tense

Affirmative/Negative/Question

Simple Present

A: He speaks. N: He does not speak. Q: Does he speak?

Present Progressive

A: He is speaking. N: He is not speaking. Q: "s he speaking?

Use Signal Words action in the present taking al ays, place once, never every !, or several times never, facts normally, actions taking often, seldom, place one after sometimes, usually another if sentences action set by a type " #"f " talk, !$ timetable or schedule action taking place in the moment of speaking at the moment, action taking %ust, %ust no , place only for a &isten', &ook', limited period of no , right no time action arranged for the future action in the past taking place once, never or several times actions taking place one after another

Simple Past

A: He spoke. N: He did not speak. Q: Did he speak?

Past Progressive

A: He as speaking. N: He as not speaking. Q: -as he speaking?

action taking place in the middle of another action action going on at a certain time in the past actions taking place at the same hen, hile, as long as time

yesterday, ( minutes ago, in )**+, the other day, last ,riday if sentence type "" #"f " talked, !$

Present Perfect Simple

A: He has spoken. N: He has not spoken. Q: Has he spoken?

action in the past that is interrupted by another action putting emphasis on the result action that is still going on action that stopped recently finished action already, ever, %ust, never, not that has an influence on the yet, so far, till no , up to present

Table of English Tenses English Tenses E amples

E planation action that takes place once, never or several times actions that happen one after another state action going on at that moment actions taking place at the same time Past Simple Past !uture !uture " Simple He ill / is going to He played football He plays football play football every every .uesday. every .uesday. .uesday. He ill play football He played football and He plays football and and then he ill go then he ent home. then he goes home. home. He loved football. He loves football. He ill love football. Past Progressive Present Progressive !uture " Progressive He as playing He ill be playing He is playing football. football. football. He as playing He ill be playing He is playing football football and she as football and she ill and she is atching. atching. be atching. Present Perfect Past Perfect Simple !uture "" Simple Simple He has on five matches so far. Present Perfect Progressive He ill have on five matches by then. !uture "" Progressive Present Simple Present

action taking place before a certain He had on five moment in time0 matches until that day. emphasises the result Past Perfect Progressive action taking place before a certain He had been playing moment in time #and football for ten years. beyond$, emphasises the duration

He ill have been He has been playing playing football for ten football for ten years. years.

English Tenses #raphic $omparison

%egend

action that takes place once, never or several times actions that happen one after another actions that suddenly take place action that started before a certain moment and lasts beyond that moment actions taking place at the same time action taking place before a certain moment in time puts emphasis on the result action taking place before a certain moment in time puts emphasis on the course or duration of the action

moment in time

period of time

&esult

$ourse / 'uration

English Tenses Active

%ist of "rregular (erbs

abcdefghklmp1rstu "nfinitive alight arise a ake be bear beat become beget begin bend bereave beseech bet bid bide bind bite bleed bless blo break breed bring broadcast build burn burst bust buy can cast catch choose 2 Simple Past alighted, alit arose a oke, a aked as, ere bore beat became begot began bent bereaved, bereft besought, beseeched bet, betted bade, bid bade, bided bound bit bled blessed, blest ble broke bred brought broadcast, broadcasted built burnt, burned burst bust, busted bought could cast caught chose Past Participle alighted, alit arisen a oken, a aked been borne, born beaten, beat become begotten begun bent bereaved, bereft besought, beseeched bet, betted bidden, bid, bade bided bound bitten bled blessed, blest blo n broken bred brought broadcast, broadcasted built burnt, burned burst bust, busted bought #kein 3articiple$ cast caught chosen

cleave cling clothe come cost creep cro cut deal dig do dra dream drink drive d ell eat fall feed feel fight find flee fling fly forbid forecast forget forsake free4e geld get gild give gna go grind grip gro hang have

cleft, cleaved, clove clung clothed, clad came cost crept cro ed cut dealt dug did dre dreamt, dreamed drank drove d elt, d elled ate fell fed felt fought found fled flung fle forbad, forbade forecast, forecasted forgot forsook fro4e gelded, gelt got gilded, gilt gave gna ed ent ground gripped, gript gre hung had

cleft, cleaved, cloven clung clothed, clad come cost crept cre , cro ed cut dealt dug done dra n dreamt, dreamed drunk driven d elt, d elled eaten fallen fed felt fought found fled flung flo n forbid, forbidden forecast, forecasted forgotten forsaken fro4en gelded, gelt got, gotten gilded, gilt given gna ed, gna n gone ground gripped, gript gro n hung had

hear heave he hide hit hold hurt keep kneel knit kno lay lead lean leap learn leave lend let lie light lose make may mean meet melt mo pay pen plead prove put 1uit read rid ride ring rise run sa

heard heaved, hove he ed hid hit held hurt kept knelt, kneeled knitted, knit kne laid led leant, leaned leapt, leaped learnt, learned left lent let lay lit, lighted lost made might meant met melted mo ed paid pent, penned pled, pleaded proved put 1uit, 1uitted read rid, ridded rode rang rose ran sa ed

heard heaved, hove he ed, he n hidden, hid hit held hurt kept knelt, kneeled knitted, knit kno n laid led leant, leaned leapt, leaped learnt, learned left lent let lain lit, lighted lost made #kein 3articiple$ meant met molten, melted mo n, mo ed paid pent, penned pled, pleaded proven, proved put 1uit, 1uitted read rid, ridded ridden rung risen run sa n, sa ed

say see seek sell send set se shake shall shear shed shine shit shoe shoot sho shred shrink shut sing sink sit slay sleep slide sling slink slit smell smite so speak speed spell spend spill spin spit split spoil spread

said sa sought sold sent set se ed shook should sheared shed shone shit, shitted, shat shod, shoed shot sho ed shred, shredded shrank, shrunk shut sang sank sat sle slept slid slung slunk slit smelt, smelled smote so ed spoke sped, speeded spelt, spelled spent spilt, spilled spun spat split spoilt, spoiled spread

said seen sought sold sent set se n, se ed shaken #kein 3articiple$ shorn, sheared shed shone shit, shitted, shat shod, shoed shot sho n, sho ed shred, shredded shrunk shut sung sunk sat slain slept slid slung slunk slit smelt, smelled smitten so n, so ed spoken sped, speeded spelt, spelled spent spilt, spilled spun spat split spoilt, spoiled spread

spring stand steal stick sting stink stride strike string strive s ear s eat s eep s ell s im s ing take teach tear telecast tell think thro thrust tread understand ake ear eave ed eep et in ind ring rite

sprang, sprung stood stole stuck stung stank, stunk strode struck strung strove s ore s eat, s eated s ept s elled s am s ung took taught tore telecast, telecasted told thought thre thrust trod understood oke, aked ore ove ed, edded ept et, etted on ound rung rote

sprung stood stolen stuck stung stunk stridden struck strung striven s orn s eat, s eated s ept s ollen, s elled s um s ung taken taught torn telecast, telecasted told thought thro n thrust trodden understood oken, aked orn oven ed, edded ept et, etted on ound rung ritten

5imple present is also called present simple.

.he simple present e6presses an action in the present taking place once, never or several times. "t is also used for actions that take place one after another and for actions that are set by a timetable or schedule. .he simple present also e6presses facts in the present.

be
7se:

am ith the personal pronoun "" is ith the personal pronouns he, she or it #or ith the singular form of nouns$ are ith the personal pronouns e, you or they #or ith the plural form of nouns$

e6ample: " am hungry. affirmative negative " " am. " am not. he/she/it He is. He is not. you/ e/they 8ou are. 8ou are not. )uestion Am "? "s he? Are you?

have
7se:

have ith the personal pronouns ", you, e und they #or ith the plural form of nouns$ has ith the personal pronouns he, she, it #or ith the singular form of nouns$

e6ample: " have a dog. / " have got a dog. 9have got9 is mainly used in :ritish ;nglish. 8ou can also use 9have9 on its o n #especially in American ;nglish$. "n this case, ho ever, you must form negative sentences and 1uestions ith the au6iliary verb 9do9 #see 9All other verbs9$. positiv "/you/ e/they he/she/it " have got. / " have. He has got. / He has. negativ )uestion " have not got. / " do not Have " got? / Do " have. have? He has not got. / He does not Has he got? / Does he have. have?

All other verbs

7se:

the infinite verb #play$ ith the personal pronouns I, you, we and they #or ith the plural form of nouns$ the verb < s #plays$ ith the personal pronouns he, she, it #or ith the singular form of nouns$ negative " do not play. He does not play. )uestion Do " play? Does he play?

affirmative "/you/ e/they " play. he/she/it He plays.

Tips on ho* to form negative sentences and )uestions Negative sentences and 1uestions are formed ith the au6iliary verb 9do9. .he =rd person singular of 9do9 is 9does9. .his means that in negative sentences and 1uestions the 9s9 of the main verb is placed behind 9do9.

Simple Present + E ceptions in Spelling %evel, elementar.he =rd person singular is usually formed by adding s. :ut there are a fe e6ceptions to the rule:

The verbs can, may, might, must remain the same in all forms. So don/t add s.
e6ample: he can, she may, it must

(erbs ending in o or a sibilant 0ch1 sh1 s1 2 add es instead of s.

e6ample: do > he does, ash > she ashes

A final y after a consonant becomes ie before s.

e6ample: orry > he orries 3ut, A final y after a vowel #a, e, i, o, u$ is not modified. e6ample: play > he plays

Simple Present + Short !orms

affirmative " am ;nglish. ? "/m ;nglish. -e are ;nglish.? -e/re ;nglish. He is ;nglish. ? He/s ;nglish. " have got a dog. ? "/ve got a dog. He has got a dog. ? He/s got a dog. negative " am not ;nglish. ? "/m not ;nglish. -e are not ;nglish. ? -e/re not / -e aren/t ;nglish. He is not ;nglish. ? He/s not / He isn/t ;nglish. " have not got a dog. ? "/ve not got a dog. / " haven/t got a dog. He has not got a dog. ? He/s not got a dog. / He hasn/t got a dog. " do not play tennis. ? " don/t play tennis He does not play tennis ? He doesn/t play tennis.

Simple Present + Use

facts #something is generally kno n to be true$

.he sun never sets in the east or south or north, but al ays in the est. ;6ercise .he sun sets in the est. action in the present taking place once, never or several times @olin plays football regularly > every .uesday. "n ;nglish, signal ords are often used, e.g.: always, never, seldom, often, regularly, every Monday. @olin al ays plays soccer on .uesdays. actions in the present taking place one after another ;6ercise

,irst one action takes place and then the other. ;6ercise

5he takes her bag and leaves. action set by a time table or schedule

Although the action takes place in the future, it takes place regularly and is set by a time table. ;6ercise .he train leaves at * pm. verbs e6pressing states, possession, senses, emotions and mental activity -hen you love someone, that9s a state, a fact or emotion, but not an action #like running for e6ample$. -henever you ant to e6press a state, possession, sense or emotions, use the simple form #not the progressive$. .he follo ing ords all belong to this group: be #state$ believe #mental activity$ belong #possession$ hate #feeling and emotion$ hear #senses$ like #feeling and emotion$ love #feeling and emotion$ mean #mental activity$ prefer #mental activity$ remain #state$ reali4e #mental activity$ " love her. "ch liebe sie. see #senses$ seem #feeling and emotion$ smell #senses$ think #mental activity$ understand #mental activity$ ant #feeling and emotion$

ish #feeling and emotion$

Simple Present + Signal Words

al ays every ... often normally usually sometimes seldom never

Simple Present + Summar!orm

be
affirmative negative " " am. " am not. he/she/it He is. He is not. you/ e/they 8ou are. 8ou are not. )uestion Am "? "s he? Are you?

have
affirmative "/you/ e/they he/she/it " have got. / " have. He has got. / He has. negative )uestion " have not got. / " do not Have " got? / Do " have. have? He has not got. / He does not Has he got? / Does he have. have?

other verbs

affirmative "/you/ e/they " play. he/she/it He plays.

negative " do not play. He does not play.

)uestion Do " play? Does he play?

E ceptions in Spelling
E ception E ample .he verbs can, may, might, must remain the same in all forms. he can, she may, it must 5o don9t add s. Aerbs ending in o or a sibilant #ch, sh, s, 6$ add es instead of s. do > he does, ash > she ashes A final y after a consonant becomes ie before s. #but: don9t orry > he orries #but: play > he modify y after a vowel$ plays$

Short !orms
affirmative " am ;nglish. ? "/m ;nglish. -e are ;nglish.? -e/re ;nglish. He is ;nglish. ? He/s ;nglish. " have got a dog. ? "/ve got a dog. He has got a dog. ? He/s got a dog. negative " am not ;nglish. ? "/m not ;nglish. -e are not ;nglish. ? -e/re not / -e aren/t ;nglish. He is not ;nglish. ? He/s not / He isn/t ;nglish. " have not got a dog. ? "/ve not got a dog. / " haven/t got a dog. He has not got a dog. ? He/s not got a dog. / He hasn/t got a dog. " do not play tennis. ? " don/t play tennis He does not play tennis ? He doesn/t play tennis.

Use
E ample @olin al ays plays soccer on action in the present taking place once, never or several times .uesdays. actions in the present taking place one after another 5he takes her bag and leaves. facts #something is generally kno n to be true$ .he sun sets in the est. action set by a timetable or schedule .he train leaves at * pm. verbs of possession, senses, emotions and mental activity " love her. Use

T-pical Signal Words

al ays every ... often normally

usually sometimes seldom never

Present Progressive - Introduction

.he present progressive puts emphasis on the course or duration of an action.

.he present progressive is used for actions going on in the moment of speaking and for actions taking place only for a short period of time. "t is also used to e6press development and actions that are arranged for the near future. 3resent progressive is also kno n as present continuous.

Present Progressive + !orm

7se a form of to be and the infinite verb plus -ing. 7se:

am ith the personal pronoun I is ith the personal pronouns he, she or it #or the singular form of nouns$ are ith the personal pronouns you, we, they #or the plural form of nouns$ affirmative " am playing. He is playing. negative " am not playing. He is not playing.

)uestion Am " playing? "s he playing? Are you you, e, they 8ou are playing. 8ou are not playing. playing? " he, she, it Tips on ho* to form negative sentences and )uestions "n negative sentences, e put not bet een the form of be and the verb.

"n 1uestions, e simply s op the places of subject and the form of be.

Present Progressive + E ceptions in Spelling

A single1 silent e at the end of the *ord is dropped before ing.
e6ample: come > coming " am coming home. 8ou are coming home. He is coming home. 3ut: ee at the end of the ord is not changed e6ample: agree > agreeing

The final consonant after a short1 stressed vo*el is doubled before ing.
e6ample: sit > sitting " am sitting on the sofa. 8ou are sitting on the sofa. He is sitting on the sofa.

The letter l as final consonant after a vo*el is al*a-s doubled before ing.
e6ample: travel > travelling " am travelling around. 8ou are travelling around. He is travelling around. Bind: .his applies only for :ritish ;nglish0 in American ;nglish there is usually only one l.

An ie at the end of a *ord becomes y before ing.

e6ample: lie > l-ing " am lying in bed. 8ou are lying in bed. He is lying in bed.

Present Progressive + Short !orms

affirmative negative I am playing. > "/m playing. I am not playing. > "/m not playing. He is playing. > He/s playing. He is not playing. > He/s not playing. / He isn/t playing. We are playing. > -e/re playing. We are not playing. > -e/re not playing. /-e aren/t playing.

Present Progressive + Use

Actions taking place at the moment of speaking #no $

.he action is going on no . 5ignal ords like now, at the moment are often used to emphasise that the action is taking place at the moment of speaking. 5ignal ords are not really necessary, ho ever, as this is already e6pressed by the tense itself. He is playing football. ;6ercise Arrangements for the near future "n the e6ample you can see that the tickets are already bought. 5o e are talking about an arrangement for the near future. .o make clear that the action is not going on no , e usually use signal ords like tonight, tomorrow, next Friday, at noon.

;6ercise Actions taking place only for a limited period of time Here e are talking about a time limit. Cim does not usually ork in the firm, he is still at school and ants to earn some e6tra money during his holidays. .o make clear that there is a time limit, e usually use signal ords, e.g. this week month year. Cim is helping in his brother9s firm ;6ercise this eek. Actions taking place around no #but not at the moment of speaking$ .his action takes place around no and only for a limited period of time, but not at the moment of speaking. -e don9t have to use signal ords here, but e often find signal ords in such sentences, e.g. now, at the moment. "9m studying for my e6ams. Development, changing situations ;6ercise .he sentence describes a development from one situation to another. 5ignal ords are not that common here, only sometimes the change of situation is emphasised by using for e6ample more and .he population more. of @hina is rising very fast.

"9m going to the theatre tonight.

;6ercise

Present Progressive + Signal Words

Actions ta4ing place at the moment of spea4ing 0no*

at the moment no / %ust no / right no &isten' &ook'

Arrangements for the near future

in the morning / in the afternoon / in the evening at noon / tonight tomorro ne6t ...

Actions ta4ing place onl- for a limited period of time

this eek / this month / this year

Actions ta4ing place around no* 0but not at the moment of spea4ing2

at the moment no / %ust no / right no

'evelopment1 changing situations

more and more

Present Progressive + Summar!orm

)uestion " Am " playing? he, she, it "s he playing? Are you you, e, they 8ou are playing. 8ou are not playing. playing? affirmative " am playing. He is playing. negative " am not playing. He is not playing.

E ceptions in Spelling
E eption silent e is dropped before ing #but: ee is not changed$ final consonant after short, stressed vo el is doubled final consonant l after vo el is al ays doubled #in :ritish ;nglish$ ie becomes y before ing E ample come > coming #but: agree > agreeing$ sit > sitting travel > travelling lie > l-ing

Short !orms
positiv negativ I am playing. > "/m playing. I am not playing. > "/m not playing. He is playing. > He/s playing. He is not playing. > He/s not playing. / He isn/t playing. We are playing. > -e/re playing. We are not playing. > -e/re not playing. /-e aren/t playing.

Use
Use actions taking place at the moment of speaking #no $ arrangements for the near future actions taking place only for a limited period of time E ample He is playing football. "9m going to the theatre tonight. Cim is helping in his brother9s firm this eek.

actions taking place around no #but not at the moment of "9m studying for my e6ams. speaking$ .he population of @hina is rising very development, changing situations fast.

T-pical Signal Words

at the moment no / %ust no / right no &isten' &ook'

Simple Past 0Past Simple2

.he simple past e6presses an action in the past taking place once, never, several times. "t can also be used for actions taking place one after another or in the middle of another action.

!orm of Simple Past

Positive no differences Negative Question " spoke. " did not speak. Did " speak?

,or irregular verbs, use the past form #see list of irregular verbs, (nd column$. ,or regular verbs, %ust add DedE.

E ceptions in Spelling *hen Adding 5ed6

E ceptions in spelling *hen adding ed E ample after a final e only add d love F loved final consonant after a short, stressed vo el admit F admitted or l as final consonant after a vo el is doubled travel F travelled final y after a consonant becomes i hurry F hurried

Use of Simple Past

action in the past taking place once, never or several times ;6ample: He visited his parents every eekend.

actions in the past taking place one after the other ;6ample: He came in, took off his coat and sat do n.

action in the past taking place in the middle of another action ;6ample: -hen " as having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang.

if sentences type "" #"f " talked, !$ ;6ample: "f " had a lot of money, " ould share it ith you.

Signal Words of Simple Past

yesterday, ( minutes ago, in )**+, the other day, last ,riday "f>5at4 .yp "" #"f " talked, !$

Past Progressive 0Past $ontinuous2 %evel, elementar;6ercises on 3ast 3rogressive .he past progressive puts emphasis on the course of an action in the past.

!orm
Positive Negative Question " / he / she / it " as speaking. " as not speaking. -as " speaking? -ou / *e / the- 8ou ere speaking. 8ou ere not speaking. -ere you speaking?

E ceptions in Spelling
E ample come F coming final e is dropped #but: ee is not changed$ #but: agree F agreeing $ after a short, stressed vo el, the final consonant is doubled sit F sitting l as final consonant after a vo el is doubled #in :ritish ;nglish$ travel F travelling final ie becomes y lie F lying E ceptions in spelling *hen adding ing

Use of Past Progressive

puts emphasis on the course of an action in the past ;6ample: He was !laying football.

t o actions happening at the same time #in the past$ ;6ample: -hile she was !re!aring dinner, he was washing the dishes.

action going on at a certain time in the past ;6ample: -hen " was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang.

Signal Words of Past Progressive

hen, hile, as long as

!orm
Simple Past irregular verbs: see (nd column of irregular verbs " spoke regular verbs: verb < ed " orked E ceptions E ceptions *hen adding /ed/ , hen the final letter is e, only add d. ;6ample: love > loved

Past Progressive past form of 9be9 < ing form of verb " as speaking you ere speaking he / she / it as speaking e ere speaking they ere speaking E ceptions *hen adding /ing/ , silent e is dropped #but: does not apply for -ee$ ;6ample: come > coming but: agree > agreeing

after a short, stressed vo el, the final consonant is doubled ;6ample: admit > admitted

after a short, stressed vo el, the final consonant is doubled ;6ample: sit > sitting

final l is al ays doubled in :ritish ;nglish #not in American ;nglish$

;6ample: travel > travelled

final l is al ays doubled in :ritish ;nglish #not in American ;nglish$ ;6ample: travel > travelling

after a consonant, final y becomes i. #but: not after a vo el$

final ie becomes y. ;6ample: lie > lying

;6ample: orry > he orried but: play > he played

Use
After another or at the same time7
Do you ant to e6press that the actions in the past happened one after another or at the same time? Simple Past after another 5he came home, s itched on the computer and checked her e>mails. Past Progressive at the same time 5imon as playing on the computer hile his brother as atchin .A.

Ne* action or alread- in progress7

"f you ant to e6press that a ne action happened in the middle of another action, you need both tenses: 5imple 3ast the ne action and 3ast 3rogressive for the action already in progress. Past Progressive action alread- in progress ne* action -hile " as sitting in a meeting, #my mobile By mobile rang # hen " as sitting in a meeting.$ suddenly rang.$ Simple Past

8nl- mentioning or emphasising progress7

Do you %ust ant to mention that an action took place in the past #also used for short actions$? Gr do you ant to put emphasis on the progress, e.g. that an action as taking place at a certain time? Simple Past 9ust mentioning @olin played football yesterday. Past Progressive emphasising progress 8esterday at si6 o9clock, @olin as playing football.

$ertain (erbs
.he follo ing verbs are usually only used in 5imple 3ast #not in the progressive form$.

state, be, cost, fit, mean, suit ;6ample: -e ere on holiday.

possession, belong, have ;6ample: 5am had a cat.

senses, feel, hear, see, smell, taste, touch ;6ample: He felt the cold.

feelings, hate, hope, like, love, prefer, regret, ant, ish ;6ample: Cane loved pi44a.

brain *or4, believe, kno , think, understand ;6ample: " did not understand him.

introductor- clauses for direct speech, ans er, ask, reply, say

;6ample: D" am atching .A,D he said.

Signal *ords
Simple Past

Past Progressive

first then "f>5at4 .yp "" #"f " talked, !$

hen hile as long as

Present Perfect Simple %evel, elementar;6ercises on 3resent 3erfect .he present perfect simple e6presses an action that is still going on or that stopped recently, but has an influence on the present. "t puts emphasis on the result.

!orm of Present Perfect

Positive Negative Question " / -ou / *e / the " have spoken. " have not spoken. Have " spoken? he / she / it He has spoken. He has not spoken. Has he spoken? ,or irregular verbs, use the participle form #see list of irregular verbs, =rd column$. ,or regular verbs, %ust add DedE.

E ceptions in Spelling *hen Adding 5ed6

E ceptions in spelling *hen adding ed E ample after a final e only add d love F loved final consonant after a short, stressed vo el admit F admitted or l as final consonant after a vo el is doubled travel F travelled final y after a consonant becomes i hurry F hurried

Use of Present Perfect

puts emphasis on the result ;6ample: 5he has written five letters.

action that is still going on

;6ample: 5chool has not started yet.

action that stopped recently ;6ample: 5he has cooked dinner.

finished action that has an influence on the present ;6ample: " have lost my key.

action that has taken place once, never or several times before the moment of speaking ;6ample: " have never been to Australia.

Signal Words of Present Perfect

already, ever, %ust, never, not yet, so far, till no , up to no

Simple Past Present Perfect Simple

;6ercises and .ests

!orm
Simple Past irregular verbs: see (nd column of irregular verbs ;6ample: " spoke Present Perfect Simple irregular verbs: form of 9have9 < =rd column of irregular verbs ;6ample: " / you / e / they have spoken he / she / it has spoken regular verbs: form of 9have9 < infinitive < ed ;6ample: " / you / e / they have orked he / she / it has orked

regular verbs: infinitive < ed ;6ample: " orked E ceptions E ceptions *hen adding /ed/, hen the final letter is e, only add d ;6ample: love > loved

after a short, stressed vo el, the final consonant is doubled ;6ample: admit > admitted final l is al ays doubled in :ritish ;nglish #not in American ;nglish$ ;6ample: travel > travelled after a consonant, final y becomes i #but: not after a vo el$ ;6ample: orry > orried but: play > played

Use
"n :ritish ;nglish, the use of 5imple 3ast and 3resent 3erfect is 1uite strict. As soon as a time e6pression in the past is given, you have to use 5imple 3ast. "f there are no signal ords, you must decide if e %ust talk about an action in the past or if its conse1uence in the present is important. Note that the follo ing e6planations and e6ercises refer to 3ritish English only. "n American ;nglish, you can normally use 5imple 3ast instead of 3resent 3erfect. -e cannot accept this in our e6ercises, ho ever, as this ould lead to confusions amongst those ho have to learn the differences.

$ertain time in the past or just / already / yet7

Do you ant to e6press that an action happened at a certain time in the past #even if it as %ust a fe seconds ago$ or that an action has just / already / not yet happened? Simple Past certain time in the past ;6ample: " phoned Bary ( minutes ago. Present Perfect Simple just / already / not yet ;6ample: " have %ust phoned Bary.

$ertain event in the past or ho* often so far7

Do you ant to e6press hen a certain action took place or hether / ho often an action has happened till no ? Simple Past certain event in the past ;6ample: He ent to @anada last summer. Present Perfect Simple *hether / ho* often till no* ;6ample: Have you ever been to @anada? / " have

been to @anada t ice.

Emphasis on action or result7

Do you %ust ant to e6press hat happened in the past? Gr do you ant to emphasise the result #a past action9s conse1uence in the present$? Simple Past Emphasis on action ;6ample: " bought a ne bike. "just telling what I did in the !ast#$ Present Perfect Simple Emphasis on result ;6ample: " have bought a ne bike. "With this sentence I actually want to ex!ress that I have a new bike now#$

Signal Words
Simple Past

Present Perfect Simple

yesterday ... ago in )**+ the other day last ...

%ust already up to no until no / till no ever #not$ yet so far lately / recently

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive

;6ercises and .ests

!orm
Present Perfect Simple irregular verbs: form of 9have9 < =rd column of irregular verbs ;6ample: " / you / e / they have spoken he / she / it has spoken regular verbs: form of 9have9 < infinitive < ed ;6ample: Present Perfect Progressive form of 9have9 < been < verb < ing ;6ample: " / you / e / they have been speaking he / she / it has been speaking

" / you / e / they have orked he / she / it has orked E ceptions E ceptions *hen adding /ed/ , hen the final letter is e, only add d ;6ample: love > loved after a short, stressed vo el, the final consonant is doubled

E ceptions *hen adding /ing/ , silent e is dropped. #but: does not apply for -ee$ ;6ample: come > coming aber: agree > agreeing

;6ample: admit > admitted final l is al ays doubled in :ritish ;nglish #not in American ;nglish$

after a short, stressed vo el, the final consonant is doubled ;6ample: sit > sitting after a vo el, the final consonant l is doubled in :ritish ;nglish #but not in American ;nglish$. ;6ample: travel > travelling

;6ample: travel > travelled after a consonant, final y becomes i #but: not after a vo el$ ;6ample: orry > orried but: play > played

final ie becomes y. ;6ample: lie > lying

Use
:oth tenses are used to e6press that an action began in the past and is still going on or has %ust finished. "n many cases, both forms are correct, but there is often a difference in meaning: -e use the %resent %erfect &im!le mainly to e6press that an action is completed or to emphasise the result. -e use the %resent %erfect %rogressive to emphasise the duration or continuous course of an action.

&esult or duration7
Do you ant to e6press hat has happened so far or ho long an action has been going on yet? Present Perfect Simple &esult 0*hat / ho* much / ho* often2 " have ritten H letters. / " have been to &ondon t ice. Present Perfect Progressive 'uration 0ho* long2 " have been riting for an hour.

$ertain verbs

.he follo ing verbs are usually only used in 3resent 3erfect 5imple #not in the progressive form$.

state, be, have #for possession only$ ;6ample: -e have been on holiday for t o eeks.

senses, feel, hear, see, smell, taste, touch ;6ample: He has touched the painting.

brain *or4, believe, kno , think, understand ;6ample: " have kno n him for = years.

Emphasis on completion or duration7

Do you ant to emphasise the completion of an action or its continuous course #ho has somebody spent his time$? Present Perfect Simple Emphasis on completion " have done my home ork. "Meaning' My homework is com!leted now#$ Present Perfect Progressive Emphasis on duration " have been doing my home ork. "Meaning' (hat)s how I have s!ent my time# It does not matter whether the homework is com!leted now#$

&esult or side effect7

Do you ant to e6press that a completed action led to a desired result or that the action had an un anted side effect? Present Perfect Simple desired result " have ashed the car. "*esult' (he car is clean now#$ Present Perfect Progressive un*anted side effect -hy are you so et? > " have been ashing the car. "side effect' I became wet when I was washing the car# It does not matter whether the car is clean now#$

Time : negation, last time or beginning of an action7

"n negative sentences: Do you ant to e6press ho much time has past since the last time the action took place or since the beginning of the action? Present Perfect Simple since the last time Present Perfect Progressive since the beginning

" haven9t been playing that game for an hour, only " haven9t played that game for years. "Meaning' It)s for )+ minutes. "Meaning' It)s not even an hour ago years ago that I last !layed that game#$ that I started to !lay that game#$

Permanent or temporar-7
"f an action is still going on and e ant to e6press that it is a permanent situation, e ould usually use the 3resent 3erfect 5imple. ,or temporary situations, e ould prefer the 3resent 3erfect 3rogressive. .his is not a rule, ho ever, only a tendency. Present Perfect Simple permanent Cames has lived in this to n for )+ years. "Meaning' He is a !ermanent resident of this town#$ Present Perfect Progressive temporarCames has been living here for a year. "Meaning' (his situation is only tem!orary# Maybe he is an exchange student and only here for one or two years#$

Signal *ords
Present Perfect Simple

ho often ... times

Present Perfect Progressive ho long since for

Present Perfect Progressive %evel, elementar3resent 3erfect @ontinuous ;6ercises on 3resent 3erfect 3rogressive .he present perfect progressive e6presses an action that recently stopped or is still going on. "t puts emphasis on the duration or course of the action.

!orm of Present Perfect Progressive

Positive Negative Question " / -ou / *e / the- " have been speaking. " have not been speaking. Have " been speaking? he / she / it He has been speaking. He has not been speaking. Has he been speaking?

E ceptions in Spelling

E ample come F coming final e is dropped #but: agree F #but: ee is not changed$ agreeing$ after a short, stressed vo el, the final consonant is doubled sit F sitting l as final consonant after a vo el is doubled #in :ritish ;nglish$ travel F travelling final ie becomes y lie F l-ing

E ceptions in spelling *hen adding ing

Use of Present Perfect Progressive

puts emphasis on the duration or course of an action #not the result$ ;6ample: 5he has been writing for t o hours.

action that recently stopped or is still going on ;6ample: " have been living here since (++).

finished action that influenced the present ;6ample: " have been working all afternoon.

Signal Words of Present Perfect Progressive

all day, for I years, since )**=, ho long?, the hole eek

Past Perfect Simple %evel, lo*er intermediate

;6ercises on 3ast 3erfect 5imple .he past perfect simple e6presses an action taking place before a certain time in the past.

!orm of Past Perfect Simple

Positive no differences Negative Question " had spoken. " had not spoken. Had " spoken?

,or irregular verbs, use the past participle form #see list of irregular verbs, =rd column$. ,or regular verbs, %ust add ed.

E ceptions in Spelling *hen Adding ed

E ceptions in Spelling *hen Adding ed E ample after final e, only add d love F loved final consonant after a short, stressed vo el admit F admitted or l as final consonant after a vo el is doubled travel F travelled final y after a consonant becomes i hurry F hurried

Use of Past Perfect

action taking place before a certain time in the past #putting emphasis only on the fact, not the duration$ ;6ample: :efore " came here, " had s!oken to Cack.

@onditional 5entences .ype """ #condition that as not given in the past$ ;6ample: "f " had seen him, " ould have talked to him.

Signal Words

already, %ust, never, not yet, once, until that day # ith reference to the past, not the present$ "f>5at4 .yp """ #"f " had talked, !$

Past Perfect Progressive 0Past Perfect $ontinuous2 %evel, elementar.he past perfect progressive puts emphasis on the course or duration of an action taking place before a certain time in the past.

!orm

A: He had been talking. N: He had not been talking. Q: Had he been talking?

Use

action taking place before a certain time in the past

sometimes interchangeable ith past perfect simple puts emphasis on the course or duration of an action

signal *ords

for, since, the hole day, all day

!uture " Simple will %evel, elementar;6ercises on ,uture " 5imple ith will Will future e6presses a spontaneous decision, an assumption ith regard to the future or an action in the future that cannot be influenced.

!orm of will !uture

positive no differences negative )uestion " ill speak. " ill not speak. -ill " speak?

Use of will !uture

a spontaneous decision e6ample: -ait, " ill help you.

an opinion, hope, uncertainty or assumption regarding the future e6ample: He ill probably come back tomorro .

a promise e6ample: " ill not atch .A tonight.

an action in the future that cannot be influenced e6ample: "t ill rain tomorro .

conditional clauses type " e6ample: "f " arrive late, " ill call you.

Signal Words

in a year, ne6t !, tomorro Aermutung: " think, probably, perhaps

!uture " Simple going to %evel, elementar;6ercises on ,uture " 5imple ith going to +oing to future e6presses a conclusion regarding the immediate future or an action in the near future that has already been planned or prepared.

!orm of going to !uture

positive negative )uestion " " am going to speak. " am not going to speak. Am " going to speak? -ou / *e / the- 8ou are going to speak. 8ou are not going to speak. Are you going to speak? he / she / it He is going to speak. He is not going to speak. "s he going to speak?

Use of going to !uture

an action in the near future that has already been planned or prepared e6ample: " am going to study harder ne6t year.

a conclusion regarding the immediate future e6ample: .he sky is absolutely dark. "t is going to rain.

Signal Words

in one year, ne6t eek, tomorro

!uture " Progressive 0!uture " $ontinuous2 %evel, elementar,uture " progressive puts emphasis on the course of an action taking place in the future.

!orm

A: He ill be talking. N: He ill not be talking.

Q: -ill he be talking?

Use

action that is going on at a certain time in the future action that is sure to happen in the near future

Signal Words

in one year, ne6t eek, tomorro

!uture "" Simple %evel, elementar,uture "" 5imple e6presses an action that ill be finished at a certain time in the future.

!orm

A: He ill have talked. N: He ill not have talked. Q: -ill he have talked?

Use

action that ill be finished at a certain time in the future

!uture "" Progressive 0!uture "" $ontinuous2 %evel, elementar,uture "" progressive puts emphasis on the course / duration of an action taking place before a certain time in the future. "t can also be used to e6press an assumption regarding a future action. ,uture "" progressive is not used very often as it can usually be replaced by future "" simple.

!orm

A: He ill have been talking. N: He ill not have been talking. Q: -ill he have been talking?

Use

action taking place before a certain time in the future puts emphasis on the course of an action

Signal Words

for ..., the last couple of hours, all day long

$onditional " Simple %evel, elementar.he conditional " simple e6presses an action that might take place.

!orm

A: He ould talk. N: He ould not talk. Q: -ould he talk?

Use

action that might take place if clause type "" #"f " ere you, " ould go home.$

$onditional " Progressive 0$onditional " $ontinuous2%evel, elementar.he conditional " progressive puts emphasis on the course of an action that might take place.

!orm

A: He ould be talking. N: He ould not be talking. Q: -ould he be talking?

Use

action that might take place puts emphasis on the course of an action

Conditional II Simple Level: elementary

.he conditional "" simple e6presses an action that could have taken place in the past.

!orm

A: He ould have talked. N: He ould not have talked. Q: -ould he have talked?

Use

action that could have taken place in the past if causes type """ #"f " had seen that, " ould have helped.$

Conditional II Progressive (Conditional II Continuous) Level: elementary

@onditional "" 3rogressive puts emphasis on the duration of an action that could have taken place in the past.

!orm

A: He ould have been talking. N: He ould not have been talking. Q: -ould he have been talking?

Use

action that could have taken place in the past puts emphasis on the course / duration of an action

Subjunctive
5ub%unctive is rather insignificant in modern ;nglish. Bost likely you might come across this form in American ;nglish, and most probably in formal te6ts.

!orm
"n most cases, sub%unctive and indicative forms of a verb are the same. 5o often you ould not notice hether a verb is used in sub%unctive or indicative mood. .he only indicator for

sub%unctive is that no ,s- is added in =rd person singular and that the verb ,be- remains ,be- for all forms in present tense and becomes ,were- for all forms in past tense.

Use
5ub%unctive is used in some fi6ed phrases "formulaic subjunctive$.

Jod save the Queen' &ong live the King' .hy ill be done. .e that as it may.

@ertain verbs #e.g. demand, insist, recommend, suggest$ and ad%ectives #e.g. essential, important, vital$ are follo ed by ,that- < sub%unctive "mandative subjunctive$ to indicate that something must be done #directive aspect$.

3eople demand that the troops be ithdra n. "t is important that everyone register.

5entences in sub%unctive sound very formal, ho ever, so often an au6iliary is preferred. "f the directive aspect of the sentence is clear enough ithout an au6iliary, it is also possible to simply use the main verb in indicative mood.

3eople demand that the troops are / should be ithdra n. "t is important that everyone registers.

3ut, Note the difference of sub%unctive and indicative in the follo ing e6ample.

5he insisted that he be present. ? 5he anted him to be there. #directive aspect0 sub%unctive$ 5he insisted that he was present. ? 5he kne that he really as there. "observation/ indicative$

"n the e6ample above, you can also see that mandative subjunctive is al ays used in infinitive, even if e talk about a situation in the past. Note that in negative sentences, the au6iliary ,do- is not used for sub%unctive mood.

5he insisted that he not be present.

,or ishes and hopes that cannot be fulfilled "volitional subjunctive$, sub%unctive is used in past tense. ,or all verbs #e6cept 0be,$ past tense in sub%unctive mood is the same as in indicative mood.

" ish, " had a million dollar.

3ast tense, sub%unctive mood for ,be- is ,were-.

" ish, " were a millionaire.

8ou probably kno this form from @onditional 5entences .ype "".

"f " were -ou1 ;

All other #rammar Topics

Ad9ectives and Adverbs

Ad%ectives are used to modify nouns, e.g. .he dog is loud. F -hat is the dog like? F loud Adverbs are used to modify verbs, ad%ectives or other adverbs, e.g. .he dog barks loudly. F Ho does the dog bark? F loudly

$omparison of Ad9ectives
;6ercise on 3ositive ,orm and @omparison of Ad%ectives

Positive !orm
7se the positive form of the ad%ective if the comparison contains one of the follo ing e6pressions: as ! as ;6ample: Cane is as tall as Cohn. not as ! as / not so ! as ;6ample: Cohn is not as tall as Arnie.

$omparative !orm and Superlative !orm 0+er/+est2

one>syllable ad%ectives #clean, ne , cheap$ t o>syllable ad%ectives ending in -y or -er #easy, happy, pretty, dirty, clever$

positive form comparative form superlative form clean cleaner #the$ cleanest

E ceptions in spelling *hen adding -er / -est

silent LeM is dropped ;6ample: late>later>latest

final LyM after a consonant becomes i ;6ample: easy>easier>easiest

final consonant after short, stressed vo el is doubled ;6ample: hot>hotter>hottest

$omparative !orm and Superlative !orm 0more/most2

ad%ectives of three or more syllables #and t o>syllable ad%ectives not ending in >y/>er$

positive form comparative form superlative form difficult more difficult most difficult

$omparative !orm and Superlative !orm 0irregular comparisons2

positive form good bad / ill little #amount$ little #si4e$ much / many far #place < time$ far #place$ late #time$ late #order$ near #place$ near #order$ old #people and things$ old #people$ comparative form better orse less smaller more further farther later latter nearer > older elder superlative form best orst least smallest most furthest farthest latest last nearest ne6t oldest eldest

!orm and $omparison of Adverbs

Adverbs are used to e6press ho something is done #ad%ectives e6press ho someone or something is$. ;6ample: .he dog sleeps 1uietly. .he dog is absolutely 1uiet.

!orm
"n general, ad9ective : -ly
ad9ective slo adverb slo ly

E ceptions in spelling e ception silent e is dropped in true, due, whole y becomes i le after a consonant is dropped after ll only add y e ample true N truly ha!!y N ha!!ily sensible N sensibly full N fully

Ad9ectives ending in -ic, ad9ective : -ally 0e ception, public+publicl-2

ad9ective fantastic adverb fantastically

Ad9ectives ending in -ly, use 5in a ; *a- / manner6 or another adverb *ith similar meaning
ad9ective friendly likely adverb in a friendly ay in a friendly manner probably

E ceptions
ad9ective good difficult public deep direct hard high adverb 0meaning2 ell ith difficulty publicly deep #place$ direct hard high #place$ adverb 0meaning2

deeply #feeling$ directly #?soon$ hardly #?seldom$ highly #figurative$

late most near pretty short (he following adjectives are also used as adverbs "without modification$'

late most near pretty #?rather$ short

lately #?recently$ mostly #?usually$ nearly #?almost$ prettily shortly #?soon$

daily, enough, early, far, fast, hourly, little, long, lo , monthly, much, straight, eekly, yearly, !

;6ercise on the form of adverbs

$omparison
$omparison 0-er/-est2
$omparative ending in Superlative ending in -er -est harder hardest earlier earliest

one>syllable adverbs #hard$ adverbs ith the same form as ad%ectives #early$

$omparison 0more / most2

$omparative formed *ith more adverbs ending in -ly #happily$ more happily Superlative formed *ith most most happily

"rregular comparisons
positive form ell badly ill little much far #place < time$ far #place$ late #time$ comparative better orse orse less more further farther later superlative best orst orst least most furthest farthest latest

Ad9ective or Adverb

Ad%ectives are used to modify nouns: .he dog is loud.

Adverbs are used to modify verbs, ad%ectives or other adverbs: .he dog barks loudly.

%in4ing (erbs
5ome verbs can only be used ith ad%ectives, others might change their meaning hen used ith an adverb. verb look feel smell taste used *ith an ad9ective look good #? appearance$ look feel good #? state of health/mind$ feel smell good #? odour$ smell taste good #? preference$ taste used *ith an adverb ell #? healthy$ ell #? have a good sense of touch$ ell #? have a good sense of smell$ ell #? have a good sense of taste$

.he follo ing verbs can only be used ith ad%ectives:

be become get gro keep remain seem sound stay turn

Au iliar- (erbs
;6ercises on Au6iliary Aerbs Au iliar- (erbs are the verbs be, do, have, will hen they are follo ed by another verb #the full verb$ in order to form a 1uestion, a negative sentence, a compound tense or the passive.

The verb <be<

.he verb be can be used as an au6iliary and a full verb. As an au6iliary e use this verb for compound tenses and the passive voice. Note that be is an irregular verb:

5imple 3resent: " am, he/she/it is, e/you/they are 5imple 3ast: "/he/she/it was, e/you/they were 3ast 3articiple: been 8ou can tell that in the follo ing sentences be is an au6iliary because it is follo ed by another verb #the full verb$. #,or progressive forms use the O>ingO form of the full verb0 for passive voice, use the past participle of the full verb.$ Progressive !orms 3resent 3rogressive: He is !laying football. 3ast 3rogressive: He was !laying football. 3resent 3erfect 3rogressive: He has been !laying football. 3ast 3erfect 3rogressive: He had been !laying football. Passive 5imple 3resent/3ast: .he house is was built. 3resent/3ast 3erfect: .he house has/had been built. ,uture ": .he house ill be built. <be< as a full verb .he verb be can also be a full verb. "n this case, it9s not follo ed by another verb. "f be is used as a full verb, e do not need an au6iliary in negative sentences or 1uestions. positive sentence: .hey are fifteen years old. negative sentence: .hey are not fifteen years old. 1uestion: 2re they fifteen years old?

The verb <have<

.he verb have, too, can be used both as an au6iliary and as a full verb. As an au6iliary e use this verb to form compound tenses in active and passive voice. #7se the past participle of the full verb.$ $ompound Tenses + Active (oice 3resent 3erfect 5imple: He has !layed football. 3ast 3erfect 5imple: He had !layed football. 3resent 3erfect 3rogressive: He has been !laying football. 3ast 3erfect 3rogressive: He had been !laying football. $ompound Tenses + Passive (oice 3resent/3ast 3erfect: .he house has had been built. Note that have is an irregular verb, too: 5imple 3resent: "/ e/you/they have, he/she/it has 5imple 3ast: "/he/she/it/ e/you/they had 3ast 3articiple: had <have< in positive sentences As a full verb have indicates possession. "n :ritish ;nglish, ho ever, e usually use have got #have being the au6iliary, got the full verb$. full verb: " have a car. au6iliary verb: " have got a car. <have< in negative sentences and )uestions -hen e use have as a full verb, e must use the au6iliary do in negative sentences and 1uestions. "f e use have got, ho ever, e do not need another au6iliary. have as a full verb: " do not have a car. 3o " have a car?

have as an au6iliary verb: " have not got a car. Have " got a car?

The verb <*ill<

.he verb will can only be used as an au6iliary. -e use it to form the future tenses. The au iliar- verb <*ill< ,uture ": He will not !lay football. ,uture "": He will have !layed football. .he verb will remains the same for all forms #no OsO for =rd person singular$. .he short form for negative sentences is won)t.9 ;6amples: " ill, he ill " ill not ? " on9t

The verb <do<

.he verb do can be both an au6iliary and a full verb. As an au6iliary e use do in negative sentences and 1uestions for most verbs #e6cept not for be, will, have got and modal verbs$ in 5imple 3resent and 5imple 3ast. #7se the infinitive of the full verb.$ The au iliar- <do< in negative sentences 5imple 3resent: He does not !lay football. 5imple 3ast: He did not !lay football. The au iliar- <do< in )uestions 5imple 3resent: 3oes he !lay football? 5imple 3ast: 3id he !lay football? .he verb do is irregular: 5imple 3resent: "/ e/you/they do, he/she/it does

5imple 3ast: "/he/she/it/ e/you/they did The full verb <do< As a full verb e use do in certain e6pressions. "f e ant to form negative sentences or 1uestions using do as a full verb, e need another do as an au6iliary. positive sentence: 5he does her home ork every day. negative sentence: 5he doesn)t do her home ork every day. 1uestion: 3oes she do her home ork every day?

Sentences *ithout the au iliar- <do<

"n the follo ing cases, the au6iliary do is not used in negative sentences/1uestions: the full verb is <be< ;6ample: " am not angry. / 2re you okay? the sentence alread- contains another au iliar- 0e.g. have1 be1 *ill2 ;6ample: .hey are not sleeping. / Have you heard that? the sentence contains a modal verb 0can1 ma-1 must1 need1 ought to1 shall1 should2 ;6ample: -e need not ait. / 4an you repeat that, please? the )uestion as4s for the sub9ect of the sentence ;6ample: -ho sings that song?

=odal (erbs and their substitutes

Bodal verbs are for e6ample may, can, must, should, need. .hey e6press an ability, permission, ish etc. to do something. #" may, can, must s im.$ Bany modal verbs cannot be used in all of the ;nglish tenses. .hat9s hy e need to kno the substitutes to these modal verbs.

=odal (erb must must not can may need need not shall / should/ ought to

Substitute to have to not to be allo ed to to be able to to be allo ed to to have to not to have to to be supposed to / to be e6pected to / to be to

E ample " must s im. ? " have to s im. " must not s im. ? " am not allo ed to s im. " can s im. ? " am able to s im. " may s im. ? " am allo ed to s im. " need to s im. ? " have to s im. " need not s im. ? " don9t have to s im. " shall / should / ought to s im. ? " am supposed to s im. / " am e6pected to s im. / " am to s im.

"! $lause T-pe >

!orm
if : Simple Present1 *ill+!uture ;6ample: "f " find her address, " ill send her an invitation. .he main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. "n this case, don9t use a comma. ;6ample: " ill send her an invitation if " find her address. Note, Bain clause and / or if clause might be negative. 5ee 5imple 3resent und ill>,uture on ho to form negative sentences. ;6ample: "f " donMt see him this afternoon, " ill phone him in the evening.

Use
@onditional 5entences .ype " refer to the future. An action in the future ill only happen if a certain condition is fulfilled by that time. -e don9t kno for sure hether the condition actually ill be fulfilled or not, but the conditions seems rather realistic F so e think it is likely to happen. ;6ample: "f " find her address, "Mll send her an invitation. " ant to send an invitation to a friend. " %ust have to find her address. " am 1uite sure, ho ever, that " ill find it. ;6ample: "f Cohn has the money, he ill buy a ,errari. " kno Cohn very ell and " kno that he earns a lot of money and that he loves ,erraris. 5o " think it is very likely that sooner or later he ill have the money to buy a ,errari.

"! $lause T-pe ?

!orm
if : Simple Past1 main clause *ith $onditional " 0@ *ould : "nfinitive2 ;6ample: "f " found her address, " ould send her an invitation. .he main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. "n this case, don9t use a comma. ;6ample: " ould send her an invitation if " found her address. Note, Bain clause and / or if clause might be negative. 5ee 5imple 3ast und @onditional " on ho to form negative sentences. ;6ample: "f " had a lot of money, " ouldnMt stay here.

Were instead of Was

"n ", @lauses .ype "", e usually use P ereL F even if the pronoun is I, he, she or it F. ;6ample: "f " *ere you, " ould not do this.

Use
@onditional 5entences .ype "" refer to situations in the present. An action could happen if the present situation ere different. " don9t really e6pect the situation to change, ho ever. " %ust imagine 5what would ha!!en if 67 ;6ample: "f " found her address, " ould send her an invitation. " ould like to send an invitation to a friend. " have looked every here for her address, but " cannot find it. 5o no " think it is rather unlikely that " ill eventually find her address. ;6ample: "f Cohn had the money, he ould buy a ,errari. " kno Cohn very ell and " kno that he doesn9t have much money, but he loves ,erraris. He ould like to o n a ,errari #in his dreams$. :ut " think it is very unlikely that he ill have the money to buy one in the near future.

"! $lause T-pe A

!orm

if : Past Perfect1 main clause *ith $onditional "" ;6ample: "f " had found her address, " ould have sent her an invitation. .he main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. "n this case, don9t use a comma. ;6ample: " ould have sent her an invitation if " had found her address. Note, Bain clause and / or if clause might be negative. 5ee 3ast 3erfect and @onditional "" on ho to form negative sentences. ;6ample: "f " hadnMt studied, " ouldnMt have passed my e6ams.

Use
@onditional 5entences .ype """ refer to situations in the past. An action could have happened in the past if a certain condition had been fulfilled. .hings ere different then, ho ever. -e %ust imagine, hat ould have happened if the situation had been fulfilled. ;6ample: "f " had found her address, " ould have sent her an invitation. 5ometime in the past, " anted to send an invitation to a friend. " didn9t find her address, ho ever. 5o in the end " didn9t send her an invitation. ;6ample: "f Cohn had had the money, he ould have bought a ,errari. " kne Cohn very ell and " kno that he never had much money, but he loved ,erraris. He ould have loved to o n a ,errari, but he never had the money to buy one.

E ceptions for $onditional Sentences

5o far you have only learned the basic rules for @onditional 5entences. "t depends on the conte6t, ho ever, hich tense to use. 5o sometimes it9s possible for e6ample that in an ", @lause .ype " another tense than 5imple 3resent is used, e.g. 3resent 3rogressive or 3resent 3erfect.

$onditional Sentences T-pe " 0li4el-2

$ondition refers to, future action Simple Present "! $lause "f the book is interesting, ! =ain $lause !uture " "mperative =odal Au iliar!" ill buy it. !buy it. !you can buy it.

$ondition refers to, action going on Present now Progressive

"! $lause !uture "

=ain $lause !" ill ake him up. ! ake him up. !you can ake him up. ! e ill visit him. !visit him. ! e can visit him. !" ill congratulate her. !congratulate her. ! e can congratulate her. !he is very nice.

"mperative =odal Au iliar!uture " "f he has moved into his "mperative finished action Present Perfect ne flat, ! =odal Au iliar!uture " im!robable action should : "nfinitive "f she should in this race, ! "f he gets hat he ants, ! "mperative =odal Au iliarSimple Present

"f he is snoring, !

!resent facts

Simple Present

$onditional Sentences T-pe "" 0unli4el-2

$ondition refers to, !resent future event conse1uence in the !ast "! $lause Simple Past Simple Past "f " had a lot of money, ! "f " kne him, ! $onditional " =ain $lause !" ould travel around the orld.

$onditional !" ould have said hello. ""

$onditional Sentences T-pe "" 0impossible2

$ondition refers to, !resent !ast Past Perfect Past Perfect "! $lause "f " had kno n it, ! "f he had learned for the test, ! =ain $lause !" ould not be here no . $onditional !he ould not have "" failed it. $onditional "

"nfinitive and #erund

;6ercises and .ests on "nfinitive and Jerund

.here are certain ords in ;nglish that are usually follo ed by an infinitive or gerund. "f you are not sure hether to use the infinitive or gerund, check out our lists or look the ords up in a dictionary.

"nfinitive
Use
@ertain ords are follo ed by an infinite verb ith or ithout ,to-. Use and Word %ists as the sub%ect of a clause after certain e6pressions # ithout ,to-$ after certain verbs # ithout ,to-$ after certain verbs # ith ,to-$ after certain verbs ith interrogatives #infinitive constructions$ after certain verbs ith ob%ects # ithout ,to-$ after certain verbs ith ob%ects # ith ,to-$ after certain ad%ectives and their comparisons after nouns deriving from the verbs mentioned above E ample .o kno you is to love you. Why not go to the cinema? " can s*im. He wants to s*im. .hey donMt kno how to s*im. He made her s*im. .hey wanted him to s*im. "tMs easier to s*im do nstream. -e made a !romise to s*im. #derived from the verb ,to !romise-$

#erund
!orm
ing form of the verb

E ceptions in Spelling
5ee N 3resent 3rogressive F ;6ceptions

Use
@ertain ords are follo ed by an Ing>,orm. Use and Word %ists E ample as the sub%ect of a clause $-cling is good for your health. after certain ad%ectives HeMs afraid of going by plane. after certain prepositions 3efore going to bed he turned off the lights. after certain verbs " en9o- cooking. after certain verbs ith prepositions " am loo4ing for*ard to seeing you again.

after certain nouns

-e had problems finding our ay back home.

Words follo*ed either b- "nfinitive or Ing+!orm

Use and Word %ists E ample same meaning " started to read. / " started reading. same meaning but different use 5he forbids us to talk. / 5he forbids talking. different meaning He stopped to smoke. / He stopped smoking. infinitive or present participle " sa him go up the stairs. / " sa him going up the stairs.

Words used *ith the "nfinitive

"nfinitive as the Sub9ect of a $lause 0follo*ed b- the verbs belo*2
;6ample: To follo* his advice seemed logical.

be seem appear

Words used wit

t e In!initive

In!initive a!ter certain "#pressions (wit out $to$)

;6ample: " would rather sta- at home.

had better ould rather ould sooner hy not hy should "/you/! QnotR

Words used *ith the "nfinitive

"nfinitive after certain (erbs 0*ithout to2
;6ample: -e must sta- at home.

can dare #also ith to$

do help #also ith to$ let may must need #also ith to$ shall should ill

Words used wit

t e In!initive
Interrogative ( ow&

In!initive a!ter certain %erbs wit i!& w at& w ere& w et er)

;6ample: -e didn9t remember where to meet.

ask advise < Gb%ekt consider decide e6plain find out forget kno learn remember see sho teach tell < ob%ect understand onder

'ouns - (rticles& Plural und Possessive Case

"mportant things to keep in mind hen using nouns are hich article to use and ho to form the plural and ho to form the possessive case.

Article
)irect article - the
e6ample: the house

Indirect article a / an
a > if the first letter of the follo ing ord is pronounced like a consonant e6ample: a car, a university an > if the first letter of the follo ing ord is pronounced like a vo el e6ample: an apple, an hour ;6ercise on indirect articles ;6ercise on direct articles

Plural
general rule: singular form < s e6ample: a car > t o cars after s, ch, x, 8 the plural is formed by adding es e6ample: a bo6 > t o bo6es y after a consonant is changed to ie before the plural s e6ample: a city > t o cities 3ut, y after a vo el is not changed e6ample: a boy > t o boys After o the plural is usually formed by adding es #this is not the case, ho ever, ith ords used for electric gadgets and music: radio, video, disco$ e6ample: a tomato > t o tomatoes ;6ercise > singular or plural?

Possessive $ase of Nouns

of phrase usually used for things the name of the school

adding /s usually used for people Sonny9s brother

"f there is a relation to people hen using the possessive case ith unanimated things, often the s is added instead of using an of phrase. e6ample: Jermany9s economy or the ecomony of Jermany -hen using the possessive case ith a time, s is added. e6ample: a three eek9s holiday ;6ercise on the possessive case of nouns

Passive (oice
;6ercises on 3assive

Use of Passive
3assive voice is used hen the focus is on the action. "t is not important or not kno n, ho ever, ho or hat is performing the action. ;6ample: By bike as stolen. "n the e6ample above, the focus is on the fact that my bike as stolen. " do not kno , ho ever, ho did it. 5ometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the follo ing e6ample sho s: ;6ample: A mistake as made. "n this case, " focus on the fact that a mistake as made, but " do not blame anyone #e.g. 8ou have made a mistake.$.

!orm of Passive
5ub%ect < finite form of to be < 3ast 3articiple #=rd column of irregular verbs$ ;6ample: A letter as ritten. -hen re riting active sentences in passive voice, note the follo ing:

the ob%ect of the active sentence becomes the sub%ect of the passive sentence

the finite form of the verb is changed #to be < past participle$ the sub%ect of the active sentence becomes the ob%ect of the passive sentence #or is dropped$

E amples of Passive %evel, lo*er intermediate

Sub9ect 2ctive' Sita Simple Present %assive' A letter 2ctive' Sita Simple Past %assive' A letter 2ctive' Sita Present Perfect %assive' A letter 2ctive' Sita !uture " %assive' A letter 2ctive' Sita Bilfsverben %assive' A letter Tense (erb rites is ritten rote as ritten has ritten has been ritten ill rite ill be ritten can rite can be ritten 8b9ect a letter. by Sita. a letter. by Sita. a letter. by Sita. a letter. by Sita. a letter. by Sita.

E amples of Passive %evel, upper intermediate

Sub9ect 2ctive' Sita Present %assive Progressive A letter ' 2ctive' Sita Past Progressive %assive A letter ' 2ctive' Sita Past Perfect %assive A letter ' 2ctive' Sita !uture "" %assive A letter ' 2ctive' Sita $onditional " %assive A letter ' 2ctive' Sita $onditional "" %assive A letter ' Tense (erb is riting is being ritten as riting as being ritten had ritten had been ritten ill have ritten ill have been ritten ould rite ould be ritten ould have ritten ould have been ritten 8b9ect a letter. by Sita. a letter. by Sita. a letter. by Sita. a letter. by Sita. a letter. by Sita. a letter. by Sita.

Passive Sentences *ith T*o 8b9ects %evel, intermediate

Se riting an active sentence ith t o ob%ects in passive voice means that one of the t o ob%ects becomes the sub%ect, the other one remains an ob%ect. -hich ob%ect to transform into a sub%ect depends on hat you ant to put the focus on. Sub9ect Sita A letter " (erb rote as ritten as ritten 8b9ect > a letter to me a letter 8b9ect ? to me. by Sita. by Sita.

2ctive' %assive' %assive' .

As you can see in the e6amples, adding by *ita does not sound very elegant. .hatMs hy it is usually dropped.

Personal and "mpersonal Passive

%ersonal %assive simply means that the ob%ect of the active sentence becomes the sub%ect of the passive sentence. 5o every verb that needs an ob%ect #transitive verb$ can form a personal passive. ;6ample: .hey build houses. F Houses are built. Aerbs ithout an ob%ect #intransitive verb$ normally cannot form a personal passive sentence #as there is no ob%ect that can become the sub%ect of the passive sentence$. "f you ant to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction F therefore this passive is called Im!ersonal %assive. ;6ample: he says F it is said Im!ersonal %assive is not as common in ;nglish as in some other languages #e.g. Jerman, &atin$. "n ;nglish, Im!ersonal %assive is only possible ith verbs of perception #e. g. say, think, kno $. ;6ample: .hey say that omen live longer than men. F "t is said that omen live longer than men. Although Im!ersonal %assive is possible here, %ersonal %assive is more common. ;6ample: .hey say that omen live longer than men. F -omen are said to live longer than men. .he sub%ect of the subordinate clause # omen$ goes to the beginning of the sentence0 the verb of perception is put into passive voice. .he rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction ith 9to9 #certain au6iliary verbs and that are dropped$. 5ometimes the term %ersonal %assive is used in ;nglish lessons if the indirect ob%ect of an active sentence is to become the sub%ect of the passive sentence.

The $anterville #host %evel, lo*er intermediate

Questions on the te6t highlight verbs in 3assive Aoice

$hapter "
-hen the American, Br Gtis, bought @anterville @astle, everyone told him that this as very foolish, as the place as haunted. :ut Br Gtis ans ered, D" come from a modern country, here e have everything that money can buy. And if there ere such a thing as a ghost in ;urope, e ould have it at home in one of our museums.E A fe eeks later, on a lovely Culy evening, Br Gtis, his ife and their children, -ashington, Airginia and the t ins, ent do n to their ne home. -hen they entered the avenue of @anterville @astle, the sky suddenly became dark and a spooky stillness as in the air. Brs 7mney, the housekeeper, led them into the library of the castle, here they sat do n and began to look around. 5uddenly, Brs Gtis sa a red stain on the floor %ust by the fireplace and said to Brs 7mney, D" am afraid something has been spilt there.E D8es, madam,E said the old housekeeper in a lo voice, Dblood has been spilt on that spot.E DHo terrible,E said Brs Gtis0 D" don9t ant any blood>stains in my sitting>room. "t must be removed at once.E .he old oman smiled and ans ered, D"t is the blood of &ady ;leanore de @anterville, ho as murdered on that spot by her husband, 5ir 5imon de @anterville, in )HTH. 5ir 5imon disappeared seven years later. His body has never been found, but his ghost still haunts the @astle. .he blood> stain is a tourist attraction no and it cannot be removed.E D.hat is all nonsense,E said -ashington, the eldest son of the Gtis family, Dstain remover ill clean it up in no time,E and he took a bottle of stain remover out of his pocket and cleaned the

spot. :ut as soon as the blood>stain had disappeared, a terrible flash of lightning lit up the room and a fearful peal of thunder made the hole building shake.

Participles
;6ercises on 3articiples .here are three kinds of participles in ;nglish: present participle, past participle and perfect participle. 8ou probably kno the first t o from certain tenses and ad%ective forms. Apart from that, participles are also used to shorten sentences.

Present Participle
.he present participle is the ing>form. 8ou surely kno this form:

from progressive / continuous tenses #e. g. 3resent 3rogressive$ F " am s!eaking. as an ad%ective form F .he film is interesting. as a gerund F He is afraid of flying.

Not the e6ceptions in spelling hen adding 9ing9: E ception final e dropped #but: ee is not changed$ final consonant after short, stressed vo el is doubled final consonant l after vo el is al ays doubled #in :ritish ;nglish$ final ie becomes y E ample come F coming #but: agree > agreeing$ sit F sitting travel F travelling lie F l-ing

.he present participle can be used to describe the follo ing verbs: come, go, sit ;6ample: .he girl sat crying on the sofa. .he present participle can also be used after verbs of the senses if e do not ant to emphasise that the action as completed. #see "nfinitive or "ng>,orm$ feel, find, hear, listen to, notice, see, smell, watch ;6ample: Did you see him dancing? ,urthermore, the present participle can be used to shorten or combine active clauses that have the same sub%ect.

;6ample: 5he left the house and whistled. F 5he left the house whistling. ;6ercises on 3resent 3articiple

Past Participle
.he past participle is the participle that you find in the third column of lists ith irregular verbs. 8ou surely kno this form:

from perfect tenses #4. :. 3resent 3erfect 5imple$ F " have s!oken. from passive voice F .he letter as written. as an ad%ective form F " as bored to death.

,or irregular participle forms see third column of irregular verbs. Segular verbs form the past participle by adding ed, ho ever, note the follo ing e6ceptions in spelling: E ceptions *hen adding ed E ample after a final e, only add d love F loved final consonant after a short, stressed vo el admit F admitted or l as final consonant after a vo el is doubled travel F travelled final y after a consonant becomes i hurry F hurried .he past participle can also be used to shorten or combine passive clauses that have the same sub%ect. ;6ample: .he boy was given an apple. He stopped crying. F +iven an apple, the boy stopped crying. ;6ercises on 3ast 3articiple

Perfect Participle
.he perfect participle can be used to shorten or combine clauses that have the same sub%ect if !

! one action #the one here the perfect participle is used$ is completed before the ne6t action starts. ;6ample: &he bought a bike and cycled home. F Having bought a bike, she cycled home.

! one action has been going on for a period of time hen another action starts. ;6ample: He had been living there for such a long time that he didn9t ant to move to another to n. F Having lived there for such a long time, he didn9t ant to move to another to n.

.he perfect participle can be used for active and passive voice.

active voice: having < past participle #Having cooked, he set the table.$ passive voice: having been < past participle #Having been cooked, the food looked delicious.$

;6ercises on 3erfect 3articiple

Use of Participle $lauses

"f a clause is shortened using a participle construction, the clause is called participle clause. ;6ample: Watching (9, she forgot everything around her. "n ;nglish, participle clauses are mainly used in riting in order to put a lot of information into one sentence. -hen shortening or combining clauses ith a participle construction, keep the follo ing rules in mind:

:oth clauses should have the same sub%ect. .he less important part becomes the participle clause. "mportant information should al ays be in the main clause. Bake sure, you use the correct participle form #see above$. .he con%unctions as, because, since and relative pronouns who, which are left out. .he con%unctions before, when are used in the participle clause. .he con%unctions after, while can be used or left out.

Participle $lauses *ith different Sub9ects

5ometimes participle clauses can be used even if the clauses to be combined do not have the same sub%ect. .his is the case for e6ample if the main clause contains one of the follo ing verbs : object: feel, find, hear, listen to, notice, see, smell, watch ;6ample: " heard him playing the guitar. Here, the participle clause must directly follo the ob%ect it is relating to. #Note: 5ome of the verbs mentioned here can also be used ith the infinitive. ,or further information see "nfinitive or "ng>,orm$ A participle construction is also possible, if both sub%ects are mentioned #often the ord 9 ith9 is put before the sub%ect in the participle clause$. .his is very formal, ho ever, and not often used.

;6ample: Mrs ;ones went to Ne 8ork. Br 5mith took up her position. N "With$ Mrs ;ones going to Ne 8ork, Br 5mith took up her position.

"ncorrect Participle $lauses

Apart from the e6ceptions mentioned above, participle clause and main clause should have the same sub%ect. Gther ise the sentences might sound rather strange. ;6ample: " as driving on the motor ay, hen the baby started to cry. N ,alscher 3arti4ipialsat4: Driving on the motor ay, the baby started to cry. "n this e6ample you get the feeling that the baby has driven the car. 5o these participle clauses are considered rong in standard ;nglish. "n collo1uial ;nglish, these 9incorrect participle clauses9 are usually okay, and you can even find an e6ample in 5hakespeare9s Hamlet: No , Hamlet, hear. M.is given out that, sleeping in my orchard, a serpent stung me. As the te6t goes, it is said that Hamlet9s father as bitten by a snake. 5trictly speaking, ho ever, the snake as asleep hen it bit Hamlet9s father.

Phrasal (erbs
3hrasal verbs are mainly used in spoken ;nglish and informal te6ts. #.he more formal a conversation or te6t, the less phrasal verbs are found.$ 3hrasal verbs consist of a verb plus a particle #preposition, adverb$. .he particle can change the meaning of the verb completely, e.g.:

look up F consult a reference book #look a ord up in a dictionary$ look for F seek #look for her ring$ look for ard F anticipate ith pleasure #look for ard to meeting someone$

.here are no rules that might e6plain ho phrasal verbs are formed correctly > all you can do is look them up in a good dictionary and study their meanings. "n our lists, you ill find some fre1uently used phrasal verbs and their meanings.

!re)uentl- Used Phrasal (erbs *ith,

break, bring, call, carry, come, do, fall, get, go, keep, look, make, put, run, set, take, turn

Position of the Particle

.he particle is placed either after the verb or after the ob%ect.

;6ample: -rite down the ord. / -rite the ord down. "f the ob%ect is a pronoun, ho ever, the particle has to be placed after the pronoun #ob%ect$. ;6ample: -rite it down.

Prepositions
Ubungen 4u 3rVpositionen 3rVpositions are short ords #on, in, to$ that usually stand in front of nouns #sometimes also in front of gerund verbs$. ;ven advanced learners of ;nglish find prepositions difficult, as a ):) translation is usually not possible. Gne preposition in your native language might have several translations depending on the situation. .here are hardly any rules as to hen to use hich preposition. .he only ay to learn prepositions is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in ;nglish #literature$ and learning useful phrases off by heart #study tips$. .he follo ing table contains rules for some of the most fre1uently used prepositions in ;nglish:

PrCpositions Time
English on

in

Usage days of the eek months / seasons time of day year after a certain period of time "when<$ for night for weekend a certain point of time "when<$ from a certain point of time #past till no $ over a certain period of time #past till no $

E ample on Bonday in August / in inter in the morning in (++W in an hour at night at the eekend at half past nine since )*X+ for ( years

at

since for

English ago

before to past to / till / until till / until

Usage a certain time in the past earlier than a certain point of time telling the time telling the time marking the beginning and end of a period of time in the sense of how long something is going to last in the sense of at the latest up to a certain time

E ample ( years ago before (++I ten to si6 #H:H+$ ten past si6 #W:)+$ from Bonday to/till ,riday He is on holiday until ,riday. " ill be back by W oMclock. :y )) o9clock, " had read five pages.

by

PrCpositions Place 0Position and 'irection2

English

in

Usage room, building, street, to n, country book, paper etc. car, ta6i picture, orld meaning next to, by an object for table for events place here you are to do something typical # atch a film, study, ork$ attached for a place ith a river being on a surface for a certain side #left, right$ for a floor in a house for public transport for television, radio left or right of somebody or something on the ground, lo er than #or covered by$ something

E ample

in the kitchen, in &ondon in the book in the car, in a ta6i in the picture, in the orld at the door, at the station at the table at a concert, at the party at the cinema, at school, at ork the picture on the all &ondon lies on the .hames. on the table on the left on the first floor on the bus, on a plane on .A, on the radio Cane is standing by / ne6t to / beside the car. the bag is under the table

at

on

by, ne6t to, beside under

English

Usage

E ample

belo

over

else lo er than something else but above ground covered by something else meaning more than getting to the other side #also across$ overcoming an obstacle higher than something else, but not directly over it getting to the other side #also over$ getting to the other side something ith limits on top, bottom and the sides movement to person or building movement to a place or country for bed enter a room / a building movement in the direction of something #but not directly to it$ movement to the top of something in the sense of where from

the fish are belo the surface put a %acket over your shirt over )W years of age alk over the bridge climb over the all a path above the lake alk across the bridge s im across the lake drive through the tunnel go to the cinema go to &ondon / "reland go to bed go into the kitchen / the house go H steps to ards the house %ump onto the table a flo er from the garden

above

across

through

to

into to ards onto from

8ther important Prepositions

English from

Usage ho gave it ho/ hat does it belong to hat does it sho ho made it alking or riding on horseback

E ample a present from Cane a page of the book the picture of a palace a book by Bark . ain on foot, on horseback get on the bus

of

by on

English

in off out of by at about

Usage entering a public transport vehicle entering a car / .a6i leaving a public transport vehicle leaving a car / .a6i rise or fall of something travelling #other than alking or horseriding$ for age for topics, meaning what about

E ample

get in the car get off the train get out of the ta6i prices have risen by )+ percent by car, by bus she learned Sussian at IH e ere talking about you

Pronouns 0Personal1 Possessive1 &elative and &efle ive Pronouns2

3ronouns are ords like I, me #personal pronouns$ or my, mine #possessive pronouns$. Personal Pronouns ob9ect sub9ect form form " me you you he him she her it it e us you you they them Possessive Ad9ectives and Pronouns possessive ad9ective possessive pronoun my your his her its our your their mine yours his hers its ours yours theirs &efle ive Pronouns myself yourself himself herself itself ourselves yourselves themselves

Personal Pronouns + Sub9ect !orm

e6ample: We have got some books.

Question Tags
Question tags are used in conversation to get a #positive$ reaction from the person you are talking to. .hatMs not really difficult, is it? 0o$

!orm

positive main clause N negative 1uestion tag negative main clause N positive 1uestion tag

E amples
8ou are .om, arenMt you? He isnMt Coe, is he? main clause ith au6iliary verb N use au6iliary verb in 1uestion tag 8ouMve got a car, havenMt you?

&elative $lauses
@ontent Ho to form relative clauses &evel: lo er intermediate Selative pronouns &evel: lo er intermediate 5ub%ect pronouns or Gb%ect pronouns? &evel: lo er intermediate Selative adverbs &evel: intermediate Defining relative clauses &evel: lo er intermediate Non>defining relative clauses &evel: upper intermediate Ho to shorten relative clauses &evel: intermediate ;6ercises and .ests ;6ercises and tests on relative clauses -e use relative clauses to give additional information about something ithout starting another sentence. :y combining sentences ith a relative clause, your te6t becomes more fluent and you can avoid repeating certain ords.

Bo* to !orm &elative $lauses %evel, lo*er intermediate

"magine, a girl is talking to .om. 8ou ant to kno kno s her. 8ou could say: A girl is talking to .om. Do you kno the girl? .hat sounds rather complicated, doesn9t it? "t ould be easier ith a relative clause: you put both pieces of information into one sentence. 5tart ith the most important thing F you ant to kno ho the girl is. ho she is and ask a friend hether he

Do you kno the girl ! As your friend cannot kno hich girl you are talking about, you need to put in the additional information F the girl is talking to .om. 7se Ythe girlD only in the first part of the sentence, in the second part replace it ith the relative pronoun #for people, use the relative pronoun Y hoD$. 5o the final sentence is: Do you kno the girl *ho is talking to .om?

&elative Pronouns %evel, lo*er intermediate

relative pronoun ho hich hich hose hom that use sub%ect or ob%ect pronoun for people sub%ect or ob%ect pronoun for animals and things referring to a hole sentence possession for people animals and things ob%ect pronoun for people, especially in non> defining relative clauses #in defining relative clauses e collo1uially prefer who$ sub%ect or ob%ect pronoun for people, animals and things in defining relative clauses #who or which are also possible$ e ample " told you about the oman who lives ne6t door. Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? He couldnMt read which surprised me. Do you kno the boy whose mother is a nurse? " as invited by the professor whom " met at the conference. " donMt like the table that stands in the kitchen.

Sub9ect Pronoun or 8b9ect Pronoun7 %evel, lo*er intermediate

5ub%ect and ob%ect pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms > ho, hich, that are used for sub%ect and ob%ect pronouns. 8ou can, ho ever, distinguish them as follo s: "f the relative pronoun is follo ed by a verb, the relative pronoun is a subject !ronoun. 5ub%ect pronouns must al ays be used. the apple *hich is lying on the table "f the relative pronoun is not follo ed by a verb #but by a noun or pronoun$, the relative pronoun is an object !ronoun. Gb%ect pronouns can be dropped in defining relative clauses, hich are then called 4ontact 4lauses. the apple 0*hich2 +eorge lay on the table

&elative Adverbs %evel, intermediate

A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. .his often makes the sentence easier to understand. .his is the shop in *hich " bought my bike. N .his is the shop *here " bought my bike. relative adverb hen here hy meaning in/on hich in/at hich for hich use refers to a time e6pression refers to a place refers to a reason e ample the day when e met him the place where e met him the reason why e met him

'efining &elative $lauses %evel, lo*er intermediate

Defining relative clauses #also called identifying relative clauses or restrictive relative clauses$ give detailed information defining a general term or e6pression. Defining relative clauses are not put in commas. "magine, .om is in a room ith five girls. Gne girl is talking to .om and you ask somebody hether he kno s this girl. Here the relative clause defines hich of the five girls you mean. Do you kno the girl ho is talking to .om? Defining relative clauses are often used in definitions. A seaman is someone ho orks on a ship. Gb%ect pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped. #5entences ith a relative clause ithout the relative pronoun are called 4ontact 4lauses.$ .he boy 0*ho/*hom2 e met yesterday is very nice.

Non+'efining &elative $lauses %evel, upper intermediate

Non>defining relative clauses #also called non-identifying relative clauses or non-restrictive relative clauses$ give additional information on something, but do not define it. Non>defining relative clauses are put in commas. "magine, .om is in a room ith only one girl. .he t o are talking to each other and you ask somebody hether he kno s this girl. Here the relative clause is non>defining because in this situation it is obvious hich girl you mean.

Do you kno the girl, ho is talking to .om? Note: "n non>defining relative clauses, who which may not be replaced ith that. Gb%ect pronouns in non>defining relative clauses must be used. Cim, ho/ hom e met yesterday, is very nice.

Bo* to Shorten &elative $lauses7 %evel, intermediate

Selative clauses ith who, which, that as sub%ect pronoun can be replaced ith a participle. .his makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand. " told you about the oman who lives ne6t door. F " told you about the oman living ne6t door. Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? F Do you see the cat lying on the roof?

&eported Speech 0"ndirect Speech2

;6ercises on Seported 5peech "f e report hat another person has said, e usually do not use the speakerMs e6act ords #direct speech$, but reported #indirect$ speech. .herefore, you need to learn ho to transform direct speech into reported speech. .he structure is a little different depending on hether you ant to transform a statement, 1uestion or re1uest.

Statements
-hen transforming statements, check hether you have to change:

pronouns present tense verbs #=rd person singular$ place and time e6pressions tenses #backshift$

T-pe E ample direct speech D" speak ;nglish.E reported speech He says that he speaks ;nglish. 0no bac4shift2 reported speech He said that he spoke ;nglish. 0bac4shift2 N more on statements in reported speech

Questions
-hen transforming 1uestions, check hether you have to change:

pronouns present tense verbs #=rd person singular$ place and time e6pressions tenses #backshift$

Also note that you have to:

transform the 1uestion into an indirect 1uestion use the interrogative or if / whether T-pe

E ample direct speech D-hy donMt you speak ;nglish?E *ith interrogative reported speech He asked me hy " didnMt speak ;nglish. direct speech DDo you speak ;nglish?E *ithout interrogative reported speech He asked me hether / if " spoke ;nglish. N more on 1uestions in reported speech

&e)uests
-hen transforming 1uestions, check hether you have to change:

pronouns place and time e6pressions

T-pe E ample direct speech D@arol, speak ;nglish.D reported speech He told @arol to speak ;nglish.