Himalayan Geology, Vol. 26 (1), 2005, pp.

223-240, Printed in India

Late Quaternary geology and alluvial stratigraphy of the Ganga basin

R. SINHA1, S. K. TANDON2, M. R. GIBLING3, P. S. BHATTACHARJEE1 & A. S. DASGUPTA1

1
Engineering Geosciences Division, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur 208018, India
2
Department of Geology, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007
3
Department of Earth Sciences, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 3J5, Canada

Abstract: The Ganga basin in the Himalayan foreland is a part of the world’s largest area of modern alluvial sedimentation
and supports a population of over 200 million people. The Ganga plain deposits not only provide a modern analogue for
the ancient fluvial sequences of the Himalayan foreland basin but they also provide one of the most significant continental
records for understanding the interplay of climate, tectonics and eustatic changes in generating thick sedimentary fills in
a monsoon-dominated foreland system. Given the large dimensions of the Ganga basin and the lack of an integrated
approach, the available data are fragmentary, and several important questions regarding the sedimentary architecture and
the process-form relationships of the parent rivers remain unanswered. This paper reviews the available information on
the near-surface Late Quaternary stratigraphy of the upper, middle and lower Ganga basin, and reports new results based
on studies of river cliff sections and shallow boreholes down to ~50 m depth. We record significant variation in
sedimentary architecture between the upper and middle Ganga plains in the western and eastern parts of the basin,
respectively. This variation reflects geomorphic diversity (linked especially to precipitation gradients) and tectonic
history in the frontal orogenic areas which, in turn, impact sediment supply into the basin. Many of the alluvial
sequences in the upper Ganga basin are interrupted by discontinuities that probably reflect Quaternary climatic
fluctuations. In addition to controlling the long-term accumulation rate, tectonics may have had some local influence, and
the effects of eustatic changes were almost certainly limited to the deltaic region of the lower Ganga plains, extending to
a maximum of 300-400 km landward.

INTRODUCTION
The Ganga basin, an important constituent of the Himalayan
foreland, formed as a consequence of the India-Asia collision
processes that were initiated in the Palaeogene. The Ganga is
the axial river of the basin, and originates in the Himalayan
orogen, being joined by a number of major Himalayan
tributaries including the the Yamuna, Ramganga, Ghaghra,
Gandak, Kosi, and Tista before draining into the Bay of Bengal
(Fig. 1). The mighty Brahmaputra also meets the Ganges and
forms a major deltaic depocenter in the Bengal basin. A number
of tributaries join the Ganga system from the Indian craton
and Deccan Basalt terrain such as the Chambal, Betwa and
Ken (which join the Yamuna), Son, and Punpun. Since the
inception of the basin and due to the continuing rise of the
Himalaya, the rivers draining the Ganga basin have formed a
large conduit of sediment transfer from the Himalaya to the
Ganges delta. Although the bulk of the sediments are
transferred to the Ganges delta, considerable sediment has
accumulated in the Ganga plains to generate a thick fill of
fluvial sediments which may be up to several kilometers thick
in various parts.
The study of the Quaternary sedimentary fill of the Ganga
basin, including sedimentary architecture, and the process-
form relationships of rivers which deposited the fill have gained
enormous importance during the last several decades. The
geological perspective of such studies has been to develop
modern analogues for ancient fluvial sequences in the
Himalayan foothills and below the modern plains, as well as
to understand the interplay of climate, tectonics and eustatic
changes in generating this thick sedimentary fill. Given the
large dimensions of the Ganga basin, the available data are
fragmentary and limited. To assess our understanding, a few
significant questions may be considered:
a) For how long have the present-day large rivers, for
example the Ganga and Yamuna, been in their present
position?
b) How wide are the present-day river valleys in the Ganga
basin and how thick are their valley fills?
c) What are the sedimentation patterns of these deposits
in the valleys and on interfluves? Discontinuities have
been recognized in the interfluve stratigraphy but how
extensive are they and what sort of time gaps do they
represent?
d) How have these river systems and basins been affected
by Quaternary climate change and monsoonal
fluctuations, active tectonics and earthquakes, and sea-
level change?

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Fig. 1. Major drainage and rainfall distribution across the Upper (UGP), Middle (MGP) and Lower (LGP) Ganga plains (compiled from Singh
1994).
The scarcity of basin-wide data and the lack of integrated
geomorphologic, stratigraphic, sedimentological, mineralogical
and geochemical approaches have precluded comprehensive
answers to these questions. Most of the previous studies
(Kumar & Singh 1978, Singh et al. 1997, 1999a,b, Sinha et al.
2002, Srivastava et al. 2003a,b) in the Ganga basin have
involved the study of near-surface sediments from exposed
sections or shallow auger holes. These studies are from widely
separated sections, and no detailed correlation schemes could
be evolved. A process-based understanding has been lacking
because the evolution of the present-day landscape and its
geomorphic diversity have not been integrated in such studies.
This paper reviews the present state of knowledge of the
Quaternary geology and alluvial stratigraphy of the Ganga
basin and presents our recent research in parts of the plains.
The latter research has involved an integrated approach of
surface geomorphology, near surface stratigraphy, and the
study of drill cores from shallow boreholes coupled with
detailed sedimentological and geochronological analysis.
GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE GANGA BASIN
The Ganga basin is an active foreland basin having an east-
west elongated shape. The basin formed in response to the
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uplift of Himalaya after the collision of Indian and Asian plates
(Dewey & Bird 1970). The Ganga plain foreland basin shows
all the major components of a foreland basin system (DeCelles
& Giles 1996), namely an orogen (the Himalaya), deformed
foreland basin deposits adjacent to the orogen (Siwalik Hills),
a depositional basin (Ganga Plain) and peripheral cratonic
bulge (Bundelkhand Plateau) (cf. Singh 1996). This phase of
the foreland basin’s history possibly originated in the Early
Miocene. In the early phase of the foreland basin (Early
Miocene), the foreland basin had small dimensions, with
comparatively minor subsidence (France-Lanord et al. 1983).
The foreland basin was more completely established in the
Middle Miocene, after considerable lithosphere flexure and
subsidence of the basin. During the Middle Miocene to Middle
Pleistocene (deposition of Lower to Upper Siwalik Group), the
northern part of the Ganga plain was uplifted and thrust
basinwards, and the Ganga basin shifted southward
(cratonwards) in response to thrust loading in the orogen
(Singh 1996). Covey (1986) applied the term “under-filled basin”
to the Ganga foreland basin at this time, which represents a
topographic low between the thrust belt (Himalaya) and the
peripheral bulge. The under-filled condition developed due to
an efficient transport system for the sediment supplied, which
removed the bulk of the sediment to the Ganga delta and
Bengal fan.
Burbank (1992) suggested that the Ganga foreland basin
has been dominated by transverse river systems since the
Pliocene due to erosionally-driven uplift (symmetric
subsidence of the foreland), whereas the Indus foreland basin
is dominated by longitudinal river systems due to tectonically-
driven uplift (asymmetric subsidence of the foreland). Large
Plio-Pleistocene sediment fluxes combined with less
asymmetric subsidence and uplift of the proximal foreland led
to the progradation of the transverse drainage systems that
displaced the Ganga River to the edge of the foreland basin.
The present day river position is consistent with erosion-
driven uplift in the adjacent Himalaya. Further, the sediment
accumulation rates generally exceeded the subsidence rates
of the foreland throughout the history of the Ganga basin.
SUB-SURFACE GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC
FRAMEWORK
drilling carried out by ONGC for oil exploration. These data
have been used by several workers to interpret the basement
structure and sub-surface geology (Rao 1973, Sastri et al.
1971, Karunakaran & Ranga Rao 1979, Raiverman et al. 1983,
Lyon-Caen & Molnar 1985). The thickness of the alluvium is
~6 km near the foothill zone and decreases gradually towards
the south (Rao 1973). Geophysical surveys show that the
metamorphic basement exhibits a number of ridges and basins
(Fig. 2). The Ganga basin is characterized by three subsurface
ridges, i.e. Delhi-Hardwar ridge in the west, Faizabad ridge in
the middle, and Monghyr-Saharsa ridge in the east (Rao 1973,
Parkash & Kumar 1991). There are two important depressions
in this area, namely the Gandak and the Sarda deep. The
foreland sediments rest on these basement ridges. In the area
between the Delhi-Hardwar ridge and the Faizabad ridge, the
sediments rest on Late Proterozoic unmetamorphosed
sediments, which are part of the Vindhyan basin in the south
and the Krol basin in the north. East of the Monhgyr-Saharsa
ridge, the foreland sediments lie on a thick succession of
Gondwana rocks.

Geophysical studies in the Ganga basin have included gravity, The Ganga basin is traversed by several transverse and
seismic and aeromagnetic surveys coupled with some deep oblique subsurface faults (Agarwal 1977, Dasgupta et al. 1987,

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Fig. 2. Subsurface geology and tectonic framework of the upper and middle Ganga basin; numbers indicate the major sub-surface faults identified
by geophysical surveys (based on Sastri et al. 1971, Rao 1973, GSI 2000). 1- Great Boundary Fault, 2- Delhi-Moradabad Fault, 3-Lucknow
Fault, 4- west Patna Fault, 5- East Patna Fault, 6-Monghyr-Saharasa Ridge Fault, 7- Malda-Kishanganj Fault.

225
Valdiya 1976) and the seismic data have shown that many of
these faults are neotectonically active as evidenced by recent
seismic activities (major earthquakes in 1833, 1906, 1934 and
1987), with the possibility of large earthquakes in the near
future (Bilham 1995). The present models of Himalayan
seismotectonics predict westward decrease in crustal
shortening and uplift rate along the Himalayan Frontal Thrust
(HFT) (Peltzer & Saucier 1996, Wesnousky et al. 1999) based
on the higher crustal shortening rate and average Holocene
uplift rate in Nepal (≅20mm/a and 15 mm/a respectively) and
lower rates in Dehradun (11.9±3.1 mm/a and 6.9±1.8 mm/a
respectively 10-12mm/yr). These longitudinal and transverse
faults along with the basement configuration of the Ganga
plains have long been considered to influence the fluvial
processes and sedimentation (Raiverman et al. 1983, Parkash
& Kumar 1991, Agrawal & Bhoj 1992, Pant & Sharma 1993,
Ghosh 1994, Parkash et al. 2000). Thus, the foreland basin is
not a simple linear zone dominated solely by Himalayan
dynamics but represents the complex interaction of thrust
loading with zones of varied subsidence rate and major, active
faults that localize deformation and influence the
geomorphology of the plains.
RIVER SYSTEMS AND MAJOR FLUVIAL
PROCESSES IN THE GANGA PLAINS
The east-west trending Ganga plains are the surface
expression of the Himalayan foreland basin and are drained
by a number of N-S trending river systems in a varied climatic
setting (Fig. 1). The normal annual rainfall in the Ganga plains
varies from 60 cm to more than 160 cm (Fig. 1). In general, the
western part of the Ganga Plains receives less rainfall (from
60-140 cm) in comparison to the eastern parts (90- >160 cm).
Further, the northern part of the plains area receives higher
rainfall than the southern part. The temperature in the Ganga
plains varies from 5° to 25°C in winter and from 20°C to more
than 40°C during summer.
The primacy of three distinct types of fluvial systems in
the evolution of the Ganga plains has been recognized, each
characterized by different source area characteristics, viz.
mountain-fed, foothills-fed and plains-fed (Sinha & Friend
1994). Mountain-fed rivers such as the Ganga, Gandak and
Kosi are generally multi-channel, braided systems,
characterised by discharge and sediment loads that are many
times higher than those of the single-channel, sinuous
foothills-fed and plains-fed river systems. They also transfer
a large quantity of sediments from their high relief catchments
to the plains and consequently form large depositional areas
(megafans). The foothills-fed (e.g. Baghmati, Rapti) and plains-
fed (e.g. Burhi Gandak, Gomti) rivers derive their sediments
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from the foothills and from within the plains, and a large
proportion of this material is re-deposited in the plains after
local reworking.
In a geomorphic perspective, each of these fluvial systems
has characteristic geomorphic ‘units’ such as channel belt,
floodplain, dissected plain and piedmont plain. These units
themselves consist of different geomorphic ‘elements’, for
example, active/inactive channels, lakes/swamps, gullies and
eolian features. Apart from developing a hierarchical sense to
our descriptions, this approach has allowed us to examine
geomorphic heterogeneity at various spatial levels. Our earlier
work has noted significant geomorphic diversity across the
plains manifested as variability of fluvial processes, spatial
distribution of different geomorphic units and frequency of
geomorphic elements (Sinha et al. 2002, Jain & Sinha 2003a,
Sinha et al. submitted). This consequently characterizes the
plains to be dominantly aggradational or degradational. Such
geomorphic diversity is attributed to differences in stream
power of the rivers draining the plains and sediment supply
from the catchment areas (Sinha et al. submitted) which, in
turn, are controlled by varied climatic and tectonic settings.
The alluvial rivers in the Ganga plains occupy narrow
valleys which are separated by large interfluves. Tandon
et al. (submitted) have shown that the processes controlling
the valley formation and filling in the Gangetic plains are
extremely variable in space. Near the Himalayan front, both
tectonic and climatic factors have been responsible for valley
formation and incison. In contrast, the strong incised valleys
in the western and southern plains have mainly been controlled
by climatic factors since tectonic activity and subsidence have
been minimal in these regions.
Channel movements through avulsion and cut-offs have
been recognized in most of the rivers of the Ganga system,
albeit with a difference in scale and frequency. In areas south
of the Himalayan Front, especially in north Bihar, early studies
of the migration of the Kosi by Geddes (1960) and Mookerjea
(1961) were followed by several studies on Kosi channel
dynamics and causes of migration (Gole & Chitale 1966,
Arogyaswamy 1971, Wells & Dorr 1987, Agarwal & Bhoj 1992).
Mohindra et al. (1992) described the migration of the Gandak
over its megafan from west to east over a distance of about 80
km. Phillip et al. (1989), Phillip & Gupta (1993) and Sinha (1996)
reported the migration of several smaller rivers such as Burhi
Gandak, Baghmati, and Kamla-Balan in the Gandak-Kosi
interfluve. Jain & Sinha (2003b, 2004) have presented one of
the most comprehensive data sets on the ‘hyperavulsive’
Baghmati river over a period of ~250 years and attributed this
avulsive pattern to neotectonic perturbance and
sedimentological readjustments.
 The rivers of the Ganga system draining the UP plains are
not as dynamic as the north Bihar rivers, but they do show
some channel movement over a long time period. In the area
between Bithur and Kanpur Railway Bridge, the main Ganga
channel has recorded major movements in the historical period
(1857-present) between its left and right bank (Hegde et al.
1989). These have been attributed to the highly irregular shape
of the valley in the area. The Ghaghra river in the UP plains
has also shifted in certain places by ~5 km on either side of the
active channel over a 7-year period from 1975-1982. This
migration has been related to neotectonics in the area (Tangri
1992, Srivastava et al. 1994). Chandra (1993) noted a SW
diversion of Rapti river near Baharaich due to aggradation in
the old channel. The Sarda river has been characterised by
several westward shifts (Tangri 2000).
Many rivers in the Ganga plains, particularly in the eastern
parts, are prone to flooding and the region is regarded as one
of the worst flood-affected regions in the world (Agrawal &
Narain 1996). The plains of north Bihar have the dubious
distinction of recording the highest number of floods in India
in the last 30 years (Kale 1997). The overall hydrological
response of the basin depends, apart from the rainfall intensity
and duration, upon the geomorphometric characteristics (Jain
& Sinha 2003c, d), neotectonics and fluvial processes. The
dynamic behaviour of river channels and frequent avulsions
caused by sedimentological readjustments or other factors
often divert the flow into a newly formed channel with low
bankfull capacity causing extensive flooding (Sinha 1998, Sinha
& Jain 1998, Jain & Sinha 2003e). In contrast, the western
Ganga plains do not flood so frequently due to their incised
valleys and lesser frequency of avulsions.
Earthquakes may exert a significant effect on short-term
sediment supply in the Ganga catchment, which is affected by
large seismic events. In recent time, their effect has been best
documented in the Brahmaputra catchment, where the 1950
Assam earthquake dislodged 47 billion m3 of material, resulting
in temporary dams in rivers and catastrophic dam bursts. The
following monsoon season resulted in unprecedented floods
due to aggradation of up to 8 m of sediment in the channels,
with a wave of downstream aggradation over the next few
decades (Goswami 1985, Keefer 1999).
ALLUVIAL STRATIGRAPHY
One of the most convenient divisions of the Great Plains of
India has been on the basis of geographic and climatic features
(Singh 1994). Following these criteria, we focus on Upper,
Middle and Lower parts of the Ganga plains (Fig. 1) after
Singh (1994) to discuss the alluvial stratigraphy below this
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vast alluvial tract. Although tectonic approaches might
suggest dividing the basin into proximal (northern) and distal
(southern) regions with respect to the Himalayan Front and
subsidence rates, considerable evidence suggests that west-
to-east climatic and geomorphic gradients exert an especially
strong control on the dynamics of the Ganga system in UP
and north Bihar. The Lower Ganga plains are essentially the
deltaic areas liable to sea-level effects.
Upper Ganga Plains
In the Upper Ganga Plains, megafan deposits of the Ganga
and its tributaries occupy a large part of the basin. Geddes
(1960) first showed that the Upper Ganga Plains are made up
of cone and inter-cone areas. The Ganga River incises into the
150 km long and 100 km wide Yamuna-Ganga plain, generating
a broad valley. The valley walls rise 15-30 m above the Ganga
River along cliff lines, and extensive gullying has exposed
the Ganga plain deposits. These deposits are exposed for
about 100 km in the down current direction and, at places,
form sections several hundred meters to kilometers long
(Shukla et al. 2001). The modern Ganga and Yamuna rivers are
deeply incised into this surface and are not actively depositing
sediments on most parts of the ‘megafan’. The Ganga
‘megafan’ deposits can be classified into four zones, depicting
proximal to distal facies changes : zone I- gravelly braided
streams; Zone II- sandy braid plain; Zone III-anabranching
channel plain; and Zone IV-meandering channels with broad
interfluve areas (Shukla et al. 2001). Paleoflow in the megafan
deposits was towards the SW and SE to E with a distal decrease
in grain size . The Ganga ‘megafan’ is a relict feature formed
during Late Pleistocene, when coarse grained sediment and
higher sediment and water discharge was available (Singh et
al. 1990).
In the Uttar Pradesh plains to the south and east, cliffs
along the Ganga, Yamuna and Sengar rivers provide
“windows” into the subsurface. Singh et al. (1997 1999a,b)
studied the exposed sections and provided a first-level
stratigraphic framework. Srivastava et al. (2003) provided
luminescence chronometry of several sections in the upper
Ganga plains and discussed the time constraints on the
development of different geomorphic surfaces.
During the last few years, we have focused on the Ganga-
Yamuna interfluve between Kanpur and Kalpi (Fig. 3), and
have studied the exposed sections along river banks as well
as in shallow drill cores down to a depth of ~50 m. We have
used an integrated approach involving geomorphic analysis
aided by satellite images followed by rigorous stratigraphic
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Fig. 3. False Color Composite of the IRS-LISSIII image showing the Ganga-Yamuna interfluve between Kanpur and Kalpi. Three cliff sections at Bithur,
Mawar and Kalpi have been studied and summarized stratigraphic sections are shown in Fig. 5. A fourth section at Kotra lies in the Yamuna-Betwa
interfluve, ~50km south of Kalpi (outside this image). Locations of five drill holes (1 through 5) are also shown and the logs at these sites are
presented in Fig. 6.

and sedimentologic analysis of the cliff sections and drill cores.
The detailed geomorphic mapping has allowed the
identification of the main geomorphic units,including major
active channel belts, major active floodplains, minor active
channels and floodplains, minor inactive channels and
floodplains, slightly dissected plains and highly dissected
plains (Sinha et al. 2002, Gibling et al. in press, Sinha et al. in
press-a). The stratigraphic work on the cliff sections (Fig.
4) is based on the preparation of photomosaics of cliffs up to
several kilometers long, from which a detailed tracing of the
strata was prepared. This was followed by stratigraphic
measurements and graphic facies logging at selected points
in the cliff sections along the Ganga (at Bithur), Sengar (at
Mawar), Yamuna (at Kalpi) and Betwa (at Kotra). Fig. 5 shows
the summary logs at these four locations and a brief description
presented below has been extracted from Sinha et al. (2002),
Gibling et al. (in press) and Sinha et al. (in press-a). The
sections are tens of kilometers apart, and the extent of
individual stratigraphic units and bounding surfaces remains
to be determined. They lie along the major rivers, and may not
be representative of strata in the central parts of the interfluves.
Accumulation rates in this southerly part of the foreland basin
appear to have been modest over the past 100 ka, in the order
of 0.3 mm/year.
A ~12 m section at Bithur on the Ganga river (Fig. 4) has
six distinct lithostratigraphic units (Fig. 5a). Unit 1 is a floodplain
deposit consisting of mottled clayey silt with abundant
carbonate nodules. Units 2, 4, and 6 have well-developed
stratification within dark silty clay and show strong
efflorescence coatings of halite. We have interpreted them to
be lacustrine deposits. Units 3 and 5 are composed of pale
yellow silt to very fine sand with prominent rhizoconcretions,
and have been interpreted as eolian deposits. The ~10 m Mawar
section (Fig. 5b) is located along a smaller, plains-fed river, the
Sengar. Units 1 and 2 of this section are interpreted as floodplain
deposits consisting of silty clay and clayey silt with mottles
and carbonate nodules. Two channel sand bodies, units 3 and
4, are encased within the upper floodplain unit, and the channel
fills consist of alluvial gravels interbedded with fine sand and
silt of eolian and lacustrine origin.
The cliff section at Kalpi (Fig. 5c) along the Yamuna river
is one of the thickest sections available in the region and we
identify five lithostratigraphic units here. The basal exposed

228
Fig. 4. Cliff sections in the Ganga-Yamuna plains; (a) Bithur (~12m), (b) Kalpi (~20m), and (c) Kotra (~30m). Numbers indicate the major
lithostratigraphic units at each section (based on Gibling et al. in press; Sinha et al. in press).

Fig. 5. Summarized stratigraphic logs at (a) Bithur, (b) Mawar, (c) Kalpi, and (d) Kotra sections. Each unit has been interpreted in terms of
depositional environments (C-Channel, E- eolian, F-Floodplain, G-Gravel-fills, L- Lacustrine).

229
unit 1 is a floodplain unit comprising silty clay with dark mottles
and scattered carbonate nodules and rhizoconcretions. A layer
of pink feldspathic sand is present low in the unit, and is
discussed below. Unit 2 is a thin channel sand body made up
of fine to medium sand with a gravel lag deposit at the base.
The unit has abundant nodules and rhizoconcretions and is
capped by a cemented sand layer. Unit 3 has been interpreted
as a paleosol layer deposited in a swampy environment and
consists of poorly stratified silty clay with sparse gastropod
shells and rhizoconcretions. Unit 4 is ~23 m thick and consists
predominantly of mud, representing prolonged floodplain
accumulation with pedogenesis manifested as mottles and
carbonate concretions. Dark layers within this unit and
especially in its topmost part are interpreted as lacustrine
deposits. Distinct gully cutting and filling events are inset
locally in unit 4, and we designate them as unit 5. The gully fills
consist of steeply dipping silty sand and brown mud with
lenses of carbonate gravel.
The Kotra section (Fig. 5d) overlies Pre-Cambrian
basement at the southern margin of the Ganga basin. A~23 m
section is exposed along the Betwa river which joins the Yamuna
river downstream of Kalpi. The basal gravel unit 1 is probably
very old and is exposed only locally. The overlying unit 2 is a
floodplain mud with minor silt and sand lenses, dark mottles,
carbonate nodules and rhizoconcretions. Unit 3 is a gravel-
filled channel body with planar and trough cross-sets. Unit 4 is
~14 m of floodplain clay with abundant rhizoconcretions and
carbonate gravels.
A common feature at all four localities is the presence of
mud-dominated deposits underlying the modern interfluves at
shallow depth. We interpret them as the floodplain deposits of
major rivers and plains-fed tributaries. These deposits show
evidence of moderate pedogenesis, and are overlain by
prominent discontinuities marked by widespread erosion or a
radical change in facies. At Bithur, more than 8 m of lacustrine
and eolian strata overlie the floodplain deposits. At Mawar,
similar floodplain deposits are incised by channels filled with
reworked carbonate gravel, lacustrine and eolian strata. The
floodplain deposits at Kalpi are cut by large gully fills and
capped by possible lacustrine deposits. Further, we record the
presence of discontinuities at deeper levels in the thicker
exposed sections, for examplein the Kalpi and Kotra sections
where they are marked by extensive, low-relief degradational
surfaces with gully fills of mud, sand and reworked gravel.
Rhizoconcretions are abundant at these levels, suggesting
strong pedogenesis, and some surfaces are cemented with
groundwater carbonate. Thin channel bodies of gravel and
sand are encased within thick floodplain muds and represent
small plains-fed rivers. By analogy with near-surface deposits,
230
the discontinuities are inferred to mark former degradational
surfaces in the floodplains. Age dates for these sections
(Gibling et al. in press) suggest that floodplain aggradation,
punctuated by periods of stronger pedogenetic activity and
local degradation, dominated the southern Gangetic Plains
during Marine Isotope Stages 3-5 (about 35-100 ka). This
sedimentation pattern changed significantly late in Stage 3,
when gullying commenced at Kalpi. The marked change from
floodplain to eolian and lacustrine strata at Bithur is dated at
about 27 ka (late in Stage 3) and continued through the Last
Glacial Maximum of Stage 2. A further episode of floodplain
degradation took place at Mawar at about 9-13 ka (early in
Stage 1). Although the timing of incision that created the
modern river cliffs is poorly constrained, much of the incision
may have taken place early in Stage 1 (see also Williams &
Clarke 1984, 1995). As discussed in Gibling et al. (in press),
these dates show a reasonable first-order correlation with the
monsoonal precipitation record set out by Prell & Kutzbach
(1987). They further suggest that fluctuations in precipitation
governed river discharge and sediment supply, which in turn
controlled aggradation and degradation within the channels
and adjacent floodplains. Climatically-induced discontinuities
may have been accentuated by low subsidence rates in the
southern part of the foreland basin.
To follow up the work on cliff sections and to establish
better correlation, we have carried out drilling at several
locations in the Ganga-Yamuna interfluve (see Fig. 4 for
locations of boreholes). Continuous cores were collected and
analysed for understanding the stratigraphic development at
all these locations, and we include here some unpublished
data on petrographic composition and luminescence age dates.
Within the Ganga valley, the Firozpur core (Fig. 6a) is
marked by an alternation of channel and floodplain facies. The
upper and lower channel sands are 9-10 m thick, and are
separated by ~7m of floodplain muds which are moderately
pedogenically altered and bounded at both ends by prominent
kankar layers that mark discontinuities. The channel sands are
similar in petrographic features to modern Ganga sand, and
age dates suggest that the Ganga has been close to its present
site for at least the past 30 ka.
Within the interior of the Ganga – Yamuna interfluve, the
IITK core (Fig. 6b) consists mostly of silty-clay with occasional
silt layers. Kankars and mottles are distributed at all depths,
and the core represents a distal floodplain environment that
has been in effect for more than ~100 ka (unpublished data).
There is no major change in the facies except for a few thin silty
layers, probably crevasse splay deposits, which are more
frequent in the upper units. The Rania core (Fig. 6c) has 15-20
Fig. 6. Summarized logs of the drill cores at Firozpur (1), IITK (2), Raina (3), Bhognipur (4) and Kalpi (Yamuna bank) (5); see Figure 3 for
locations of the drill sites. Different lithostratigraphic units have been interpreted in terms of depositional environments (C-Channel,
CM-Channel margin, F- Floodplain). CL is marked as the beginning of Cultural Level.

m of floodplain strata underlain by channel deposits. The

channel body is ~6 m thick and is analogous to present-day
plains-fed rivers such as the Rindi which flows close to the
drill site. The floodplain muds have distinct bands of smaller
(2-4 mm diameter) kankars and soft dark mottles which mark
ancient soil horizons. The fine micaceous sandy layers have
fewer but larger (3-6 cm diameter) kankars at regular intervals.
Near the southern interfluve margin at Bhognipur, 20 m
of floodplain strata with abundant kankars and mottles pass
to a sand-silt alternation perhaps representing a channel margin
facies. Between 35-43 m depth, we recognize a ~7 m thick
coarse sand with numerous pink feldspar grains and a few
rock fragments. The lower boundary of this sand body is
marked by a ~10 cm thick zone of large (5-8 cm diameter)
kankars. This sand (locally called ‘Betwa sand’ where it has
been penetrated in water wells) resembles the channel deposits
of the present-day Betwa river, which drains the peninsular
granitic catchment. Petrographic examination of framework
grains and heavy minerals in this sand shows a typical cratonic
signature and close similarity with modern Betwa sand
(unpublished data).
231
Within the Yamuna valley, the Yamuna bank core shows a
channel margin sequence (levee?), about 12 m thick, consisting
of interbedded very fine sand and silty clay. The sand layers
are micaceous with thin patches of white silt, and petrographic
data suggest a predominant Himalayan source. The silty clay
layers have few soft dark mottles but kankars are absent. These
strata are underlain by a feldspathic coarse sand unit (base
not reached), much coarser than the present-day channel
sands of the Yamuna river and petrographically similar to the
sands at the base of the Bhognipur core. The core is capped
by a micaceous fine sand layer with some pink feldspar grains
and a few kankars and rhizocretions, perhaps representing in-
channel bar deposits.
The drill data contribute significantly to our
understanding of Upper Ganga plains history over the past
100 ka. Firstly, the Ganga and Yamuna valley cores suggest
that the Ganga & Yamuna rivers have been close to their
present positions for a prolonged period, probably at least
tens of thousands of years. Secondly, the IITK and Rania
cores in the interfluve mainly penetrated floodplain deposits
with only one small channel body, suggesting that major
Himalayan rivers have not occupied this region for perhaps
the past 100 ka. However, mountain-fed rivers may have
flooded large parts of the interfluve during earlier periods of
high monsoonal intensity, and the plains-fed rivers themselves
may have been very active in reworking sediment from the
Himalayan Orogen. Finally, the identification of cratonic
sediment at depth in the Bhognipur and Yamuna cores suggests
that wedges of sediment derived from the craton to the south
formerly extended much further north in the Kalpi area than
they do at present (and probably as far north as Kanpur at
deeper levels: Singh & Bajpai 1989). Although we currently
have no dates on this core material, a feldspathic sand from
Unit 1 of the Kalpi outcrop section yielded a date of 119 ka, in
the mid part of Stage 5 (Gibling et al. in press). The apparent
vitality of cratonic rivers during this period may reflect strong
monsoonal activity in central India, or may reflect such factors
as river capture and changes in course of Himalayan rivers,
changing the relative dominance of cratonic and Himalayan
rivers. Our data suggest that, at least in the Kalpi area,
Himalayan rivers may have moved to a basin-margin position
(Burbank 1992) as recently as the past 100 ka.
Sets of calcite veins and deformed channel sands in the
Kalpi section (Singh et al. 1999, Agarwal et al. 2002, Gibling et
al. in press) suggest that the region experienced major
earthquake activity in the past, although this part of the plains
is not currently active seismically.
Middle Ganga plains
Despite several studies in the middle Ganga plains, relatively
little is known about the Quaternary alluvial history of the
region and the organization of the deposits, in part because
few natural exposures exist. The channels are not deeply
incised in this area, and exposed bank sediments are those of
the modern, aggrading floodplain system, rather than that of
earlier Holocene or late Pleistocene sediments. Gohain &
Parkash (1990) and Mohindra et al. (1992) used the term
‘megafan’ to differentiate the large alluvial fans such as the
Kosi and Gandak from the small fans of the piedmont zone
developed close to the Himalayas. Sub-surface data from the
Kosi Fan (Singh et al. 1993) show a sheet of gravel and sand
>60 m thick capped by a surficial unit of sand and mud, typically
up to 10 m thick but locally up to 40 m. The authors interpreted
the lower unit as a braided-river deposit and the upper unit as
a “megafan sweep” succession, generated by migration of
the active zone of smaller channels across the fan. No age
dates presently constrain the timing of these events.
Shallow alluvial stratigraphy of the Baghmati river plains
in the Kosi-Gandak interfluve reveals the presence of 30-50 m
232
of mud with thin sand layers (2-3 m) representing crevasse
deposits (Sinha 1995, Sinha et al. in press-b). Floodplain
accumulation estimates of 0.7-1.5 mm/year in the north Bihar
plains over the past ~2400 years (Sinha et al. 1996) imply rapid
aggradation during the late Holocene. These rates are much
higher than those documented for the other near-surface parts
of the Ganga plains. Joshi & Bhartiya (1991) estimated a rate
of 0.2 mm/year over a period of 104 years based on 14C dates
from eastern Uttar Pradesh, and Chandra (1993) estimated 0.2-
0.05 mm/year over 104 years based on luminescence dates
from the middle Ganga plains. The eastern UP plains also
show mature soils, 3-4 m thick, with well-developed carbonate
horizons, estimated to be as old as 13,500 years BP (Srivastava
et al. 1994).
Sinha et al. (in press-b) analysed borehole records down
to about 100 m and showed that the modern anabranching
reach of the Baghmati in north Bihar plains is underlain by
thick sand units (typically 10-25 m) and thick mud units (up to
25 m), with widths of some channel bodies constrained to less
than a few kilometers, probably much less. Extrapolation of
near-surface floodplain accumulation rates to these
mudstones suggests that channels were stably positioned
for tens of thousands of years, allowing thick fine-grained
units to build up. Repeated reoccupation of drainage lines
with depths comparable to those of the modern channels may
have promoted the creation of thick channel bodies. The
floodplain deposits probably include both repeated (seasonal)
flood deposits, from floods such as those that inundate the
Baghmati plains in most years, and avulsion deposits into
floodplain lakes (tals).
Although outcrop data are sparse, it is probable that
alluvial deposits in these northern areas accumulate relatively
rapidly and continuously on account of rapid subsidence near
the Himalayan Front, coupled with the high discharge and
sediment supply of rivers in this high-precipitation part of the
northern Indian plains. Discontinuities in the successions are
likely to be uncommon and cryptic, unlike those documented
within alluvial successions of the Upper Ganga Plains. The
strata of this region may be especially relevant to interpreting
parts of the Siwalik Group in the foothills north of the
Himalayan Front. Much of the Siwalik Group is inferred to
have been deposited on megafans (Friend et al. 2001), and the
present exposures probably represent the more proximal parts
of the plains succession disrupted by the southerly advance
of thrusts.
In the plains south of the Ganga, Williams & Clarke (1984,
1995) described alluvial sequences in the Belan and Son
valleys ranging in age from Middle Pleistocene to Holocene.
An interesting comparison of these sequences with those in
the upper Gangetic plains described by us is the recognition
of a widespread discontinuity predating 10 ka in the form of
reworked aeolian deposits capping the alluvial succession. It
has been suggested by these authors that the bulk of these
aeolian deposits accumulated during the LGM period when
the river levels were low.
Lower Ganga plains and deltaic plain
The Lower Ganga Plains of the Indian sub-continent form one
of the most extensive fluvio/deltaic plains of the world and
they conceal the Bengal sedimentary basin. After draining
through the alluvial plains of UP and Bihar, the Ganga river
enters the lower plains area and delta region and finally meets
the sea in the Bay of Bengal. The Brahmaputra river draining
from the northeast joins the Ganga, and together they
constitute the largest delta in the world. The Ganges-
Brahmaputra river systems together transport ~1x109 t/yr of
sediments, and this puts them among the world’s largest
sediment load carrying systems. The Bengal basin acts as a
large sink for this huge sediment dispersal system, about 80
% of which is delivered during the monsoon (Goodbred &
Kuehl 2000).
The geomorphology of the Lower Ganga Plain has been
studied by Niyogi (1975) and Bhattacharya & Banerjee (1979).
Three major landforms - Uplands, Old Fluvial/deltaic plains
and young fluvial plains - are identified from the Lower Ganga
plains (Singh et al. 1998). Due to reactivation of some basement
faults and tectonic subsidence, the eastern and western sub-
units of the tectonic shelf were sites of active transgression
during the early Pleistocene and around 7-6 ka (Banerjee &
Sen 1987, Singh et al. 1998). Uplift of these sub-units at
different times triggered regression in the Holocene, which
controlled the timing of pedogenesis of the sub-units (Singh
et al. 1998).
The modern Bengal Basin comprises ~100,000 km2 of
lowland floodplain and delta plain deposits and is bounded
by Tertiary highlands. Within the Bengal Basin, the Madhupur
Terrace and Barind Tract are uplifted alluvial deposits of
Pleistocene age (Morgan & McIntyre 1959, Johnson & Alam
1991). The seaward extent of the Ganges-Bramhaputra deltaic
deposits is marked by the base of the subaqueous delta
foresets (Kuehl et al. 1997). A number of stratigraphic and
geochronologic studies in the Bengal Basin have helped to
define the depth and timing of the late Quaternary Ganges-
Brahmaputra fluviodeltaic sequences (Banerjee & Sen 1987,
Hait et al. 1996, Goodbred & Kuehl 2000a,b).
Stanley & Warne (1994) concluded that the sediment
supply, not the rate of sea-level rise, controlled the initiation
233
of the delta development, and was responsible for delta
stability under conditions of rapid eustatic rise. The initial
delta formation began at 11 ka B.P when rising sea level led to
back-flooding of the lowstand surface and the trapping of
riverine sediments, an event marked by transition from alluvial
sands or Pleistocene laterites to overlying mud that contain
estuarine shells and wood, along with thick valley-fill deposits
(Umitsu 1993, Goodbred et al. 2003). The thick estuarine
deposits and the persistence of the intertidal facies indicate
that sediment supply to the delta system has been sufficient
to infill accommodation created by the rapid sea-level rise.
Sediment discharge has probably varied significantly under
different climatic regimes since ~11 ka. Goodbred & Kuehl
(2000) estimated a mean load of 2.3x109 t/yr for the period 11
ka-7 ka, which is more than twice the present day load of
~1x10 9 t/yr. The intensification of the southwest monsoon
(Sirocko et al. 1993) supported regionally wetter conditions
and increased river discharge (Cullen 1981). Late Quaternary
Bengal Basin sediments show high smectite-kaolinite
concentration during the early Holocene period (~10-7 ka),
and this appears to reflect enhanced chemical weathering
under warmer and more humid conditions (Heroy et al. 2003).
Williams & Clarke (1984) also found evidence for 20-30 m of
floodplain incision along the Ganga tributaries during this
time, & Pratt et al. (2002) suggested strong incision in
Himalayan valleys during this period. The sediment load was
extremely reduced prior to 15 ka because of the dominance of
the dry northeastern monsoon, generating lower discharge
(Wiedicke et al. 1999). Recently, Chauhan et al. (2004) have
identified two phases of major fluvial influx in the Bay of Bengal
around 11.5 ka and 9.5 ka, based on temporal variation in
stable isotopes, mineral magnetism, clay minerals and
granulometric data. These variations have been related to
monsoonal intensification at around 9.5 ka.
Goodbred (2003) presented a comprehensive analysis of
the response of the Ganges dispersal system to climate
change, and suggested that this system has responded to
multi-millennial scale climate change in a system- wide and
contemporaneous manner, right from the source to the sink.
Although this analysis is based on a rather limited dataset, it
raises the important issue of whether sediment signals in the
Ganges system are transported very rapidly from source to
sink with little apparent attenuation. There is strong evidence
that large sediment volumes generated by earthquakes move
rapidly down the river systems (Goswami 1985). However, the
suggestion by Goodbred (2003) that the entire dispersal system
responded to climatic changes during the past 60 ka over
short time-scales may be somewhat generalized, keeping in
view the varied geological and climatic settings transected by
the system and the geomorphic diversity in the Ganges system
- from source catchment area to the lower delta plain. Sediment
may be stored for longer periods in some parts of the plains,
and the strong gradients in precipitation from west to east
and north to south across the Ganga plains (Fig. 1) may affect
the nature of the sedimentary response, the response rate,
and thresholds for transport conditions. Goodbred’s
hypothesis is provocative and requires further testing.
In the deltaic region, stratigraphic development has been
controlled by, apart from sediment supply, active tectonics
(Morgan 1970), and the interplay between the two has resulted
in unique and differing stratigraphies within the delta system
(Goodbred et al. 2003). In the northeast part of the delta, where
tectonic processes are most active, the presence of sub-basins
favors the dominance of fine grained floodplain deposits
(Umitsu 1993). In the western part of the delta, sandy alluvial
deposits dominate the stratigraphy due to fewer tectonic
features. Fluvial processes dominate this part of the delta,
but channel migration and avulsion tend to erode the fine
grained floodplain deposits (Stanley & Hait 2000). In the
southern delta coastal plain, due to the presence of an estuary,
a mix of fine and coarse grained facies with the muddy deposits
was preserved during early Holocene sea-level rise. Overall,
these individual stratigraphic sequences located in the same
delta system emphasize the importance of local basin factors
in modifying the alluvial architecture. Additional controls are
applied by riverine processes such as avulsions and episodic
earthquakes. A long history of delta switching in the Bengal
basin has been related to channel avulsion of the Ganges and
Brahmaputra rivers. Heroy et al. (2003) established a sequence
of river switching in the delta sequence using clay mineralogy
and heavy mineralogy. The major diagnostic difference
between the Ganga and Brahmaputra sand fractions turns out
to be a low (<1) epidote to garnet (E/G) ratio and relative
abundance of smectite in the Ganges alluvium. Proximity to
the Himalaya and catchment basin tectonics had a more direct
effect on the delta system, including controls on river course,
avulsion, sediment dispersal and facies preservation (Alam
1989, Goodbred et al. 2003).
DISCUSSION
The Quaternary alluvial stratigraphy of the Gangetic plains is
extremely varied from its upper reaches in the piedmont zone
to the flat middle part and finally to the lower parts and deltaic
region. The upper reaches of both the Ganga and Yamuna
river systems are deeply incised and presently the deposition
is confined within the channels. The older stratigraphy in the
upper Ganga plains close to the foothills show gravelly and
sandy deposits of braided rivers and the deposits fine distally.
It has been inferred that the coarser deposits in the upper
234
plains were deposited in Late Pleistocene at times of higher
discharge and sediment availability (Shukla et al. 2001), when
alluvial fans within Himalayan foothills valleys were also active
(Suresh et al. 2002).
Further south, an important element of stratigraphic
development in the interfluve region of the upper Ganga plains
is the recognition of ‘discontinuity-bound’ sequences (Gibling
et al. in press). Although a major proportion of the interfluve
sequence is made of muddy sediments, the alluvial deposition
has been punctuated by phases of non-deposition as well as
by accumulation of non-riverine deposits in the interfluves.
At several locations, these levels are marked by strong
pedogenic events manifested in calcrete development and
immature soil formation. At other locations, aggradation
continued in the form of aeolian and lacustrine deposition
(Bithur) or gully development and filling (Mawar, Kalpi). We
infer that these discontinuities in the stratigraphic record of
the interfluves have formed due to partial to complete
detachment of the floodplains from major rivers. These
discontinuity-bound sequences reflect repetitive phases of
floodplain aggradation and degradation in response to regional
climatic fluctuations during the last 30-40 ka (Gibling et al. in
press). This interpretation accords well with the present-day
geomorphology of the river systems. Major rivers such as the
Ganga and Yamuna, and minor rivers such as the Sengar and
Rindi in the Ganga-Yamuna interfluve, are deeply to moderately
incised (Fig. 7a) and do not flood during the monsoon period
except during exceptional events. On the contrary, most parts
of the middle Ganga plains are characterized by a rapidly filling
and aggradational regime. Most rivers in the eastern UP and
north Bihar plains have no incised banks (Fig. 7b) and the
rates of floodplain sedimentation are ~1.5 mm/yr (Sinha et al.
1996). Major rivers such as the Kosi and the Gandak have
continuously moved across their valleys and have formed
large sandy deposits up to 10 mthick in the sub-surface ande
much more where vertically stacked (Singh et al. 1993). The
multi-storied, sandy alluvial architecture in the subsurface of
these fans is in sharp contrast to the thick muddy deposits in
the interfluve, encasing thin sand bodies representing
avulsion deposits.
The contrasting alluvial architecture in the middle Ganga
plains may reflect larger sediment supply and a higher rainfall
compared to the upper Ganga plains. A higher sediment supply
in the middle Ganga plains may be a function of, apart from its
greater proximity to the Himalayan front, a higher crustal
shortening rate and a higher average Holocene uplift rate
(~20mm/a and 15 mm/a respectively, after Bilham 1995, Peltzer
& Saucier 1996, Lave & Avouac 2000) in the hinterland
compared to lower values of 11.9±3.1 mm/a and 6.9±1.8 mm/a (

Fig. 7. (a) The Kalpi cliff along the Yamuna river as an example of
‘detached floodplain’; (b) The Gandak river bank in north
Bihar plains as an example of ‘attached floodplain’.
Peltzer & Saucier 1996, Wesnousky et al. 1999) in the hinterland
of the upper Ganga plains. Although more data on the rates of
tectonic activity are needed along the whole Himalayan front,
these data are suggestive of a regional west-to-east trend in
uplift rates. Our earlier work has also highlighted the fact that
the rivers draining the middle Ganga plains have much lower
stream power compared to the rivers in the upper Ganga plains
(Sinha et al. submitted), and therefore have less energy to
force incision. Low stream power combined with higher
sediment supply has resulted in less prominent valleys,
frequent avulsion of rivers, and the inundation of large areas
during monsoon floods. As a result, a dominantly aggradational
regime is obvious in the surface geomorphology as well as in
the subsurface stratigraphy in the middle Ganga plains. Such
climatic and tectonic variance between the upper Ganga plain
and the middle Ganga plain may have existed over 104 -106 year
time scales, and this has resulted in marked geomorphic diversity
across the plains. These observations are at variance with
235
previous work where spatial homogeneity in geomorphic
development, manifested as regional geomorphic surfaces, has
been emphasized over vast regions of the Ganga Plains (Singh
et al. 1990, Singh 1996, Singh et al. 1999a).
Such spatial inhomogeneity in geomorphic development
has significant implications in understanding fluvial response
to climate change. Spatial or geographical differences in fluvial
response due to global climate change, resulting in
simultaneous changes in discharge regimes, are generally
expected (Blum & Törnqvist 2000). However, our work in the
Ganga plains shows that significant intra-basinal
inhomogeneities may also occur in different ‘domains’ of large
river basins separated by less than 1000 km due to spatial
differences in sediment supply and subsidence rate governed
by rainfall and tectonics. Such inherent inhomogeneities would
imply that these areas would also respond differently to any
change in global circulation pattern i.e. they would have a
‘differential sensitivity’ (Blum & Törnqvist 2000) to climate
change. If such differential sensitivity has existed over a long
time scale, this must have affected the development of the
alluvial architecture below the plains. Data presented in this
paper and elsewhere do suggest that there are marked
differences in alluvial stratigraphy across the Ganga plains.
A dominant upstream control such as climate and tectonics
on the geomorphic development of the Ganga Plains is also
borne out by our work, in contrast to downstream control
mechanisms such as sea-level changes suggested by earlier
workers (Kumar & Singh 1978, Singh & Bajpai 1989, Singh et
al. 1990, Singh 1996, Singh et al. 1999a). Fisk’s (1944) work on
the Mississippi river postulating eustatic control for more than
1000 km upstream from the modern shorelines has been
contested by many workers, and Blum and Törnqvist (2000)
have presented a summary of developments. New data from
different parts of the world (Schumm 1993, Shanley & McCabe
1993, Saucier 1994) suggest that the landward limit of sea level
changes and its influence on fluvial incision and aggradation
can be very variable, but for low-gradient, high sediment supply
systems such as the Ganga, it may not be more than 300-400
km. The upper and middle Ganga Plains are located ~1500 km
and ~800 km respectively from the sea, and therefore, any
influence of sea-level related changes in both these regions is
quite unlikely. Goodbred (2003) also pointed out that any
adjustment, due to eustatic change, in the Ganga system at a
distance of 600-1200 km from the sea is implausible.
The Lower Ganga plains and the deltaic plains present a
completely different scenario. Sea-level rise and fall has greatly
affected this area, with the creation of well marked valleys and
lowstand surfaces. However, an important conclusion from
some of the recent work (Goodbred 2003, Chauhan et al. 2004)
is that the fluvial influx in the Bengal basin has responded to
system-wide changes since the inception of the delta around
11 ka. Climatic fluctuations have an important role in controlling
the fluvial influx from the ‘source’,in addition to the effect of
sea-level fluctuations. The overall stratigraphic development
in the delta has also been strongly influenced by tectonics,
manifested as delta switching and subsidence.
CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE
PERSPECTIVES
The vast stretch of the Ganga plains, extending over 1500 km
downstream from the Yamuna river exit at the Himalayan Front,
shows extreme variability in terms of climatic parameters,
geomorphic setting, hydrological regime and tectonics of the
hinterland. This has resulted in variable stratigraphic
development across the plains along an east-west transect.
The upper Ganga plains have deeply incised rivers with 15-30
m of cliff sections along the river banks. Repeated degradation
and aggradation events separated by stratigraphic
discontinuities are recognized in the alluvial sequences, which
represent relatively slow rates of accumulation. The middle
Ganga plains are characterized by an aggradational regime
and 25-30m thick sand/mud intervals, and have developed
apparently without similar discontinuities. Long-term
accumulation rates for this region are not known but were
probably high in this region just south of the Himalayan Front.
Both the upper and middle Ganga plains have remained
outside the influence of the sea level fluctuations; climate,
and to some extent tectonics, have been the major controlling
factors in stratigraphic development in this region. In contrast,
the lower Ganga plain and the deltaic region have been
influenced by an interplay of climate, tectonics and eustasy
throughout the late Quaternary.
The overview presented in this paper emphasizes the need
for an integrated approach to understand the complexities of
the geomorphic form and stratigraphic development over the
vast tract of the Ganga plains, which extend for more than
350,000 km2. We emphasize the need for detailed multi-
disciplinary studies on the surface and shallow sub-surface
of the plains to decouple the responses of the river system to
forcing functions. Such studies in different spatial domains
have an important bearing on the understanding of the
accumulation and filling of foreland basin systems in areas
dominated by monsoonal regimes and Cenozoic tectonics.
Interdisciplinary, integrated research programmes are
beginning to provide some answers to the four questions
posed in the Introduction, as well as to many other important
questions about the Ganga plains. However, considerable
236
research is needed to test more fully the hypotheses suggested
here and to constrain the complex controls on the alluvial
systems. Many more well described and dated sections and
cores are needed, especially in the Middle Ganga Plains where
no age model currently exists. Additionally, much insight will
arise from comparing the Ganga plains alluvial record with
records from elsewhere in the sub-continent, especially those
of Himalayan valleys, Peninsula India, the Thar Desert, and
deltaic regions (which events are widespread and which local
across these areas with diverse tectonic and geomorphic
controls?) In particular, millennial-scale climatic changes have
been well documented in adjacent marine areas (Sirocko et al.
1993) but their effects have yet to be established in most
alluvial terrains; documenting successions where alluvium is
intercalated with climatically sensitive lacustrine and eolian
strata may provide a way forward. Although much research
has focused in tectonically active regions, activity on major
faults is localized and episodic, and a proxy record for tectonic
events through the late Quaternary has proved much more
difficult to define rigorously than proxy records for monsoonal
precipitation (Prell & Kutzbach 1987) and sea-level change
(Blum & Törnqvist 2000). Consequently, more research is
needed in areas close to the Himalayan Front (e.g. Mukul
2000), especially in key watershed areas where earthquakes
may have a major effect on river dynamics and where
tectonically induced changes in river course may exert a major
effect on the hydrology of the plains rivers. Finally, much
more modeling is needed to understand the complex balance
of water and sediment discharge through time in rivers of the
Ganga plains.
Acknowledgments: We are grateful to the Department of Science
and Technology for providing grants to RS and SKT under the project
sanction number ESS/23/VES/110/2000. We thank our respective
institutions, IIT Kanpur, Delhi University and Dalhousie University
for providing the institutional support. We are thankful to our students,
Vikrant Jain and Subir Dutta for their help during the field work and
drilling programme. Our special thanks are due to Dr. K.R. Gupta,
Department of Science and Technology for his endless enthusiasm and
support for the Gangetic plain research and to Dr. B.R. Arora, Director,
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology for inviting us to write this
paper.
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