex-combatants reintegration in the society is a complex issue. This is mainly explained by Tamils conservative society. Most family members of these women ex-combatants are unwilling to welcome them back into the family. Often, the family members declare, It will lead to security problems for the rest of the family, we feel ashamed if they come back. Additionally, finding a life partners for most of the unmarried women ex-combatants is almost impossible.1 Scholars, journalists or female ex-combatant interviews highlight those complexities. Since the subject of reintegration is very recent, very few articles have been writing on this subject. Mainly the academics, testimonies or journalists are focusing in denouncing the discriminations toward the female ex-combatants rather that offering concrete solutions. The following sources have been done through classical sources via Internet and legal databases. Keywords: female, ex-combatant, Sri Lanka, ex-fighters, DDR 1. Meet the leaders Programme on Womens Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (hereafter PWESCR), online: <http://www.pwescr.org/PWESCR%20Booklet_10-62011.pdf>. In its research, PWESCR relates Tamil women testimonies and their difficult situation post conflict. They are suffering from discrimination while attempting to return in their societies. According to the Sri Lanka, Minister for Prisons Reforms and Rehabilitation, ChandrasriGajadeera, merely 700 ex-combatants of 11 000 remain in the rehabilitation centers. Of these, an estimated 3000 were women. The Government has free 104 women excombatants.

DushiyanthiniKanagasabapathipillai, Post-war Sri Lanka denies rights of women ex-combatants, online <http://www.ethicsinaction.asia/archive/2013-ethics-inaction/2013V7N1/2013V7N1P8>.MsDushiYanthiniKanagasabapathipillaiis a journalist since 20 years in Sri Lanka. She was the first Tamil woman journalist in Sri Lanka who is able travel on her own to the war zone.

Home for Human Rights July 2013 2. SRI LANKA: Fewer "I do's" for former female rebels, online <http://www.irinnews.org/report/92017/sri-lankafewer-i-do-s-for-former-female-rebels>. A female ex-combatants in northern Sri Lanka has accepted to share her rough experience when she is returning to civilian life. She testifies the discrimination she has undergone (e.g. lack of marriage options as well as education and job opportunities). 3. Miranda Alison, Women as Agents of Political Violence: Gendering Security (2004) Security Dialogue, v. 35, no. 4, pp. 447-463 online:<http://sdi.sagepub.com/content/35/4/447.short> and same subject in 2009 Women and Political Violence: Female Combatants in Ethno-national Conflict. This article confronts the common opinion that women because of their gender are necessarily more peaceful than men in armed conflicts. In taking the two examples of female combatants in Sri Lanka and Northern Ireland, it is stressed that the role of the female combatant is not as evident that literature usually relate. Their roles are confusing and prove a tension between different conceptualizations of societal security namely at the national and community level. Anti-state, liberatory nationalisms generally offer more room (ideologically and practically) for women to contribute in the war than do institutionalized state or pro-state nationalisms, and this can be seen in the cases of the LTTE in Sri Lanka. It would have been interesting to integrate the tool of legal pluralism into this analysis. 4. Vandana Bhatia&W. Andy Knight, Female Suicide Terrorism in South Asia: Comparing the Tamil Separatists and Kashmir Insurgents, (2011) South Asian Survey vol. 18 issue 1 p. 7-26 online: <http://sas.sagepub.com/content/18/1/7.abstract>. In this article the authors contrast two conflicts in South Asiacivil war in Sri Lanka and the insurgency in Kashmirto examine the enabling conditions for female suicide terrorism in the former, and the lack thereof in the latter. Theirs conclusions is that female suicide terrorism is a result of plethora of factors and elements. It is shown that the decision needs to be put in the specific sociocultural, political and economical context. This analysis is interesting to explain why communities are reluctant to reintegrate female excombatants. 5. Jordan, Kim &Denov, Myriam, Birds of Freedom? Perspectives on Female Emancipation and Sri Lankas Liberation Tigers of Tamil

Home for Human Rights July 2013 Eelam (2007) Journal of International Women's Studies, 9(1), 4262. online: <http://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol9/iss1/3>. The authors inform us that females have always play a crucial role in combating the hostility forces both in international conflicts and internal conflicts. Whereas some academics argue that recent armed conflicts have driven women into new positions in the society, enabling them to transform their social situations, shifting their future and challenging the traditional community values, others clearly doubt that those females combatant are attaining emancipation. As a notable example, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in Sri Lanka recurrently recruited female cadres. It gives an interesting context to look at issues of female empowerment in the context of armed struggle. With four Sri Lankans living in Canada statements, this article defends that the participation of females in unconventional military roles represents a radical transformation in behavior expected of Tamil women. Again it gives some enlightenment about why women are facing discriminations while they reintegrating their communities. Conventional societies have imposed separate and specific role for women and men. With these position combatant normally connected to men, the gender construction is challenged and not necessarily fully accepted in post-conflict situation. 6. Miranda Alison, Cogs in the wheel? Women in the liberation tigers of Tamil Eelam (2003) Civil Wars, volume 6, Issue 4, online: <http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/people/alison/ research/cogs_in_the_wheel/cogs_in_the_wheel.pdf>. This article studies women's participation as combatants in the Sri Lankan Tamil guerrilla organisation the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. It explains the reason for women's to enroll with the LTTE. It also shows the perception of gender construction by LTTE and how women are transforming and challenging those constructions. The traditional role of women as described in International Humanitarian Law conventions is seriously defied. Testimonies show that women also have a strong nationalism feeling that they are ready to die for it. However it this strength that prevent them to be fully reintegrate in their society after war. Indeed often women have been a tool useful to fight the enemy but she has to suffer from this emancipation while trying to fit again in her community. A relevant testimony by LTTE woman ex-combatant: () the experience of these other struggles has shown that after war ceased, usually women were expected to resume their

Home for Human Rights July 2013 traditional roles or were restricted to supportive political and public positions. Liyanage asserts, therefore, that one is justified in concluding that the LTTE movement has been projected and defined by men particularly by Prabhakaran, executed by men and that women fight to fulfill mens nationalistic aspirations. 7. Valkyrie (contributor to the ground views website), Female ex-combatants of LTTE in post-war Sri Lanka February 2012 online: <http://groundviews.org/2012/02/24/female-excombatants-of-ltte-in-post-war-sri-lanka/>. The contributor of this website clarifies the main challenge that female ex-combatant have to face after returning home. The lack of employment and education, which impacts on their ability to live a normal life, is the main issue. Additionally, marriages options for female ex-combatants who fought with the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam are also problematic in the very conservative Tamil society. The estimated number of female ex-combatants is over 3000. Rehabilitated ex-combatants are suffering while looking for a job because employers are reluctant to hire them. They are not considered as normal women because they were part of the LTTE. Those women are too often considered as trouble makers and not seen as the common women anymore. 8. Video Female ex-combatants of LTTE in post-war Sri Lanka, online: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yr8ioJqIeLo>. In 2011, two years after the end of war, female ex-combatants are still collectively struggling to seek social acceptance from a community that in the past celebrated their role as "brave mothers and sisters" when they fought on the battlefield. Testimonies shows that theirs role as a combatant during the war has challenged their traditional role in the society. When they attempt to reintegrate they dont belong anymore where they used to. They are facing discriminations from the public and private spheres. The society at large is rejecting them on the basis that they took arms and fight along with men. Women has to fulfill the conventional role e.g. being a submissive wife and a perfect mother. 9. The Social Architects South Asia,Haunted By Her Yesterdays, March 2013 <online: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nSSv9Kk3tkI>. This documentary reveals how women have been obliged to deny

Home for Human Rights July 2013 their identity. They were struggling between the Government of Sri Lanka, which believes they betrayed the state and their community, which rejecting them. Those women fought alongside men as members of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) during Sri Lanka's thirty-year civil war. From protectors and defenders of their families, villages and nation, thousands of female ex-combatants have came back home to attempt to move on with their life and embrace common aspiration including finding a job and get married and build a family. "Haunted by Her Yesterdays" is addressing the core of those women sufferings --This short documentary is a call for help and adapted programme to support the ex-combatant to move on with their life in the specific context of post conflict in Sri Lanka. 10. Alternative report on the implementation of the UN Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, online: <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ECC HR_Sri_Lanka_for_the_session_CEDAW48.pdf>. Sri Lanka presented its combined 5th, 6th, and 7th periodic reports to the CEDAW Committee on the 26 January 2011. This report give the women situation post-conflict. It is also investigating whether a national policy or action plan is envisaged to address the resettlement and reintegration into society of IDPs, with special measures to address the concerns and needs of female excombatants or detainees.Moreover the CEDAW Committee is asking for accounts concerning the long delay in processing cases of domestic/sexual violence. It raised the issue in relation to excombatants and asked the government why it has not implemented the National Action Plan on Re-integration of Ex-combatants drafted in 2009. 11. ILO, National Framework Proposal for Reintegration of Ex-combatants into Civilian Life in Sri Lanka, online: <http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_emp/@e mp_ent/@ifp_crisis/documents/publication/wcms_116478. pdf>. The Ministry of Disaster Management and Human Rights is mandated to formulate and implement policies, programmes and projects for disaster mitigation, response and recovery. ILO had draft this project document to support ex-combatant reintegration in the society. Support will involve a systematic assessment of gender-specific needs, and ensure genderresponsiveness in all phases and activities. Therefore, as an example ILO incorporate the need for the basic needs kit for female

Home for Human Rights July 2013 ex-combatants such as basic provisions for female hygiene products, baby supplies etc. In the event of cash payments for male ex-combatants, depositing cash disbursements in bank accounts that are jointly held by a husband and wife has been documented as a best practice in many countries and will be implemented in Sri Lanka. The programme is focusing on the material aspect of the reintegration and fulfills basic needs. However not much is said on the structural psychological aspect of returning in a home that discriminates female ex-combatant. 12. Jo Baker Reconciling Truth and Gender, Lessons for Sri Lanka, online: <http://www.jobakeronline.com/wpcontent/uploads/2011/10/Reconciling-Truth-and-GenderJo-Baker1.pdf>. This master thesis is exploring the need for gender sensitive truth commissioning following the conflict, and to assess key legal and practical obstacles, in reference to the international legal framework on non-discrimination. Drawing on critiques of Sri Lankas past and currentCommissions of Inquiry, and on best practice, it then briefly proposes ways to place Tamil women more centrally, and therefore legally, within the transitional narrative. 13. De Silva, Mada K Re-integration of Former Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam Combatants into Civilian Society in Post-War Sri Lanka 2012, online: https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=720328, March 2012. This master thesis describes the way and challenges to go forward and it shares some ideas to integrate the ex-combatants in the society. He recalls that a national plan is needed and responsibility lies with the government in rehabilitating ex-combatants is to ensure a long-term, results-oriented process. Considering the highly sensitive status quo of the issue at the aftermath of its conflict, the Sri Lankan government needs to contribute its share to rebuild the nation. Therefore, this thesis analyses the programme put in place by the government. The author gives details on the bureau rehabilitation programs projects. It has conducted for adult female ex-combatants include: classes for General Certificate of Education (Ordinary Level) and General Certificate of Education (Advanced Level) examinations, language training (Sinhala and English), typing shorthand for clerical work, diploma in e.g. nursery management, tailoring programs. 14. Speech of Shavendra Silva at UN, Thursday, October 28, 2010 Govt's reintegration programme for ex-combatants unparalleled online: <http://www.priu.gov.lk/news_update/Current_Affairs/ca2

Home for Human Rights July 2013 01010/20101028govt_reintegration_prog_for_ex_conbanta nta_unparallelled.htm>. Major general Shavendra Silva is addressing to the UN and explained the efforts made by the government of Sri Lanka and its concerted actions to rehabilitate child combatants and girls child combatant: With the defeat of terrorism in May 2009, through a massive humanitarian rescue mission, the Government took concerted action to rehabilitate and reintegrate all former child combatants. Among them, 351 were girls. Knowing that these children had been forced to take up guns instead of school books, the Government of Sri Lanka adopted a prudent, practical and compassionate approach towards their reintegration. Such an approach was based on the principles of women empowerment, livelihood training, psycho-social support, and above all, restorative justice. For those who missed the opportunity of experiencing a childhood and a formal education, arrangements have been made through the catch up schools to enable them to complete the General Certificate of Education examinations, irrespective of their current age. The state and society view them as victims and not as perpetrators. The lessons learnt and the good practices adopted by Sri Lanka in the arduous process of rapidly restoring the future of these children, deserve appreciation. Ours is a success story that has no parallel elsewhere. 15. ChandaniJayatillekeEx-Tamil Fighters Start Factory Life in Sri Lanka, online: <http://womensenews.org/story/peace/100713/ex-tamilfighters-start-factory-life-in-sri-lanka#.UecBF-BH3Ro>. Short article showing how Sri Lankan women who were Tamil combatants a year ago are leaving rehabilitation camps and moving into the work force. Four hundred just arrived at a hostel for workers in a factory that ships clothes to Target and Wal-Mart. 16. Murry, Rebecca, Scarred by Sri Lankas war with Tamil tigers, female ex-fighters build new lives, (2010) The Christian Science Monitor (Boston) online: <http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-SouthCentral/2010/1029/Scarred-by-Sri-Lanka-s-war-with-TamilTigers-female-ex-fighters-build-new-lives>. This article is highlighting the women fight for the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka's 26-year war. Significant gaps in education, psychological problems, and physical injuries make job opportunities quite challenging if not impossible.

Home for Human Rights July 2013 16. Sonny Inbaraj Krishnan, The transition of teenage girls and young women from ex-combatants to civilian life: a case study in Sri Lanka2011, Volume 9, Number 2, Page 137 144. This masters thesis is based on an empirical field research of 23 Tamil Tiger women and young women ex-combatants interviews, between April to June 2010. The author has done a good job in describing various women backgrounds. It is interesting to see the condition of women with disabilities. Even though Sri Lankas National Action Plan for the Reintegration of Ex-Combatants includes disabled daughters, disabled female ex-combatants barely perceive support. The author argument is that funding is allocated on programmes that prevent post-conflict trust between the Tamil population and the Sri Lankan government, but rather reconciling ex-combatants with local communities. 17. Ruwan M. Jayatunge, Psychosocial Rehabilitation Of The War Affected Sri Lankan Combat Veterans (2013) Colombo Telegraph DrJayatunge is explaing the reasons why Sri Lanka is psychologically challenged by the adverse effects of the Eelam War. A large number of combatants faced the painful armed conflicts consequences for over thirty years. Various trauma related ailments such as PTSD, Adjustment Disorders, Depression , Somatization etc have found among the combatants. The author explained why it is crucial for the government to pay attention on the needs of the veterans of the war. It is essential that therapy be offered to them in order to secure their reintegration in their home and society. They and their family should received proper support to rebuild trust and faith in the society.

18. Professor Sultan Barakat An Evaluation of Post War Recovery in Eastern Sri Lanka Batticaloa District (2011) online: <http://www.york.ac.uk/media/politics/prdu/documents/S ri%20Lanka%20Report%20-%20Publish.pdf>.

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Professor Sultan Barakat, Director Post-war Reconstruction and Development Unit at York University have donea field study research in Sri Lanka. His conclusion is that the post-conflict situation in Sri Lanka is very complex. In his research attention is also paid to women and to excombatant. For example he put in evidence that communities took care of female and male ex-combatants in a different way, with women suffering several gender-specific difficulties with their reintegration, including the fact that families are suspicious of having them at home because the government is controlling, and of husbands refusing to accept them back if they were sexuallyassaultedwhen being with LTTE forces. 19. TahiraGonsalves, Gender and Peacebuilding: A Sri Lankan Case Study (2004) The International Development Research Center, online: < api.ning.com/files/...__/SituationUpdate103WomenandDDR.doc>. This paper examines and provides a critique of the theory and practice of gender and peacebuilding, using the specific case of female combatants of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in Sri Lanka. This has been donein the framework of the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325, as well as the practice of Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) as aspects of gender and peacebuilding.

20. Doctor BishnuPathak, Women and DDR I the World(2011), Peace and Conflict Studies Center. The paper provides an overview of the Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) practices worldwide. It questions theaims of the United Nations initiate DDR programs in post-conflict countries. It challenges the scale and consequences of the various roles of ex-combatants, particularly the women excombatants in a transitional society. It aims to compare and explore some of the best and worst practices of DDR and militarized masculinity before, during, and after the violence. It give the specific example of women in Sri Lanka and when the female ex-combatant returned home it was a compulsory for them to take their traditional role and for example to wear traditional civilian clothes to respond and fit in the formalsociety construction. On the other side, they gained respect articulately for the time being, but society totally rejected for their roles as civilian house wives. 21. Sri Lanka: former Tamil Tigers still searching for

Home for Human Rights July 2013 reconciliation (June 2012) The guardian, <http://www.guardian.co.uk/globaldevelopment/2012/jun/04/sri-lanka-tamil-tigersreconciliation>. online:

The guardian relates the post-conflict situation in reintegrating the ex-fighters. Most of the former combatants are struggling economically and regret the lack of support for them. After the conflict, ex-combatants have been asked to complete a six-stage rehabilitation programme that could last up to two years if they wished to receive general amnesty, otherwise they would face terrorism charges. Little information are given about this reintegration programme and its contents. 22. Death, the name of the game online: <http://www.defence.lk/new.asp?fname=Death_the_name _of_the_game_20121105_08>. 2012 Women cadres of the LTTE in Sri Lanka are trying to move on after the battle. ShanikaSriyanandatestifieshow she was dragged by th LTTE to be a combatant. It shows the solidarity between women and the process in trying to fit in the community again. Very few received full support and a decent welcoming. It is shown that young women are talented and all they need is to benefit from appropriate measures to help them to work and start a new life. 23. International Crisis Group SRI LANKAS NORTH I: THE DENIAL OF MINORITY RIGHTS Asia Report N219 16 March 2012, online: <http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/asia/southasia/sri-lanka/219-sri-lankas-north-i-the-denial-ofminority-rights>. The International Crisis Group has been written a research denouncing the challenges face by the community in the Northern part of the country after the end of the hostilities. Women excadres, report they dont sense violence from other community members upon their return (though some NGO workers do report that some former female detainees find it difficult to get married). We have no problem in settling down as far as our families and villagers are concerned. There are one or two persons who have been spoken to angrily by some affected mothers, but that is only one or two in the thousands that have been released.