Net Working Project Topics 1. What is computer network 2. History 3. Properties 4. Communication Me ia a. Wire Techno!ogies ". Wire!ess Techno!

ogies #. Communications Protoco!s $ Network Programming a. %thernet ". &nternet Protoco! 'uite

(. 'ca!e a. Persona! )rea Network ". *oca! )rea Network c. Home )rea Network . Campus )rea Network e. Metropo!itan )rea Network +. Wi e )rea Network

g. ,irtua! Pri-ate Network

.. /rgani0ationa! 'cope a. &ntranets $ %1tranets

2. Network Topo!ogies 3. 4asic Har ware Components a. N&C

". 5epeaters $ Hu"s c. 4ri ges . 'witches e. 5outers +. 6irewa!!s

17. Network Protoco!s a. TCP8&P ". /'& Mo e!

Introduction to TCP/IP
Summary: TCP and IP were developed by a Department of Defense (DOD) research project to connect a number d fferent networ!s des "ned by d fferent vendors nto a networ! of networ!s (the #Internet#)$ It was n t ally successful because t del vered a few bas c serv ces that everyone needs (f le transfer% electron c ma l% remote lo"on) across a very lar"e number of cl ent and server systems$ Several computers n a small department can use TCP&IP (alon" w th other protocols) on a s n"le '()$ The IP component prov des rout n" from the department to the enterpr se networ!% then to re" onal networ!s% and f nally to the "lobal Internet$ On the battlef eld a commun cat ons networ! w ll susta n dama"e% so the DOD des "ned TCP&IP to be robust and automat cally recover from any node or phone l ne fa lure$ Th s des "n allows the construct on of very lar"e networ!s w th less central mana"ement$ *owever% because of the automat c recovery% networ! problems can "o und a"nosed and uncorrected for lon" per ods of t me$ (s w th all other commun cat ons protocol% TCP&IP s composed of layers:

IP 9 is responsi"!e +or mo-ing packet o+ ata +rom no e to no e. &P +orwar s each packet "ase on a +our "yte estination a ress :the &P num"er;. The &nternet authorities assign ranges o+ num"ers to i++erent organi0ations. The organi0ations assign groups o+ their num"ers to epartments. &P operates on gateway machines that mo-e ata +rom epartment to organi0ation to region an then aroun the wor! . TCP 9 is responsi"!e +or -eri+ying the correct e!i-ery o+ ata +rom c!ient to ser-er. <ata can "e !ost in the interme iate network. TCP a s support to etect errors or !ost ata an to trigger retransmission unti! the ata is correct!y an comp!ete!y recei-e . Sockets - is a name gi-en to the package o+ su"routines that pro-i e access to TCP8&P on most systems.

Network of Lowest Bidders

The (rmy puts out a b d on a computer and D+C w ns the b d$ The ( r ,orce puts out a b d and I-. w ns$ The )avy b d s won by /n sys$ Then the Pres dent dec des to nvade 0renada and the armed forces d scover that the r computers cannot tal! to each other$ The DOD must bu ld a #networ!# out of systems each of wh ch% by law% was del vered by the lowest b dder on a s n"le contract$ The Internet Protocol was developed to create a )etwor! of )etwor!s (the #Internet#)$ Ind v dual mach nes are f rst connected to a '() (+thernet or To!en 1 n")$ TCP&IP shares the '() w th other uses (a )ovell f le server% 2 ndows for 2or!"roups peer systems)$ One dev ce prov des the TCP&IP connect on between the '() and the rest of the world$ To nsure that all types of systems from all vendors can commun cate% TCP&IP s absolutely standard 3ed on the '()$ *owever% lar"er networ!s based on lon" d stances and phone l nes are more volat le$ In the /S% many lar"e corporat ons would w sh to reuse lar"e nternal networ!s based on I-.4s S)($ In +urope% the nat onal phone compan es trad t onally standard 3e on 5$67$ *owever% the sudden e8plos on of h "h speed m croprocessors% f ber opt cs% and d " tal phone systems has created a burst of new opt ons: ISD)% frame relay% ,DDI% (synchronous Transfer .ode ((T.)$ )ew technolo" es ar se and become obsolete w th n a few years$ 2 th cable T9 and phone compan es compet n" to bu ld the )at onal Informat on Superh "hway% no s n"le standard can "overn c tyw de% nat onw de% or worldw de commun cat ons$ The or " nal des "n of TCP&IP as a )etwor! of )etwor!s f ts n cely w th n the current technolo" cal uncerta nty$ TCP&IP data can be sent across a '()% or t can be carr ed w th n an nternal corporate S)( networ!% or t can p ""ybac! on the cable T9 serv ce$ ,urthermore% mach nes connected to any of these networ!s can commun cate to any other networ! throu"h "ateways suppl ed by the networ! vendor$

Addresses
+ach technolo"y has ts own convent on for transm tt n" messa"es between two mach nes w th n the same networ!$ On a '()% messa"es are sent between mach nes by supply n" the s 8 byte un :ue dent f er (the #.(C# address)$ In an S)( networ!% every mach ne has 'o" cal /n ts w th the r own networ! address$ D+C)+T% (ppletal!% and )ovell IP5 all have a scheme for ass "n n" numbers to each local networ! and to each wor!stat on attached to the networ!$ On top of these local or vendor spec f c networ! addresses% TCP&IP ass "ns a un :ue number to every wor!stat on n the world$ Th s #IP number# s a four byte value that% by convent on% s e8pressed by convert n" each byte nto a dec mal number (; to 677) and separat n" the bytes w th a per od$ ,or e8ample% the PC 'ube and Tune server s <=;$<=6$7>$6=?$ (n or"an 3at on be" ns by send n" electron c ma l to *ostmaster@I)T+1)IC$)+T re:uest n" ass "nment of a networ! number$ It s st ll poss ble for almost anyone to "et ass "nment of a number for a small #Class C# networ! n wh ch the f rst three bytes dent fy the networ! and the

last byte dent f es the nd v dual computer$ The author followed th s procedure and was ass "ned the numbers <>6$=7$><$A for a networ! of computers at h s house$ 'ar"er or"an 3at ons can "et a #Class -# networ! where the f rst two bytes dent fy the networ! and the last two bytes dent fy each of up to B? thousand nd v dual wor!stat ons$ Cale4s Class - networ! s <=;$<=6% so all computers w th IP address <=;$<=6$A$A are connected throu"h Cale$ The or"an 3at on then connects to the Internet throu"h one of a do3en re" onal or spec al 3ed networ! suppl ers$ The networ! vendor s " ven the subscr ber networ! number and adds t to the rout n" conf "urat on n ts own mach nes and those of the other major networ! suppl ers$ There s no mathemat cal formula that translates the numbers <>6$=7$>< or <=;$<=6 nto #Cale /n vers ty# or #)ew *aven% CT$# The mach nes that mana"e lar"e re" onal networ!s or the central Internet routers mana"ed by the )at onal Sc ence ,oundat on can only locate these networ!s by loo! n" each networ! number up n a table$ There are potent ally thousands of Class - networ!s% and m ll ons of Class C networ!s% but computer memory costs are low% so the tables are reasonable$ Customers that connect to the Internet% even customers as lar"e as I-.% do not need to ma nta n any nformat on on other networ!s$ They send all e8ternal data to the re" onal carr er to wh ch they subscr be% and the re" onal carr er ma nta ns the tables and does the appropr ate rout n"$ )ew *aven s n a border state% spl t 7;D7; between the Can!ees and the 1ed So8$ In th s sp r t% Cale recently sw tched ts connect on from the . ddle (tlant c re" onal networ! to the )ew +n"land carr er$ 2hen the sw tch occurred% tables n the other re" onal areas and n the nat onal sp ne had to be updated% so that traff c for <=;$<=6 was routed throu"h -oston nstead of )ew Eersey$ The lar"e networ! carr ers handle the paperwor! and can perform such a sw tch " ven suff c ent not ce$ Dur n" a convers on per od% the un vers ty was connected to both networ!s so that messa"es could arr ve throu"h e ther path$

Subnets
(lthou"h the nd v dual subscr bers do not need to tabulate networ! numbers or prov de e8pl c t rout n"% t s conven ent for most Class - networ!s to be nternally mana"ed as a much smaller and s mpler vers on of the lar"er networ! or"an 3at ons$ It s common to subd v de the two bytes ava lable for nternal ass "nment nto a one byte department number and a one byte wor!stat on ID$ he enterpr se networ! s bu lt us n" commerc ally ava lable TCP&IP router bo8es$ +ach router has small tables w th 677 entr es to translate the one byte department number nto select on of a dest nat on +thernet connected to one of the routers$ .essa"es to the PC 'ube and Tune server (<=;$<=6$7>$6=?) are sent throu"h the nat onal and )ew +n"land re" onal networ!s based on the <=;$<=6 part of the number$ (rr v n" at Cale% the 7> department ID selects an +thernet connector n the CF IS bu ld n"$ The 6=? selects a part cular wor!stat on on that '()$ The Cale networ! must be updated as new +thernets and departments are added% but t s not effected by chan"es outs de the un vers ty or the movement of mach nes w th n the department$

A Uncertain Path
+very t me a messa"e arr ves at an IP router% t ma!es an nd v dual dec s on about where to send t ne8t$ There s concept of a sess on w th a preselected path for all traff c$ Cons der a company w th fac l t es n )ew Cor!% 'os (n"eles% Ch ca"o and (tlanta$ It could bu ld a networ! from four phone l nes form n" a loop ()C to Ch ca"o to '( to (tlanta to )C)$ ( messa"e arr v n" at the )C router could "o to '( v a e ther Ch ca"o or (tlanta$ The reply could come bac! the other way$ *ow does the router ma!e a dec s on between routesG There s no correct answer$ Traff c could be routed by the #cloc!w se# al"or thm ("o )C to (tlanta% '( to Ch ca"o)$ The routers could alternate% send n" one messa"e to (tlanta and the ne8t to Ch ca"o$ .ore soph st cated rout n" measures traff c patterns and sends data throu"h the least busy l n!$ If one phone l ne n th s networ! brea!s down% traff c can st ll reach ts dest nat on throu"h a roundabout path$ (fter los n" the )C to Ch ca"o l ne% data can be sent )C to (tlanta to '( to Ch ca"o$ Th s prov des cont nued serv ce thou"h w th de"raded performance$ Th s ! nd of recovery s the pr mary des "n feature of IP$ The loss of the l ne s mmed ately detected by the routers n )C and Ch ca"o% but somehow th s nformat on must be sent to the other nodes$ Otherw se% '( could cont nue to send )C messa"es throu"h Ch ca"o% where they arr ve at a #dead end$# +ach networ! adopts some 1outer Protocol wh ch per od cally updates the rout n" tables throu"hout the networ! w th nformat on about chan"es n route status$ If the s 3e of the networ! "rows% then the comple8 ty of the rout n" updates w ll ncrease as w ll the cost of transm tt n" them$ -u ld n" a s n"le networ! that covers the ent re /S would be unreasonably compl cated$ ,ortunately% the Internet s des "ned as a )etwor! of )etwor!s$ Th s means that loops and redundancy are bu lt nto each re" onal carr er$ The re" onal networ! handles ts own problems and reroutes messa"es nternally$ Its 1outer Protocol updates the tables n ts own routers% but no rout n" updates need to propa"ate from a re" onal carr er to the )S, sp ne or to the other re" ons (unless% of course% a subscr ber sw tches permanently from one re" on to another)$

Undiagnosed Problems
I-. des "ns ts S)( networ!s to be centrally mana"ed$ If any error occurs% t s reported to the networ! author t es$ -y des "n% any error s a problem that should be corrected or repa red$ IP networ!s% however% were des "ned to be robust$ In battlef eld cond t ons% the loss of a node or l ne s a normal c rcumstance$ Casualt es can be sorted out later on% but the networ! must stay up$ So IP networ!s are robust$ They automat cally (and s lently) reconf "ure themselves when someth n" "oes wron"$ If there s enou"h redundancy bu lt nto the system% then commun cat on s ma nta ned$ In <>H7 when S)( was des "ned% such redundancy would be proh b t vely e8pens ve% or t m "ht have been ar"ued that only the Defense Department could afford t$ Today% however% s mple

routers cost no more than a PC$ *owever% the TCP&IP des "n that% #+rrors are normal and can be lar"ely "nored%# produces problems of ts own$ Data traff c s fre:uently or"an 3ed around #hubs%# much l !e a rl ne traff c$ One could ma" ne an IP router n (tlanta rout n" messa"es for smaller c t es throu"hout the Southeast$ The problem s that data arr ves w thout a reservat on$ ( rl ne compan es e8per ence the problem around major events% l !e the Super -owl$ Eust before the "ame% everyone wants to fly nto the c ty$ (fter the "ame% everyone wants to fly out$ Imbalance occurs on the networ! when someth n" new "ets advert sed$ (dam Curry announced the server at #mtv$com# and h s re" onal carr er was swamped w th traff c the ne8t day$ The problem s that messa"es come n from the ent re world over h "h speed l nes% but they "o out to mtv$com over what was then a slow speed phone l ne$ Occas onally a snow storm cancels fl "hts and a rports f ll up w th stranded passen"ers$ .any "o off to hotels n town$ 2hen data arr ves at a con"ested router% there s no place to send the overflow$ +8cess pac!ets are s mply d scarded$ It becomes the respons b l ty of the sender to retry the data a few seconds later and to pers st unt l t f nally "ets throu"h$ Th s recovery s prov ded by the TCP component of the Internet protocol$ TCP was des "ned to recover from node or l ne fa lures where the networ! propa"ates rout n" table chan"es to all router nodes$ S nce the update ta!es some t me% TCP s slow to n t ate recovery$ The TCP al"or thms are not tuned to opt mally handle pac!et loss due to traff c con"est on$ Instead% the trad t onal Internet response to traff c problems has been to ncrease the speed of l nes and e:u pment n order to say ahead of "rowth n demand$ TCP treats the data as a stream of bytes$ It lo" cally ass "ns a se:uence number to each byte$ The TCP pac!et has a header that says% n effect% #Th s pac!et starts w th byte =H>B?6 and conta ns 6;; bytes of data$# The rece ver can detect m ss n" or ncorrectly se:uenced pac!ets$ TCP ac!nowled"es data that has been rece ved and retransm ts data that has been lost$ The TCP des "n means that error recovery s done endDtoDend between the Cl ent and Server mach ne$ There s no formal standard for trac! n" problems n the m ddle of the networ!% thou"h each networ! has adopted some ad hoc tools$

Need to Know
There are three levels of TCP&IP !nowled"e$ Those who adm n ster a re" onal or nat onal networ! must des "n a system of lon" d stance phone l nes% ded cated rout n" dev ces% and very lar"e conf "urat on f les$ They must !now the IP numbers and phys cal locat ons of thousands of subscr ber networ!s$ They must also have a formal networ! mon tor strate"y to detect problems and respond :u c!ly$ +ach lar"e company or un vers ty that subscr bes to the Internet must have an ntermed ate level of networ! or"an 3at on and e8pert se$ ( half do3en routers m "ht be conf "ured to connect several do3en departmental '()s n several bu ld n"s$ (ll traff c outs de the or"an 3at on would typ cally be routed to a s n"le connect on to a re" onal networ! prov der$

*owever% the end user can nstall TCP&IP on a personal computer w thout any !nowled"e of e ther the corporate or re" onal networ!$ Three p eces of nformat on are re:u red: <$ The IP address ass "ned to th s personal computer 6$ The part of the IP address (the subnet mas!) that d st n"u shes other mach nes on the same '() (messa"es can be sent to them d rectly) from mach nes n other departments or elsewhere n the world (wh ch are sent to a router mach ne) =$ The IP address of the router mach ne that connects th s '() to the rest of the world$ In the case of the PC'T server% the IP address s <=;$<=6$7>$6=?$ S nce the f rst three bytes des "nate th s department% a #subnet mas!# s def ned as 677$677$677$; (677 s the lar"est byte value and represents the number w th all b ts turned on)$ It s a Cale convent on (wh ch we recommend to everyone) that the router for each department have stat on number < w th n the department networ!$ Thus the PC'T router s <=;$<=6$7>$<$ Thus the PC'T server s conf "ured w th the values:

.y IP address: <=;$<=6$7>$6=? Subnet mas!: 677$677$677$; Default router: <=;$<=6$7>$<

The subnet mas! tells the server that any other mach ne w th an IP address be" nn n" <=;$<=6$7>$A s on the same department '()% so messa"es are sent to t d rectly$ (ny IP address be" nn n" w th a d fferent value s accessed nd rectly by send n" the messa"e throu"h the router at <=;$<=6$7>$< (wh ch s on the departmental '())$ Definition: Transm ss on Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) are two d st nct networ! protocols% techn cally spea! n"$ TCP and IP are so commonly used to"ether% however% that T P!"P has become standard term nolo"y to refer to e ther or both of the protocols$ IP corresponds to the )etwor! layer ('ayer =) n the OSI model% whereas TCP corresponds to the Transport layer ('ayer ?) n OSI$ In other words% the term TCP&IP refers to networ! commun cat ons where the TCP transport s used to del ver data across IP networ!s$ The avera"e person on the Internet wor!s n a predom nately TCP&IP env ronment$ 2eb browsers% for e8ample% use TCP&IP to commun cate w th 2eb servers$

Internet Protocol Suite

Internet protocol suite )pp!ication !ayer Transport !ayer 6TP TCP 'MTP =<P HTT P 'CT P &5C &CMP ... ...

Network !ayer <ata !ink !ayer

&P %therne t

&P-( Token ring

)5P 6<< &

<HCP 272.11 Wi6i

... ...

The "nternet #rotocol suite s the set of protocols that mplement the protocol stac! on wh ch the Internet runs$ It s somet mes called the T P!"P protocol su te% after the two most mportant protocols n t: the Transm ss on Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP)% wh ch were also the f rst two def ned$ The nternet protocol su te can be descr bed by analo"y w th the OSI model% wh ch descr bes the layers of a protocol stac!% not all of wh ch correspond well w th nternet pract ce$ In a protocol stac!% each layer solves a set of problems nvolv n" the transm ss on of data% and prov des a wellD def ned serv ce to the h "her layers$ * "her layers are lo" cally closer to the user and deal w th more abstract data% rely n" on lower layers to translate data nto forms that can eventually be phys cally man pulated$ The nternet model was produced as the solut on to a pract cal en" neer n" problem$ The OSI model% on the other hand% was a more theoret cal approach% and was also produced at an earl er sta"e n the evolut on of networ!s$ Therefore% the OSI model s eas er to understand% but the TCP&IP model s the one n actual use$ It s helpful to have an understand n" of the OSI model before learn n" TCP&IP% as the same pr nc ples apply% but are eas er to understand n the OSI model$
Table of contents 1 *ayers in the TCP8&P stack

<$< The Phys cal layer <$6 The DataD' n! layer <$= The )etwor! layer <$? The Transport layer <$7 The (ppl cat on layer
2 &mp!ementations 3 5e!ate topics 4 5ea ings # %1terna! !inks

La$ers in the T P!"P stack

There s some d scuss on about how to map the TCP&IP model onto the OSI model$ S nce the TCP&IP and OSI protocol su tes do not match prec sely% there s no one correct answer$ In add t on% the OSI model s not really r ch enou"h at the lower layers to capture the true layer n"I there needs to be an e8tra layer (the Internetwor! n" layer) between the Transport and )etwor! layers$ Protocols spec f c to a part cular networ! type% but wh ch are run on top of the bas c hardware fram n"% ou"ht to be at the )etwor! layer$ +8amples of such protocols are (1P% and the Spann n" Tree Protocol (used to !eep redundant br d"es dle unt l they are needed)$ *owever% they are local protocols% and operate beneath the nternetwor! funct onal tyI to place both "roups (not to ment on also protocols wh ch run on top of the nternetwor! protocol% such as IC.P) all at the same layer can be confus n"$ The follow n" d a"ram attempts to show where var ous TCP&IP and other protocols would res de n the or " nal OSI model:
. Application e.g. HTTP> 'MTP> 'NMP> 6TP> Te!net> scp> N6'> 5T'P ( Presentatio e.g. ?M*> ?<5> )'N.1> 'M4> )6P n e.g. T*'> ''H> &'/ 232. 8 CC&TT ?.22#> 5PC> Net4&/'> )'P e.g. TCP> =<P> 5TP> 'CTP> 'P?> )TP e.g. &P> &CMP> &@MP> ?.2#> C*NP> )5P> 5)5P> /'P6> 5&P> &P?> <<P e.g. %thernet> Token ring> PPP> H<*C> 6rame re!ay> &'<N> )TM e.g. e!ectricity> ra io> !aser

# Session 4 Transport 3 Network

2 Data Link 1 Physical

Commonly% the top three layers of the OSI model ((ppl cat on% Presentat on and Sess on) are cons dered as a s n"le (ppl cat on 'ayer n the TCP&IP su te$ -ecause the TCP&IP su te has no un f ed sess on layer on wh ch h "her layers are bu lt% these funct ons are typ cally carr ed out (or "nored) by nd v dual appl cat ons$ ( s mpl f ed TCP&IP nterpretat on of the stac! s shown below:
Applicatio e.g. HTTP> 6TP> <N' n (routing protocols like RIP, which for obscure reasons run over UDP, may also "layer 7" be consi ere part of the network layer!

e.g. TCP> =<P> 5TP> 'CTP 4 Transport (routing protocols like "#P$, which run over IP, may also be consi ere part of the %etwork layer! 6or TCP8&P this is the &nternet Protoco! :&P; (re&uire protocols like I'(P an I)(P run over IP, but may still be consi ere part of the network layer* +RP oes not run over IP! e.g. %thernet> Token ring> etc. e.g. physica! me ia> an enco ing techniAues> T1> %1

3 Network

2 Data Link 1 Physical

The Physical layer

The Phys cal layer descr bes the phys cal character st cs of the commun cat on% such as convent ons about the nature of the med um used for commun cat on (such as w res% f ber opt c l n!s or rad o l n!s)% and all related deta ls such as connectors% channel codes and modulat on% s "nal stren"ths% wavelen"th% lowDlevel sychron 3at on and t m n" and ma8 mum d stances$

The Data-Link layer

The Data l n! layer spec f es how pac!ets are transported over the phys cal layer% nclud n" the framing ( $e$ the spec al b t patterns wh ch mar! the start and end of pac!ets)$ +thernet% for e8ample% ncludes f elds n the pac!et header wh ch spec fy wh ch mach ne or mach nes on the networ! a pac!et s dest ned for$ +8amples of DataDl n! layer protocols are +thernet% 2 reless +thernet% S'IP% To!en 1 n" and (T.$ PPP s a l ttle more comple8% as t was or " nally spec f ed as a separate protocol wh ch ran on top of another data l n! layer% *D'C&SD'C$ Th s layer s somet mes further subd v ded nto 'o" cal ' n! Control and .ed a (ccess Control$

The Network layer

(s or " nally def ned% the )etwor! layer solved the problem of "ett n" pac!ets across a s n"le networ!$ +8amples of such protocols are 5$67% and the (1P()+T4s In t al Connect on Protocol$ 2 th the advent of the concept of nternetwor! n"% add t onal funct onal ty was added to th s layer% namely "ett n" data from the source networ! to the dest nat on networ!$ Th s "enerally nvolves rout n" the pac!et across a networ! of networ!s% !nown as an nternet$ In the nternet protocol su te% IP performs the bas c tas! of "ett n" pac!ets of data from source to dest nat on% and also supports other protocols% such as IC.P (used to transm t d a"nost c nformat on about IP transm ss on) and I0.P (used to mana"e mult cast data)$ IC.P and I0.P are layered on top

of IP but perform networ! layer funct ons% llustrat n" an ncompat b l ty between the nternet and OSI models$ The )etwor! 'ayer Internet Protocol (IP) can carry data for a number of d fferent h "her level protocols$ These protocols are each dent f ed by a un :ue IP Protocol Number$ IC.P and I0.P are protocols < and 6% respect vely$

The Transport layer

The protocols at the Transport layer can solve problems l !e rel ab l ty (#d d the data reach the dest nat onG#) and ensure that data arr ves n the correct order$ In the TCP&IP protocol su te% transport protocols also determ ne wh ch appl cat on any " ven data s ntended for$ The dynam c rout n" protocols wh ch techn cally f t at th s layer n the TCP&IP Protocol Su te (s nce they run over IP) are "enerally cons dered to be part of the )etwor! layerI an e8ample s OSP, (IP protocol number J>)$ TCP (IP protocol number B) s a #rel able#% connect onDor ented transport mechan sm prov d n" a rel able byte stream% wh ch ma!es sure data arr ves undama"ed and n order% s reDtransm tted f lost% and el m nates dupl cate cop es$ TCP tr es to cont nuously measure how loaded the networ! s and throttles ts send n" rate n order to avo d overload n" the networ!$ ,urthermore% TCP w ll attempt to del ver all data correctly n the spec f ed se:uence$ These are ts ma n d fferences from /DP and can become d sadvanta"es n realDt me stream n" or rout n" appl cat ons w th h "h layer = loss rates$ /DP (IP protocol number <H) s a connect onless data"ram protocol$ It s a #best effort# or #unrel able# protocol D not because t s part cularly unrel able% but because t does not ver fy that pac!ets have reached the r dest nat on% and " ves no "uarantee that they w ll arr ve n order$ If an (ppl cat on re:u res these "uarantees% t must prov de them tself% or use TCP$ /DP s typ cally used for appl cat ons such as stream n" med a (aud o and v deo% etc) where the t me TCP re:u res for retransm ss on and reDorder n" m "ht not be ava lable% or for s mple :uery&response appl cat ons l !e D)S loo!ups% where the overhead of sett n" up a rel able connect on s d sproport onately lar"e$ -oth TCP and /DP are used to carry a number of h "herDlevel appl cat ons$ The appl cat ons at any " ven networ! address are d st n"u shed by the r TCP or /DP Port Number$ -y convent on certa n well known ports are assoc ated w th spec f c appl cat ons$ 1TP s a data"ram protocol that s des "ned for realDt me data such as stream n" aud o and v deo$ (lthou"h 1TP uses the /DP pac!et format as a bas s% t prov des a funct on that s at the same protocol layer$

The Application layer

The (ppl cat on layer s where most common networ! pro"rams res de$

These pro"rams and the r correspond n" protocols nclude *TTP (The 2orld 2 de 2eb)% ,TP (, le transport)% S.TP (+ma l)% SS* (Secure remote lo" n)% D)S ()ame KDDL IP (ddress loo!ups) and many others$ (ppl cat ons most commonly run on TCP or /DP% and are often assoc ated w th a wellD!nown port number$ Some e8amples are:

HTTP on TCP port 27 or 2727. ''H on TCP port 22> <N' !ookups on =<P :or sometimes TCP; port #3> 5&P routing up ates on =<P port #27.

These ports were or " nally allocated by the Internet (ss "ned )umbers (uthor ty (I()()$
The /pen 'ystems &nterconnect :/'&; mo e! has se-en !ayers. This artic!e escri"es an e1p!ains them> "eginning with the B!owestB in the hierarchy :the physica!; an procee ing to the BhighestB :the app!ication;. The !ayers are stacke this wayC

)pp!ication Presentation 'ession Transport Network <ata *ink Physica!

PHYSICAL LAY !
The physica! !ayer> the !owest !ayer o+ the /'& mo e!> is concerne with the transmission an reception o+ the unstructure raw "it stream o-er a physica! me ium. &t escri"es the e!ectrica!8optica!> mechanica!> an +unctiona! inter+aces to the physica! me ium> an carries the signa!s +or a!! o+ the higher !ayers. &t pro-i esC

<ata enco ingC mo i+ies the simp!e igita! signa! pattern :1s an 7s; use "y the PC to "etter accommo ate the characteristics o+ the physica! me ium> an to ai in "it an +rame synchroni0ation. &t eterminesC
o o o

What signa! state represents a "inary 1 How the recei-ing station knows when a D"it9timeD starts How the recei-ing station e!imits a +rame

Physica! me ium attachment> accommo ating -arious possi"i!ities in the me iumC

o o

Wi!! an e1terna! transcei-er :M)=; "e use to connect to the me iumE How many pins o the connectors ha-e an what is each pin use +orE

Transmission techniAueC etermines whether the enco e "its wi!! "e transmitte "y "ase"an : igita!; or "roa "an :ana!og; signa!ing. Physica! me ium transmissionC transmits "its as e!ectrica! or optica! signa!s appropriate +or the physica! me ium> an eterminesC
o o

What physica! me ium options can "e use How many -o!ts8 " shou! "e use to represent a gi-en signa! state> using a gi-en physica! me ium

DATA LIN" LAY !

The ata !ink !ayer pro-i es error9+ree trans+er o+ ata +rames +rom one no e to another o-er the physica! !ayer> a!!owing !ayers a"o-e it to assume -irtua!!y error9+ree transmission o-er the !ink. To o this> the ata !ink !ayer pro-i esC

*ink esta"!ishment an terminationC esta"!ishes an terminates the !ogica! !ink "etween two no es. 6rame tra++ic contro!C te!!s the transmitting no e to D"ack9o++D when no +rame "u++ers are a-ai!a"!e. 6rame seAuencingC transmits8recei-es +rames seAuentia!!y. 6rame acknow!e gmentC pro-i es8e1pects +rame acknow!e gments. <etects an reco-ers +rom errors that occur in the physica! !ayer "y retransmitting non9acknow!e ge +rames an han !ing up!icate +rame receipt. 6rame e!imitingC creates an recogni0es +rame "oun aries. 6rame error checkingC checks recei-e +rames +or integrity. Me ia access managementC etermines when the no e Dhas the rightD to use the physica! me ium.

N T#$!" LAY !
The network !ayer contro!s the operation o+ the su"net> eci ing which physica! path the ata shou! take "ase on network con itions> priority o+ ser-ice> an other +actors. &t pro-i esC

5outingC routes +rames among networks. 'u"net tra++ic contro!C routers :network !ayer interme iate systems; can instruct a sen ing station to Dthrott!e "ackD its +rame transmission when the routerBs "u++er +i!!s up.

6rame +ragmentationC i+ it etermines that a ownstream routerBs ma1imum transmission unit :MT=; si0e is !ess than the +rame si0e> a router can +ragment a +rame +or transmission an re9assem"!y at the estination station. *ogica!9physica! a a resses. ress mappingC trans!ates !ogica! a resses> or names> into physica!

'u"net usage accountingC has accounting +unctions to keep track o+ +rames +orwar e "y su"net interme iate systems> to pro uce "i!!ing in+ormation.

Communications Subnet
The network !ayer so+tware must "ui! hea ers so that the network !ayer so+tware resi ing in the su"net interme iate systems can recogni0e them an use them to route ata to the estination a ress. This !ayer re!ie-es the upper !ayers o+ the nee to know anything a"out the ata transmission an interme iate switching techno!ogies use to connect systems. &t esta"!ishes> maintains an terminates connections across the inter-ening communications +aci!ity :one or se-era! interme iate systems in the communication su"net;. &n the network !ayer an the !ayers "e!ow> peer protoco!s e1ist "etween a no e an its imme iate neigh"or> "ut the neigh"or may "e a no e through which ata is route > not the estination station. The source an estination stations may "e separate "y many interme iate systems.

T!ANSP$!T LAY !
The transport !ayer ensures that messages are e!i-ere error9+ree> in seAuence> an with no !osses or up!ications. &t re!ie-es the higher !ayer protoco!s +rom any concern with the trans+er o+ ata "etween them an their peers. The si0e an comp!e1ity o+ a transport protoco! epen s on the type o+ ser-ice it can get +rom the network !ayer. 6or a re!ia"!e network !ayer with -irtua! circuit capa"i!ity> a minima! transport !ayer is reAuire . &+ the network !ayer is unre!ia"!e an 8or on!y supports atagrams> the transport protoco! shou! inc!u e e1tensi-e error etection an reco-ery. The transport !ayer pro-i esC

Message segmentationC accepts a message +rom the :session; !ayer a"o-e it> sp!its the message into sma!!er units :i+ not a!rea y sma!! enough;> an passes the sma!!er units own to the network !ayer. The transport !ayer at the estination station reassem"!es the message. Message acknow!e gmentC pro-i es re!ia"!e en 9to9en message e!i-ery with acknow!e gments. Message tra++ic contro!C te!!s the transmitting station to D"ack9o++D when no message "u++ers are a-ai!a"!e.

'ession mu!tip!e1ingC mu!tip!e1es se-era! message streams> or sessions onto one !ogica! !ink an keeps track o+ which messages "e!ong to which sessions :see session !ayer;.

Typica!!y> the transport !ayer can accept re!ati-e!y !arge messages> "ut there are strict message si0e !imits impose "y the network :or !ower; !ayer. ConseAuent!y> the transport !ayer must "reak up the messages into sma!!er units> or +rames> prepen ing a hea er to each +rame. The transport !ayer hea er in+ormation must then inc!u e contro! in+ormation> such as message start an message en +!ags> to ena"!e the transport !ayer on the other en to recogni0e message "oun aries. &n a ition> i+ the !ower !ayers o not maintain seAuence> the transport hea er must contain seAuence in+ormation to ena"!e the transport !ayer on the recei-ing en to get the pieces "ack together in the right or er "e+ore han ing the recei-e message up to the !ayer a"o-e.

En -to-en layers
=n!ike the !ower Dsu"netD !ayers whose protoco! is "etween imme iate!y a jacent no es> the transport !ayer an the !ayers a"o-e are true Dsource to estinationD or en 9to9en !ayers> an are not concerne with the etai!s o+ the un er!ying communications +aci!ity. Transport !ayer so+tware :an so+tware a"o-e it; on the source station carries on a con-ersation with simi!ar so+tware on the estination station "y using message hea ers an contro! messages.

S SSI$N LAY !
The session !ayer a!!ows session esta"!ishment "etween processes running on i++erent stations. &t pro-i esC

'ession esta"!ishment> maintenance an terminationC a!!ows two app!ication processes on i++erent machines to esta"!ish> use an terminate a connection> ca!!e a session. 'ession supportC per+orms the +unctions that a!!ow these processes to communicate o-er the network> per+orming security> name recognition> !ogging> an so on.

P! S NTATI$N LAY !
The presentation !ayer +ormats the ata to "e presente to the app!ication !ayer. &t can "e -iewe as the trans!ator +or the network. This !ayer may trans!ate ata +rom a +ormat use "y the app!ication !ayer into a common +ormat at the sen ing station> then trans!ate the common +ormat to a +ormat known to the app!ication !ayer at the recei-ing station. The presentation !ayer pro-i esC

Character co e trans!ationC +or e1amp!e> )'C&& to %4C<&C. <ata con-ersionC "it or er> C59C58*6> integer9+!oating point> an so on. <ata compressionC re uces the num"er o+ "its that nee to "e transmitte on the network. <ata encryptionC encrypt ata +or security purposes. 6or e1amp!e> passwor encryption.

APPLICATI$N LAY !

The app!ication !ayer ser-es as the win ow +or users an app!ication processes to access network ser-ices. This !ayer contains a -ariety o+ common!y nee e +unctionsC

5esource sharing an 5emote +i!e access 5emote printer access

e-ice re irection

&nter9process communication Network management <irectory ser-ices %!ectronic messaging :such as mai!; Network -irtua! termina!s

De%inition o% Co&puter Networkin'

4y *ysis> eHow Contri"utor

( computer networ! s a "roup of computers that shares nformat on across w reless or w red technolo"y$ Computer networ!s used to only be ava lable for corporat ons but they are affordable for small bus nesses and nd v duals$ Computer networ! n" re:u res two computers% a protocol and the hardware to connect them$

5ea moreC <e+inition o+ Computer Networking F eHow.com httpC88www.ehow.com8+actsG#4.23.(G e+inition9computer9networking.htm!Hi1001T< 07kIj

%& 'outer
o

The bas c hardware needed for a computer networ! s a router and networ! cards$ ( router d rects traff c to the d fferent computers$ ( router s s m lar to a traff c l "ht$ It handles networ! traff c and sends t to the d fferent se"ments of the networ!$

Network ard
o

( networ! card s re:u red so the computers can commun cate$ ( networ! card s an nte"ral part of a computer networ! because t prov des the computer a way to send and retr eve data$ Sponsored ' n!s

2 reless (utoSw tch Secure your corporate networ! from unauthor 3ed w reless connect ons www$2 reless(utoSw tch$com

Protocol
o

( protocol s the commun cat on method used by the computer networ!$ The protocol pac!a"es the nformat on sent by the sender computer and del vers t to the rec p ent$

Ser(er
o

( server s a part of the networ!$ It s a mach ne w th mass ve stora"e capab l t es and faster process n"% so mult ple users can save and use resources$

lient
o

The term #cl ent# s " ven to the mult ple user computers on the networ!$ The cl ent lo"s nto the networ! on the server and s " ven perm ss ons to use resources on the networ!$ Cl ent computers are normally slower and re:u re perm ss ons on the networ!% wh ch separates them from server computers$

1ead more: Def n t on of Computer )etwor! n" M e*ow$com http:&&www$ehow$com&factsN7?HJ>HBNdef n t onDcomputerDnetwor! n"$htmlO 833<TDcr5yh-

Computer networking means connecting computers e!ectronica!!y to a!!ow sharing o+ resources. 5esources range +rom attache printers to +i!es> isk space an secure in+ormation. There are three major categories o+ networks. Computers connect in the same "ui! ing using *oca! )rea Networks :*)Ns;. Metropo!itan )rea Networks :M)Ns; connect "ui! ings within a city. Wi e )rea Networks :W)Ns; connect sites throughout a country or aroun the wor! . Computer networking means connecting computers e!ectronica!!y to a!!ow sharing o+ resources. 5esources range +rom attache printers to +i!es> isk space an secure in+ormation. There are three major categories o+ networks. Computers connect in the same "ui! ing using *oca! )rea Networks :*)Ns;. Metropo!itan )rea Networks :M)Ns; connect "ui! ings within a city. Wi e )rea Networks :W)Ns; connect sites throughout a country or aroun the wor! .

Technolog$

.ost computer networ!s use +thernet or 2 D, as the '() technolo"y$ 2 D, s also !now as I+++ J;6$<<$ In the w de area% almost all networ!s use TCP&IP to connect between s tes$ TCP&IP pac!ets are put ns de +thernet or 2 D, frames to transport them over the local area$ Computer software uses TCP&IP to create connect ons between computers and share nformat on$ 1ead more: Computer )etwor! n" Def n t on F (ppl cat on M e*ow$com http:&&www$ehow$com&aboutNB7=7HBHNcomputerDnetwor! n"Ddef n t onD appl cat on$htmlO 833<TDb>3-:!

The f rst appl cat on for computer networ!s was to share pr nters attached to a personal computer n a small off ce$ .any modern pr nters attach d rectly to the networ! and no lon"er need a host computer to operate$ (nyone connected on the networ! can use any pr nter on the networ!% prov d n" they have correct perm ss ons$

)ile Sharing

The second common appl cat on for computer networ! n" was to share f les and d s! space$ , les created on one computer can be used by someone wor! n" on another computer access n" the f le over the networ!$ Th s s the s mplest form of electron c collaborat on$ Th s concept has been e8tended to create f le servers$ These are computers w th the ma n purpose of stor n" and shar n" f les$ Computers can share f les locally us n" the )etwor! , le System (),S) or Common Internet , le System (CI,S)$ Secur ty becomes cr t cal when us n" networ!ed computers$ Cou must dec de who you want to access your f les and " ve them and only them the correct perm ss ons$

*ide Area )ile Sharing

),S and CI,S are systems that wor! well n a local area w th h "h speed l n!s between the computers$ They do not wor! well over lon" d stances where bandw dth between the computers may be l m ted$ The , le Transfer Protocol (,TP) was des "ned to transfer f les over lon" d stances at slow or unpred ctable speeds$ Transferr n" f les s not as nteract ve as shar n" f les% but t st ll allows for collaborat on$

*orld *ide *eb and Be$ond

In the late <>>;s% the *yper Te8t Transfer Protocol (*TTP) "a ned w despread acceptance$ Th s allowed nformat on to be posted on a server n a standard mar!up lan"ua"e called the *yper Te8t .ar!up 'an"ua"e (*T.')$ *T.' also prov des a mechan sm for nput$ Th s s one of the ma n appl cat ons of computer networ!s s nce the year 6;;;$ 2eb pa"es can d splay nformat on n a standard format and rece ve nput from the users to create surveys% shopp n" on l ne and many other appl cat ons$

'eal Time A##lications

(s 6;<; approached% there was more nterest n us n" computer networ!s to prov de vo ce and v deo serv ces$ IP phones and IP T9 became an alternat ve to the trad t onal phone system and cable T9 system$ 2e can e8pect to see more of these appl cat ons as the networ! cont nually "rows$ 1ead more: Computer )etwor! n" Def n t on F (ppl cat on M e*ow$com http:&&www$ehow$com&aboutNB7=7HBHNcomputerDnetwor! n"Ddef n t onD appl cat on$htmlO 833<TDa5s5IO

De%inition o% Network Protocols

4y Natasha &. @i!ani> eHow Contri"utor Network protoco!s ictate network communication.

)etwor! protocols are rules that d ctate commun cat on between dev ces on a networ!$ They def ne mechan sms that allow networ! dev ces to dent fy% reco"n 3e and form connect ons w th one another% as well as formatt n" rules that nd cate how data between dev ces should be sent and rece ved over a networ!$ There are many d fferent networ! protocols that fac l tate data commun cat on n local area networ!s ('()s)% w de area networ!s (2()s) and metropol tan area networ!s (.()s)$
5ea moreC <e+inition o+ Network Protoco!s F eHow.com httpC88www.ehow.com8a"outG(4#.424G e+inition9network9protoco!s.htm!Hi1001T<JP)a?w

"nternet Protocol +"P,

The Internet protocol allows computers to send and rece ve data from the Internet (wh ch s a type of networ!)$ +ach sender or rece ver s called a host and dent f ed by a un :ue IP address$ ( messa"e s d v ded nto small chun!s (or pac!ets) before be n" transm tted over the Internet$ +ach pac!et conta ns the sender4s IP address% the rece ver4s IP address and the data tself$ These pac!ets are rece ved by "ateways (wh ch are essent ally ntell "ent computers) that read the pac!et dest nat on and forward t on to the ne8t "ateway% wh ch n turn forwards t unt l t reaches a "ateway that reco"n 3es the address as belon" n" to a computer n ts doma n$ It then forwards the pac!et to that rece v n" computer$

-$#erte.t Transfer Protocol +-TTP,

*TTP s a type of networ! protocol that fac l tates hyperte8t send n" and rece v n" between browsers and servers$ *TTP s a set of rules for transferr n" sound% "raph cs% te8t% v deo and mult med a f les over the Internet$ ( user s nd rectly access n" *TTP as soon as he or she opens a 2eb browser$

1ead more: Def n t on of )etwor! Protocols M e*ow$com http:&&www$ehow$com&aboutNB?7H?6?Ndef n t onDnetwor!Dprotocols$htmlO 833<TD>PJf(v

)ile Transfer Protocol +)TP,

( f le transfer protocol allows computers to e8chan"e f les over the Internet$ ,TP allows users to copy% move% rename and delete f les from the Internet% n add t on to download n" pro"rams or f les$

Point to Point Protocol +PPP,

PPP allows two nodes (computers% scanners% pr nters or other networ! dev ces) to establ sh a connect on n a networ!$ It fac l tates compress on% encrypt on and authent cat on between the sender and rece ver$ ( po ntDtoDpo nt protocol s also used to connect nd v dual computers over a d alDup ISP (Internet serv ce prov der) and l ne connect ons$

"nternet /essage Access Protocol +"/AP,

I.(P s a set of rules that allows a user to access ema l from a local server$ It s a cl ent&server protocol n wh ch ema l s retr eved from a secure Internet server$ ( user dec des whether or not to download a part cular ema l after read n" ts sender nformat on and head n"$ I.(P allows users to create folders% delete and pur"e messa"es off the Internet server and man pulate ma lbo8es$ /sers have to be lo""ed nto the r Internet server ma lbo8 wh le us n" I.(P$

1ead more: Def n t on of )etwor! Protocols M e*ow$com http:&&www$ehow$com&aboutNB?7H?6?Ndef n t onDnetwor!Dprotocols$htmlO 833<TD>+T332

Hy(rid Topolo'y De%inition

The term #topolo"y# s used to descr be the way n wh ch computers are connected to"ether on a computer networ!$ Popular networ! topolo" es nclude bus% star and r n"% but t s poss ble for two or more bas c topolo" es to be comb ned on a s n"le networ!% to form what s !nown as a hybr d topolo"y$

1ead more: *ybr d Topolo"y Def n t on M e*ow$com http:&&www$ehow$com&factsNH7H>7J7Nhybr dDtopolo"yDdef n t on$htmlO 833<TDJsv!-2

%& Star0Bus To#olog$

o

( starDbus topolo"y% as the name su""ests% nvolves several star topolo"y networ!s l n!ed by a common connect on% !nown as a busbar or bus for short$ If a s n"le computer on the networ! fa ls% the rema nder can cont nue runn n" unh ndered$ -ut f the hub DD a component that allows data shar n" by all dev ces connected to t DD at the center of any of the star networ!s fa ls% all of the computers on that star become naccess ble$

Star0'ing To#olog$
o

In a starDr n" topolo"y% computers are w red to form a r n" networ! and% once a"a n% connected to a central component$ ( process !nown as #to!en pass n"# allows the networ! traff c between se"ments of a starDr n" topolo"y to be "reater than that on a starDbus topolo"y$

Ado#tion
o

.any research and educat on networ!s around the world rely on hybr d topolo" es% accord n" to the Open 0r d ,orum$ *ybr d topolo" es prov de computer appl cat ons w th "uaranteed% rel able and reproduc ble networ! serv ces$

1ead more: *ybr d Topolo"y Def n t on M e*ow$com http:&&www$ehow$com&factsNH7H>7J7Nhybr dDtopolo"yDdef n t on$htmlO 833<TDJ C3'w

Where <oes the &nternet Come 6romE

The &nternet as we know it to ay is not the pro uct o+ a !ong or sustaine e++ort "y any sing!e research team. 5ather> it is the ama!gamation o+ the e++orts +rom some -ery "right peop!e working in epen ent!y o+ each other. Take a !ook at the time!ine shown in e++orts Ta"!e 1.1. Most peop!e point to Kanuary 1> 1323> as the ate when the &nternet was "orn. The +o!!owing sections escri"e the most important o+ those e-ents in greater etai!. Ta"!e 1.1 &nternet Time!ine <ate 13#. 13(2 13(3 13.2 13.3 13.# 13.( 13.3 %-ent =''5 !aunches 'putnik 6irst Packet 'witching Network )5P)N%T 'tarts 6irst Pu"!ic <emo o+ )5P)N%T &nternet Mai! &n-ente Iahn $ Cer+ Present Paper on &nternet 6irst &nternationa! &nternet Connection Microso+t 6oun e )pp!e 6oun e =seNet 'tarts

1323 )5P)N%T Changes /-er to TCP8&P )5P)N%T 'p!its into )5P)N%T $ M&*N%T Microso+t &ntro uces Win ows 1324 &nternet %1cee s 1>777 Hosts Wi!!iam @i"son Writes Neuromancer <omain Name 'er-er &ntro uce 132. 1322 1323 1337 132( 1331 &nternet %1cee s 17>777 Hosts Worm )ttacks (>777 o+ &nternetBs (7>777 Hosts &nternet %1cee s 177>777 Hosts )5P)N%T <ismant!e )rchie 'tarts N'6N%T Create W)&' 'tarte @opher 'tarte N'6 *i+ts Commercia! 4an

1332 &nternet %1cee s 1 mi!!ion Hosts We" &n-ente "y Tim 4erners9*ee ,eronica &ntro uce 1333 M/')&C <e-e!ope "y Marc )n reesen &nterN&C 6oun e "y N'6

)5P) :13#.;

&n 13#.> the =''5 !aunche 'putnik> the +irst man9ma e earth sate!!ite. )s a resu!t> the =.'. +orme the ) -ance 5esearch Projects )gency :)5P); un er the auspices the <epartment o+ <e+ense. )5P)Bs charter was to he!p the =.'. maintain a techno!ogica! !ea > particu!ar!y with regar s to the mi!itary. Packet 'witching :13(2;

&n the ear!y 13(7s> Pau! 4aran at the 5an Corporation pon ere a -ery simp!e pro"!emC How o you ensure that a mi!itary network wou! continue to operate e-en un er nuc!ear attackE &n other wor s> Pau!Bs jo" was to esta"!ish a way to get in+ormation across a network so that there isnBt a sing!e point o+ +ai!ure.

The so!ution that Pau! 4aran came up with is now ca!!e Packet 'witching. ) network o+ computers sen s messages :packets; that contain in+ormation a"out its route so that any one computer on the network knows where to +orwar :switch; the message. Nationa! Physica! *a"oratory create the +irst packet switching network in 13(2. )5P)N%T :13(3;

)5P) create )5P)N%T in 13(3 to he!p )5P)9+un e researchers co!!a"orate more e++ecti-e!y. These researchers were e ucation an research9oriente types> not the commercia! organi0ations you see on the &nternet to ay.

)5P) commissione 4o!t> 4eranek> an Newman to "ui! &nter+ace Message Processors :&MPs;> which were "ase on the packet switching techno!ogy "ui!t at the 5an Corporation in the ear!y 13(7s. The +irst &MPs were positione at =C*)> 'tan+or 5esearch &nstitute> =ni-ersity o+ Ca!i+ornia at 'anta 4ar"ara> an =ni-ersity o+ =tah in 'a!t *ake City. &MPs ha-e e-o!-e into what we now ca!! &P routers. TCP8&P :1323;

The ne1t major e-ent in the e-o!ution o+ the &nternet i nBt occur unti! 1323> when )5P)N%T change o-er to the TCP8&P networking protoco!. 4etween 13(3 an 1323> a

-ariety o+ in i-i ua! networks sproute an grew. 4&TN%T an C'N%T are among the most nota"!e. Connecting each o+ these in epen ent networks was i++icu!t> though> "ecause they i nBt use the same protoco!s an there+ore cou! nBt e1change in+ormation.

)s a resu!t> )5P) commissione the e-e!opment o+ a new protoco! ca!!e Transmission Contro! Protoco!8&nternet Protoco! :TCP8&P; that wou! a!!ow i++erent networks to connect. These networks use &P to communicate with each other> an the &MPs that switche packets "ecame known as gateways or routers. 'ince most computer scientists ca!!e a network o+ networks an Dinternet>D this new arrangement o+ networks using TCP8&P "ecame known as the &nternet.

&ronica!!y> )5P)N%T was !ate making the change o-er to TCP8&P. Most other networks ha change to TCP8&P in the !ate 13.7s> "ut )5P)N%T i nBt make the change unti! Kanuary 1> 1323. Thus> many +o!ks consi er that ate as the "irth ay o+ the &nternet. N'6 Creates N'6N%T :132(;

&n 132( the Nationa! 'cience 6oun ation create N'6N%T> an &nternet "ack"one with a spee o+ #(I. This "ack"one connecte +i-e super9computing centers !ocate at Princeton> Pitts"urgh> =C'<> =&=C> an Corne!!. N'6N%T precipitate a !arge num"er o+ connections +rom -arious uni-ersities.

The +o!!owing year> N'6 signe an agreement with Merit Network> &nc.> to cooperati-e!y manage N'6N%T. Merit Network> &nc.> in-o!-e &4M an MC& through their own su"si iary agreements.

N'6N%T has "een up ate continua!!y since 132(. &n 1322> two years a+ter going on!ine> the "ack"one was upgra e to T1 :1.#44M;. &n 1331> it was upgra e to T3 :44..3(M;L N'6N%T gaine a!most a thousan times more "an wi th than the origina! N'6N%T "ack"one.

N/T%C The e1ponentia! growth o+ the &nternet can "e pinpointe to the time that N'6N%T went on!ine. Prior to N'6N%T> just o-er 1>777 hosts were on the &nternet. /-er 17>777 hosts "egan using on the &nternet the year N'6N%T went on!ine> an two years !ater o-er (7>777 hosts were on the &nternet. )5P)N%T &s <ismant!e :1337;

/n Kune 1> 1337> the origina! )5P)N%T was ismant!e . Newer networks connecte the sites that )5P)N%T connecte > an thus )5P)N%T was no !onger use+u!. &tBs interesting to note that no one su++ere an interruption in ser-ice when )5P)N%T was remo-e . The techno!ogy ha pro-en so e++ecti-e that when )5P)N%T went own> the &nternet +oun other paths +or the in+ormation to tra-e!. The Wor! Wi e We" :1332;

Tim 4erners9*ee> a physicist at C%5N in 'wit0er!an > in-ente the Wor! Wi e We" :We"; in 1332 as a way to organi0e in+ormation in a more "rain9!ike +ashion. His i ea was to a!!ow peop!e to make mu!tip!e +ree associations with i++erent "its o+ in+ormation.

His research was "ase on hyperte1t> a concept in-ente "y Te Ne!son as part o+ the D?ana u ProjectD in the 13(7s. Hyperte1t a!!ows an author to !ink a passage o+ te1t to another ocument so that when you acti-ate that !ink> the c!ient program opens the ocument to which it re+ers. 5ecent a -ances ha-e e-o!-e hyperte1t into hyperme ia> which is simi!ar to hyperte1t "ut throws mu!time ia images> -i eos> an soun s into the mi1.

)!though 4erners9*ee in-ente the We" +or his high9energy physics cronies> it took o++ an was Auick!y a opte "y many other groups on the &nternet. The We" has now outpace e-ery other ser-ice such as @opher or W)&'. &t is so popu!ar now that the We" is what most peop!e think o+ when one mentions the &nternet. &n +act> the growth rate o+ the We" in 1333 was estimate at o-er 347>777 percent. N'6 %sta"!ishes &nterN&C :1333;

N'6 create &nterN&C> a group o+ "usinesses that pro-i e a -ariety o+ essentia! ser-ices to the &nternet. )T$T pro-i es irectory an ata"ase ser-ices. Network 'o!utions> &nc.> pro-i es name registration ser-ices> &nterN&CBs primary ro!e> which you can !earn more a"out in )ppen i1 4> D5egistering an &mp!ementing Mour /wn <omain.D @enera! )tomics an C%56net pro-i e -arious in+ormation ser-ices. The &nternet To ay :133.;

The growth o+ the &nternet has "een e1p!osi-e. &n 132#> there were a"out 2>777 host computers on the &nternet. Now there are mi!!ions o+ host computers an many more

mi!!ions o+ actua! users. )!! o+ these users arenBt necessari!y connecte irect!y to the &nternet. Howe-er> they can sti!! e1change e9mai! with other &nternet users -ia &nternet mai! gateways.

Whereas the origina! &nternet was inten e +or research purposes> the &nternet is now use pre ominant!y +or commercia! purposes. )s a resu!t> N'6 remo-e +rom its accepta"!e usage po!icies a c!ause the prohi"ite commercia! use o+ the &nternet. Mou +in organi0ations se!!ing pro ucts on the &nternet or pro-i ing a -ariety o+ ser-ices such as news> mapping> searching> an more.

Mou can attri"ute most o+ the commercia!ism to e-e!opments in the We". &n 1332> the We" was on!y suite to peop!e pu"!ishing research in+ormation. &n 133.> howe-er> the We" is +u!!y suite to create ynamic> interacti-e sites that are as enticing as many mu!time ia programs you purchase on C<95/Ms

om#uter Networking -istor$

Today4s computer networ! s the Internet commun cat on networ! B; n th s f eld n the early telephone networ! was a trace at the be" nn n" of 2orld author ty$ Internet 2orld s the source of the advanced research networ! ((1P()+T) of the /$S$ Defense Department was n <>B>$ Th n"s to see of "rowth n the last =7 year of the computer networ!$ In <>H? +thernet was to be ver f ed at the 5ero8 P(1C (lto computer networ!$ (nd after n <>HJ the modem d al up connect on was be n" ntroduced after <>HJ n <>J< Q the new TCP &% /)I5 operat n" system was be n" released of the IP su te$ The f rst portable computer and t was promoted n s 3e of almost a pound su tcase In <>J<% PC are be n" promoted from I-. and after that n <>J6 TCP & IP (Transm ss on Control Protocol and Internet Protocol) were created for normal (1P()+T (nd n the TCP was used to re"ulate the (1P()+T & IP protocol wh ch was ta!en up by Penta"on$ In <>JB the protocol TCP & IP were to be ntroduced w th the new Compa: wor!stat on PC and n <>JH the networ! host brea! had crossed almost <;;;;; and n <>J> t crossed the host almost <;;;;;; and n <>>; the (1P()+T was be n" stopped and many other tools l !e 0opher were be n" ntroduced n <>>< the (1P()+T was be n" chan"ed to ),Snet as the major "overnment networ! l n! n" research nst tut on and ),Snet was be n" advance to T= and even the world w de web was be n" developed and d rected by lee and the C+1) acted as the f rst ma n web server n <>><$ -y <>>6 the nternet was very fam l ar worldw de to everyone n the form of www$

Co&puter Networkin' and the Internet

Sect ons <$<D<$J presented an overv ew of technolo"y of computer networ! n" and the Internet$ Cou should !now enou"h now to mpress your fam ly and fr ends$ *owever% f you really want to be a b " h t at the ne8t coc!ta l party% you should spr n!le your d scourse w th t db ts about the fasc nat n" h story of the Internet$

%12%0%134: De(elo#ment and Demonstration of 5arl$ Packet Switching Princi#les

The f eld of computer networ! n" and today4s Internet trace the r be" nn n"s bac! to the early <>B;s% a t me at wh ch the telephone networ! was the world4s dom nant commun cat on networ!$ 1ecall from sect on <$=% that the telephone networ! uses c rcu t sw tch n" to transm t nformat on from a sender to rece ver DD an appropr ate cho ce " ven that vo ce s transm tted at a constant rate between sender and rece ver$ 0 ven the ncreas n" mportance (and "reat e8pense) of computers n the early <>B;4s and the advent of t meshared computers% t was perhaps natural (at least w th perfect h nds "htR) to cons der the :uest on of how to hoo! computers to"ether so that they could be shared amon" "eo"raph cally d str buted users$ The traff c "enerated by such users was l !ely to be #bursty# DD ntervals of act v ty% e$"$% the send n" of a command to a remote computer% followed by per ods of nact v ty% wh le wa t n" for a reply or wh le contemplat n" the rece ved response$ Three research "roups around the world% all unaware of the others4 wor! S'e ner >JT% be"an nvent n" the not on of pac!et sw tch n" as an eff c ent and robust alternat ve to c rcu t sw tch n"$ The f rst publ shed wor! on pac!etDsw tch n" techn :ues was the wor! by 'eonard Ule nroc! SUle nroc! <>B<% Ule nroc! <>B?T% at that t me a "raduate student at .IT$ /s n" :ueu n" theory% Ule nroc!4s wor! ele"antly demonstrated the effect veness of the pac!etD sw tch n" approach for bursty traff c sources$ (t the same t me% Paul -aran at the 1and Inst tute had be"un nvest "at n" the use of pac!et sw tch n" for secure vo ce over m l tary networ!s S-aran <>B?T% wh le at the )at onal Phys cal 'aboratory n +n"land% Donald Dav es and 1o"er Scantlebury were also develop n" the r deas on pac!et sw tch n"$ The wor! at .IT% 1and% and )P' la d the foundat ons for today4s Internet$ -ut the Internet also has a lon" h story of a #'et4s bu ld t and demonstrate t# att tude that also dates bac! to the early <>B;4s$ E$C$1$ ' c!l der SD+C <>>;T and 'awrence 1oberts% both collea"ues of Ule nroc!4s at .IT% both went on to lead the computer sc ence pro"ram at the (dvanced Projects 1esearch ("ency ((1P() n the /n ted States$ 1oberts S1oberts BHT publ shed an overall plan for the soD called (1P(net S1oberts <>BHT% the f rst pac!etDsw tched computer networ! and a d rect ancestor of today4s publ c Internet$ The early pac!et sw tches were !nown as Interface .essa"e Processors (I.P4s) and the contract to bu ld these sw tches was awarded to --)$ On 'abor Day n <>B>% the f rst I.P was nstalled at /C'(% w th three add t onal I.P be n" nstalled shortly thereafter at the Stanford 1esearch Inst tute% /C Santa -arbara% and the /n vers ty of /tah$ The fled"l n" precursor to the Internet was four nodes lar"e by the end of <>B>$ Ule nroc! recalls the very f rst use of the networ! to perform a remote lo" n from /C'( to S1I crash n" the system SUle nroc! <>>JT$

!i"ure #$%-#& The +irst &nternet Message Processor :&MP;> with *. I!einrock

-y <>H6% (1P(net had "rown to appro8 mately <7 nodes% and was " ven ts f rst publ c demonstrat on by 1obert Uahn at the <>H6 Internat onal Conference on Computer Commun cat ons$ The f rst hostDtoDhost protocol between (1P(net end systems !nown as the )etwor! Control Protocol ()CP) was completed S1,C ;;<T$ 2 th an endDtoDend protocol ava lable% appl cat ons could now be wr tten$ The f rst eDma l pro"ram was wr tten by 1ay Toml nson at --) n <>H6$

)*+, - )*-./ Internetworkin'0 and New and Proprietary Networks

The initia! )5P)net was a sing!e> c!ose network. &n or er to communicate with an )5P)net host> one ha to actua!!y "e attache to another )5P)net &MP. &n the ear!y to mi 13.7Bs> a itiona! packet9switching networks "esi es )5P)net came into "eingL )*/H)net> a sate!!ite network !inking together uni-ersities on the Hawaiian is!an s N)"ramson 13.2OL Te!enet> a 44N commercia! packet9switching network "ase on )5P)net techno!ogyL TymnetL an Transpac> a 6rench packet9switching network. The num"er o+ networks was "eginning to grow. &n 13.3> 5o"ert Metca!+eBs Ph< thesis !ai out the princip!e o+ %thernet> which wou! !ater !ea to a huge growth in so9ca!!e *oca! )rea Networks :*)Ns; that operate o-er a sma!! istance "ase on the %thernet protoco!.

Once a"a n% w th perfect h nds "ht one m "ht now see that the t me was r pe for develop n" an encompass n" arch tecture for connect n" networ!s to"ether$ P oneer n" wor! on nterconnect n" networ!s (once a"a n under the sponsorsh p of D(1P()% n essence creat n" a network of networks% was done by 9 nton Cerf and 1obert Uahn SCerf <>H?TI the term # nternett n"# was co ned to descr be th s wor!$ The arch tectural pr nc ples that Uahn4 art culated for creat n" a soDcalled #open networ! arch tecture# are the foundat on on wh ch today4s Internet s bu lt S'e ner >JT:

minimalism' autonomy& a network shou! "e a"!e to operate on its own> with no interna! changes reAuire +or it to "e internetworke with other networksL best effort ser(ice& internetworke networks wou! pro-i e "est e++ort> en 9to9en ser-ice. &+ re!ia"!e communication was reAuire > this cou! accomp!ishe "y retransmitting !ost messages +rom the sen ing hostL stateless routers& the routers in the internetworke networks wou! not maintain any per9+!ow state a"out any ongoing connection ecentrali)e control& there wou! "e no g!o"a! contro! o-er the internetworke networks.

These princip!es continue to ser-e as the architectura! +oun ation +or to ayBs &nternet> e-en 2# years !ater 9 a testament to insight o+ the ear!y &nternet esigners.

These arch tectural pr nc ples were embod ed n the TCP protocol$ The early vers ons of TCP% however% were :u te d fferent from today4s TCP$ The early vers ons of TCP comb ned a rel able nDse:uence del very of data v a end system retransm ss on (st ll part of today4s TCP) w th forward n" funct ons (wh ch today are performed by IP)$ +arly e8per mentat on w th TCP% comb ned w th the reco"n t on of the mportance of an unrel able% nonDflowDcontrolled endDend transport serv ce for appl cat on such as pac!et 3ed vo ce% led to the separat on of IP out of TCP and the development of the /DP protocol$ The three !ey Internet protocols that we see today DD TCP% /DP and IP DD were conceptually n place by the end of the <>H;4s$ In add t on to the D(1P( InternetDrelated research% many other mportant networ! n" act v t es were underway$ In *awa % )orman (bramson was develop n" ('O*(net% a pac!etDbased rad o networ! that allowed mult ple remote s tes on the *awa an slands to commun cate w th each other$ The ('O*( protocol S(bramson <>H;T was the f rst soDcalled mult ple access protocol% allow n" "eo"raph cally d str buted users to share a s n"le broadcast commun cat on med um (a rad o fre:uency)$ (bramson4s wor! on mult ple access protocols was bu lt upon by 1obert .etcalfe n the development of the +thernet protocol S.etcalfe <>HBT for w reDbased shared broadcast networ!s$ Interest n"ly% .etcalfe4s +thernet protocol was mot vated by the need to connect mult ple PCs% pr nters% and shared d s!s to"ether SPer! ns <>>?T$ TwentyDf ve years a"o% well before the PC revolut on and the e8plos on of networ!s% .etcalfe and h s collea"ues were lay n" the foundat on for today4s PC '()s$ +thernet technolo"y represented an mportant step for nternetwor! n" as well$ +ach +thernet local area networ! was tself a networ!% and as the number of '()s prol ferated% the need to nternetwor! these '()s to"ether became all the more mportant$ (n e8cellent source for nformat on on +thernet s Spur"eon4s +thernet 2eb S te% wh ch ncludes .etcalfe4s draw n" of h s +thernet concept% as shown below n , "ure <$>D6$ 2e d scuss +thernet% (loha% and other '() technolo" es n deta l n Chapter 7I

)igure %&104: ( <>HB draw n" by 1$ .etcalfe of the +thernet concept (from Charles Spur"eon4s +thernet 2eb S te) In add t on to the D(1P( nternetwor! n" efforts and the (loha&+thernet mult ple access networ!s% a number of compan es were develop n" the r own propr etary networ! arch tectures$ D " tal +:u pment Corporat on (D " tal) released the f rst vers on of the D+Cnet n <>H7% allow n" two PDPD<< m n computers to commun cate w th each other$ D+Cnet has cont nued to evolve s nce then% w th s "n f cant port ons of the OSI protocol su te be n" based on deas p oneered n D+Cnet$ Other mportant players dur n" the <>H;4s were 5ero8 (w th the 5)S arch tecture) and I-. (w th the S)( arch tecture)$ +ach of these early networ! n" efforts would contr bute to the !nowled"e base that would dr ve networ! n" n the J;4s and >;4s$ It s also worth not n" here that n the <>J;4s (and even before)% researchers (see% e$"$% S,raser <>J=% Turner <>JB% ,raser <>>=T) were also develop n" a #compet tor# technolo"y to the Internet arch tecture$ These efforts have contr buted to the development of the (T. ((synchronous Transfer .ode) arch tecture% a connect onDor ented approach based on the use of f 8ed s 3e pac!ets% !nown as cells$ 2e w ll e8am ne port ons of the (T. arch tecture throu"hout th s boo!$

)*-. - )**./ A Proli%eration o% Networks

4y the en o+ the 13.7Bs appro1imate!y 277 hosts were connecte to the )5P)net. 4y the en o+ the 1327Bs the num"er o+ host connecte to the pu"!ic &nternet> a con+e eration o+ networks !ooking much !ike to ayBs &nternet wou! reach 177>777. The 1327Bs wou! "e a time o+ tremen ous growth.

.uch of the "rowth n the early <>J;4s resulted from several d st nct efforts to create computer networ!s l n! n" un vers t es to"ether$ -ITnet (-ecause It4s There )+Twor!) prov ded ema l and f le transfers amon" several un vers t es n the )ortheast$ CS)+T (Computer Sc ence )+Twor!) was formed to l n! to"ether un vers ty researchers w thout access to (1P(net$ In <>JB% )S,)+T was created to prov de access to )S,Dsponsored supercomput n" centers$ Start n" w th an n t al bac!bone speed of 7BUbps% )S,)+T4s bac!bone would be runn n" at <$7 .bps by the end of the decade% and would be serv n" as a pr mary bac!bone l n! n" to"ether re" onal networ!s$

In the (1P(net commun ty% many of the f nal p eces of today4s Internet arch tecture were fall n" nto place$ Eanuary <% <>J= saw the off c al deployment of TCP&IP as the new standard host protocol for (rpanet (replac n" the )CP protocol)$ The trans t on SPostel <>J<T from )CP to TCP&IP was a #fla" day# type event DD all host were re:u red to transfer over to TCP&IP as of that day$ In the late <>J;4s% mportant e8tens ons were made to TCP to mplement hostDbased con"est on control SEacobson <>JJT$ The Doma n )ame System% used to map between a humanD readable Internet name (e$"$% "a a$cs$umass$edu) and ts =6Db t IP address% was also developed S.oc!apetr s <>J=% .oc!apetr s <>JHT$ Parallel n" th s development of the (1P(net (wh ch was for the most part a /S effort)% n the early <>J;s the ,rench launched the . n tel project% an amb t ous plan to br n" data networ! n" nto everyone4s home$ Sponsored by the ,rench "overnment% the . n tel system cons sted of a publ c pac!etDsw tched networ! (based on the 5$67 protocol su te% wh ch uses v rtual c rcu ts)% . n tel servers% and ne8pens ve term nals w th bu ltD n low speed modems$ The . n tel became a hu"e success n <>J? when the ,rench "overnment "ave away a free . n tel term nal to each ,rench household that wanted one$ . n tel s tes ncluded free s tes DD such as a telephone d rectory s te DD as well as pr vate s tes% wh ch collected a usa"eDbased fee from each user$ (t ts pea! n the m d <>>;s% t offered more than 6;%;;; d fferent serv ces% ran" n" from home ban! n" to spec al 3ed research databases$ It was used by over 6;V of ,rance4s populat on% "enerated more than W< b ll on each year% and created <;%;;; jobs$ The . n tel was n a lar"e fract on of ,rench homes ten years before most (mer cans had ever heard of the Internet$ It st ll enjoys w despread use n ,rance% but s ncreas n"ly fac n" st ff compet t on from the Internet$

The )**.s/ Co&&erciali1ation and the #e(

The 1337Bs were issue in with two e-ents that sym"o!i0e the continue e-o!ution an the soon9to9arri-e commercia!i0ation o+ the &nternet. 6irst> )5P)net> the progenitor o+ the &nternet cease to e1ist. M&*N%T an the <e+ense <ata Network ha grown in the 1327Bs to carry most o+ the =' <epartment o+ <e+ense re!ate tra++ic an N'6N%T ha "egun to ser-e as a "ack"one network connecting regiona! networks in the =nite 'tates an nationa! networks o-erseas. )!so> in 1337> The Wor! :www.wor! .st .com; "ecame the +irst pu"!ic ia!up &nternet 'er-ice Pro-i er :&'P;. &n 1331> N'6N%T !i+te its restrictions on use o+ N'6N%T +or commercia! purposes. N'6N%T itse!+ wou! "e ecommissione in 133#> with &nternet "ack"one tra++ic "eing carrie "y commercia! &nternet 'er-ice Pro-i ers.

The ma n event of the <>>;4s however% was to be the release of the 2orld 2 de 2eb% wh ch brou"ht the Internet nto the homes and bus nesses of m ll ons and m ll ons of people% worldw de$ The 2eb also served as a platform for enabl n" and deploy n" hundreds of new appl cat ons% nclud n" onDl ne stoc! trad n" and ban! n"% streamed mult med a serv ces% and nformat on retr eval serv ces$ ,or a br ef h story of the early days of the 222% see S2=C <>>7T$ The 222 was nvented at C+1) by T m -ernersD'ee n <>J>D<>>< S-ernersD'ee <>J>T% based on deas or " nat n" n earl er wor! on hyperte8t from the <>?;4s by -ush S-ush <>?7T and s nce the <>B;4s by Ted )elson SX ffDDav s <>>JT$ -ernersD'ee and h s assoc ates developed n t al vers ons of *T.'% *TTP% a 2eb server and a browser DD the four !ey components of the

222$ The or " nal C+1) browsers only prov ded a l neDmode nterface$ (round the end of <>>6 there were about 6;; 2eb servers n operat on% th s collect on of servers be n" the t p of the ceber" for what was about to come$ (t about th s t me several researchers were develop n" 2eb browsers w th 0/I nterfaces% nclud n" .arc (ndreesen% who developed the popular 0/I browser .osa c for 5$ *e released an alpha vers on of h s browser n <>>=% and n <>>? formed .osa c Commun cat ons% wh ch later became )etscape Commun cat ons Corporat on$ -y <>>7 un vers ty students were us n" .osa c and )etscape browsers to surf the 2eb on a da ly bas s$ (t about th s t me the /S "overnment be"an to transfer the control of the Internet bac!bone to pr vate carr ers$ Compan es DD b " and small DD be"an to operate 2eb servers and transact commerce over the 2eb$ In <>>B . crosoft "ot nto the 2eb bus ness n a b " way% and n the late <>>;s t was sued for ma! n" ts browser a central component of ts operat n" system$ In <>>> there were over twoDm ll on 2eb servers n operat on$ (nd all of th s happened n less than ten yearsR Dur n" the <>>;4s% networ! n" research and development also made s "n f cant advances n the areas of h "hDspeed routers and rout n" (see% e$"$% Chapter ?) and local area networ!s (see% e$"$% Chapter 7)$ The techn cal commun ty stru""led w th the problems of def n n" and mplement n" an Internet serv ce model for traff c re:u r n" realDt me constra nts% such as cont nuous med a appl cat ons (see% e$"$% Chapter B)$ The need to secure and mana"e Internet nfrastructure (see$ e$"$% Chapter H and J) also became of paramount mportance as eDcommerce appl cat ons prol ferated and the Internet became a central component of the world4s telecommun cat ons nfrastructure$

!e%erences
Two e1ce!!ent iscussions o+ the history o+ the &nternet are NHo""es 1332O an N*einer 1332O.

6Abramson %1378 )$ (bramson% The (loha System D (nother (lternat ve for Computer Commun cat ons% Proceed n"s of ,all Eo nt Computer Conference% (,IPS Conference% <>H;% p$=H$ 6Baran %1298 P$ -aran% #On D str buted Commun cat on )etwor!s%# IEEE Transactions on Communication Systems, .arch% <>B?$ 1and Corporat on Techn cal report w th the same t tle (.emorandum 1.D=?6;DP1% <>B?)$ 6Berners0Lee %1:18 T m -ernersD'ee% C+1)% #Informat on .ana"ement: ( Proposal%# .arch <>J>% .ay <>>; 6Bush %19;8 9$ -ush% #(s 2e .ay Th n!%# The (tlant c .onthly% Euly <>?7$ 6 erf %1398 9$ Cerf and 1$ Uahn% #( protocol for pac!et networ! nterconnect on%# I+++ Transact ons on Commun cat ons Technolo"y% 9ol$ CO.D66% )umber 7 (.ay <>H?) % pp$ B6HD B?<$ 6D5 %1178 D " tal +:u pment Corporat on% #In .emor am: E$C$1$ ' c!l der <><7D<>>;%# S1C 1esearch 1eport B<% (u"ust <>>;$ S*obbes <>>JT 1$ *obbes Xa!on% #*obbes Internet T mel ne#% 9ers on =$=% <>>J$ 6)raser %1:<8 ,raser% ($ 0$ (<>J=)$ Towards a un versal data transport system$ IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, S(CD<(7):J;=DJ<B$ 6)raser %11<8 ,raser% ($ 0$ (<>>=)$ +arly e8per ments w th asynchronous t me d v s on networ!s$ IEEE Network aga!ine% H(<):<6D6H$ 6=acobson %1::8 9$ Eacobson% #Con"est on (vo dance and Control%# Proc" AC Sigcomm #$%%

Conference% n Computer Commun cat on 1ev ew% vol$ <J% no$ ?% pp$ =<?D=6>% (u"$ <>JJ 6Kleinrock %12%8 '$ Ule nroc!% #Informat on ,low n 'ar"e Commun cat on )etwor!s%# 1'+ Puarterly Pro"ress 1eport% Euly <>B<$ 6Kleinrock %1298 '$ Ule nroc!% <>B? Commun cat on )ets: Stochast c .essa"e ,low and Delay% .c0rawD* ll <>B?% later reD ssued by Dover -oo!s$ 6Kleinrock %11:8 '$ Ule nroc!% #The - rth of the Internet%# http:&&m llen um$cs$ucla$edu&'U&Inet&b rth$html$ SLeiner 1:8 -$ 'e ner% 9$ Cerf% D$ Clar!% 1$ Uahn% '$ Ule nroc!% D$ 'ynch% E$ Postel% '$ 1oberts% S$ 2oolf% #( -r e f * story of the Internet%# http:&&www$ soc$or"& nternet&h story&br ef$html 6/etcalfe %1328 1obert .$ .etcalfe and Dav d 1$ -o""s$YY+thernet: D str buted Pac!et Sw tch n" for 'ocal Computer )etwor!s%44 Commun cat ons of the (ssoc at on for Comput n" .ach nery% 9ol<>&)o H% Euly <>HB$ 6/ocka#etris %1:<8 P$9$ .oc!apetr s% #Doma n names: Implementat on spec f cat on%# 1,C J==% )ovD;<D<>J=$ 6/ocka#etris %1:38 P$9$ .oc!apetr s% #Doma n names D concepts and fac l t es%# 1,C <;=?% )ovD;<D<>JH$ 6Perkins %1198 ($ Per! ns% #)etwor! n" w th -ob .etcalfe%# The 1ed *err n" .a"a3 ne% )ovember <>>?$ 6Postel %1:%8 E$ Postel% #)CP&TCP Trans t on Plan%# 1,C HJ;< )ovember <>J<$ 6') 77%8 S$ Croc!er% #*ost Software% 1,C ;;< (the &ery first 1,CR)$ 6'oberts %1238 '$ 1oberts% T$ .err l #Toward a Cooperat ve )etwor! of T meDShared Computers%# ,all (,IPS Conference% Oct$ <>BB$ 6Turner %1:28 E$ Turner% YY)ew D rect ons n Commun cat ons (or 2h ch 2ay to the Informat on ("eG)%44 Proceedings of t'e (uric' Seminar on )igital Communication, pp$ 67DD=6% =&JB$ 6*< %11;8 The 2orld 2 de 2eb Consort um% #( ' ttle * story of the 2orld 2 de 2eb%# <>>7$ 6>iff0Da(is %11:8 X ffDDav s Publ sh n"% #Ted )elson: hyperte8t p oneer%#

History o% Co&puter Networks 2A!PAN T3

@a0u *akhotia 5anke H2 in Networking $ Communications 6/**/W History o+ Computer Networks :)5P)N%T; %ar!ier> computers were on!y use as stan 9a!one machines. Computer networks were create to esta"!ish a communication !ink "etween i++erent users within an organi0ation. The ) -ance 5esearch Projects )gency :)5P); esigne ) -ance 5esearch Projects )gency Network :)5P)N%T; +or =nite 'tates <epartment o+ <e+ense. &t was the +oremost computer network in the =ni-erse.

-istor$ of om#uter Networks +A'PAN5T,

+arl er% computers were only used as standDalone mach nes$ Computer networ!s were created to establ sh a commun cat on l n! between d fferent users w th n an or"an 3at on$ The (dvanced 1esearch Projects ("ency ((1P() des "ned (dvanced 1esearch Projects ("ency )etwor! ((1P()+T) for /n ted States Department of Defense$ It was the foremost computer networ! n the /n verse$ Small computers were used to mana"e commun cat on l n!s$ These small computers were connected to lar"e ma nframe computers$ These lar"e computers were connected to the (1P()+T$ The purpose of A'PAN5T was that each computer would be connected to a spec al 3ed computer% called as Interface .essa"e Processes (I.P)$ The I.Ps perform the store and forward of data and were connected to each other us n" modems$ In <>B>% the f rst (1P()+T l n! was establ shed between the I.P nodes at the /n vers ty of Cal forn a at 'os (n"eles (/C'()$ Then Dou"las +n"elbart4s hyperte8tDproject computer at Stanford 1esearch Inst tute (SP was connected to I.P node$ -y the end of the year% the computers at the /n vers ty of Cal forn a% Santa -arbara (/CS-) and the /n vers ty of /tah were connected to the networ!$ (ll the computers n the networ! were us n" d fferent operat n" systems and were able commun cate w th each other across the networ!$ 1P()+T was or " nally developed for prov d n" lon"Dd stance (remote) comput n"$ 1emote comput n" was done by a ut l ty pro"ram !nown as Telnet wh ch allows the user on one computer to connect to another computer on a networ!$ Telnet serv ce can be used for debate% d scuss on and news shar n" by the news y d scuss on "roups$ St ll the remote comput n" s cons dered as an effect ve and useful serv ce of the (P1()+T$ , le transfer s another serv ce prov ded by AP'AN5T$ It allows the users to access remote computer and retr eve pro"rams or data$ The , le Transfer Protocol (,TP) s ut l ty software wh ch s used for upload n" and download n" f les$ /s n" ,TP% the d rector es or folders on remote computers can be eas ly accessed and t es can be transferred between computers$ In <>H;s% the research nst tutes and laborator es supported by the Department of Defense were also ncluded n (1P()+T% n var ous parts of /S($ Types of Computer )etwor!s Computer networ! can be w red or w reless$ )etwor!s can be cate"or 3ed as per the "eo"raph cal area to be covered by the networ!$ Computer networ! ncludes 'ocal (rea )etwor! ('())% Campus (rea )etwor! (C())% .etropol tan (rea )etwor! (.()) and 2 de (rea )etwor! (2())

Computer networ!s for the home and small bus ness can be bu lt us n" e ther w red or w reless technolo"y$ 2 red +thernet has been the trad t onal cho ce n homes% but 2 D, w reless technolo" es are "a n n" "round fast$ -oth w red and w reless can cla m advanta"es over the otherI both represent v able opt ons for home and other local area networ!s ('()s)$

-elow we compare w red and w reless networ! n" n f ve !ey areas:

ease of nstallat on total cost Z rel ab l ty Z performance Z secur ty

A(out #ired LANs

Wire *)Ns use %thernet ca"!es an network a apters. )!though two computers can "e irect!y wire to each other using an %thernet crosso-er ca"!e> wire *)Ns genera!!y a!so reAuire centra! e-ices !ike hu"s> switches> or routers to accommo ate more computers.

,or d alDup connect ons to the Internet% the computer host n" the modem must run Internet Connect on Shar n" or s m lar software to share the connect on w th all other computers on the '()$ -roadband routers allow eas er shar n" of cable modem or DS' Internet connect ons% plus they often nclude bu ltD n f rewall support$

Installation
%thernet ca"!es must "e run +rom each computer to another computer or to the centra! e-ice. &t can "e time9consuming an i++icu!t to run ca"!es un er the +!oor or through wa!!s> especia!!y when computers sit in i++erent rooms. 'ome newer homes are pre9wire with C)T# ca"!e> great!y simp!i+ying the ca"!ing process an minimi0ing unsight!y ca"!e runs.

The correct cabl n" conf "urat on for a w red '() var es depend n" on the m 8 of dev ces% the type of Internet connect on% and whether nternal or e8ternal modems are used$ *owever% none of these opt ons pose any more d ff culty than% for e8ample% w r n" a home theater system$ (fter hardware nstallat on% the rema n n" steps n conf "ur n" e ther w red or w reless '()s do not d ffer much$ -oth rely on standard Internet Protocol and networ! operat n" system conf "urat on opt ons$ 'aptops and other portable dev ces often enjoy "reater mobilit$ n w reless home networ! nstallat ons (at least for as lon" as the r batter es allow)$

Cost
%thernet ca"!es> hu"s an switches are -ery ine1pensi-e. 'ome connection sharing so+tware packages> !ike &C'> are +reeL some cost a nomina! +ee. 4roa "an routers cost more> "ut these are optiona! components o+ a wire *)N> an their higher cost is o++set "y the "ene+it o+ easier insta!!ation an "ui!t9in security +eatures.

!elia(ility
%thernet ca"!es> hu"s an switches are e1treme!y re!ia"!e> main!y "ecause manu+acturers ha-e "een continua!!y impro-ing %thernet techno!ogy o-er se-era! eca es. *oose ca"!es !ike!y remain the sing!e most common an annoying source o+ +ai!ure in a wire network. When insta!!ing a wire *)N or mo-ing any o+ the components !ater> "e sure to care+u!!y check the ca"!e connections.

-roadband routers have also suffered from some rel ab l ty problems n the past$ /nl !e other +thernet "ear% these products are relat vely new% mult Dfunct on dev ces$ -roadband routers have matured over the past several years and the r rel ab l ty has mproved "reatly$

Per%or&ance
Wire *)Ns o++er superior per+ormance. Tra itiona! %thernet connections o++er on!y 17 M"ps "an wi th> "ut 177 M"ps 6ast %thernet techno!ogy costs !itt!e more an is rea i!y a-ai!a"!e. )!though 177 M"ps represents a theoretica! ma1imum per+ormance ne-er rea!!y achie-e in practice> 6ast %thernet shou! "e su++icient +or home +i!e sharing> gaming> an high9spee &nternet access +or many years into the +uture.

2 red '()s ut l 3 n" hubs can suffer performance slowdown f computers heav ly ut l 3e the networ! s multaneously$ /se +thernet sw tches nstead of hubs to avo d th s problemI a sw tch costs l ttle more than a hub$

Security
6or any wire *)N connecte to the &nternet> +irewa!!s are the primary security consi eration. Wire %thernet hu"s an switches o not support +irewa!!s. Howe-er> +irewa!! so+tware pro ucts !ike Jone)!arm can "e insta!!e on the computers themse!-es. 4roa "an routers o++er eAui-a!ent +irewa!! capa"i!ity "ui!t into the e-ice> con+igura"!e through its own so+tware.

A(out #ireless LANs

Popu!ar W*)N techno!ogies a!! +o!!ow one o+ the three main Wi96i communication stan ar s. The "ene+its o+ wire!ess networking epen on the stan ar emp!oye C

272.11" was the +irst stan ar to "e wi e!y use in W*)Ns. The 272.11a stan ar is +aster "ut more e1pensi-e than 272.11"L 272.11a is more common!y +oun in "usiness networks. The newest stan ar > 272.11g> attempts to com"ine the "est o+ "oth 272.11a an 272.11"> though it too is more a more e1pensi-e home networking option.

Installation
Wi96i networks can "e con+igure in two i++erent waysC

D) hocD mo e a!!ows wire!ess e-ices to communicate in peer9to9peer mo e with each other. D&n+rastructureD mo e a!!ows wire!ess e-ices to communicate with a centra! no e that in turn can communicate with wire no es on that *)N.

.ost '()s re:u re nfrastructure mode to access the Internet% a local pr nter% or other w red serv ces% whereas ad hoc mode supports only bas c f le shar n" between w reless dev ces$ -oth 2 D, modes re:u re w reless networ! adapters% somet mes called 2'() cards$ Infrastructure mode 2'()s add t onally re:u re a central dev ce called the access po nt$ The access po nt must be nstalled n a central locat on where w reless rad o s "nals can reach t w th m n mal nterference$ (lthou"h 2 D, s "nals typ cally reach <;; feet (=; m) or more% obstruct ons l !e walls can "reatly reduce the r ran"e$

Cost
Wire!ess gear costs somewhat more than the eAui-a!ent wire %thernet pro ucts. )t +u!! retai! prices> wire!ess a apters an access points may cost three or +our times as much as %thernet ca"!e a apters an hu"s8switches> respecti-e!y. 272.11" pro ucts ha-e roppe in price consi era"!y with the re!ease o+ 272.11g> an o"-ious!y> "argain sa!es can "e +oun i+ shoppers are persistent.

!elia(ility
Wire!ess *)Ns su++er a +ew more re!ia"i!ity pro"!ems than wire *)Ns> though perhaps not enough to "e a signi+icant concern. 272.11" an 272.11g wire!ess signa!s are su"ject to inter+erence +rom other home app!icances inc!u ing microwa-e o-ens> cor !ess te!ephones> an garage oor openers. With care+u! insta!!ation> the !ike!ihoo o+ inter+erence can "e minimi0e .

2 reless networ! n" products% part cularly those that mplement J;6$<<"% are comparat vely new$ (s w th any new technolo"y% e8pect t w ll ta!e t me for these products to mature$

Per%or&ance
Wire!ess *)Ns using 272.11" support a ma1imum theoretica! "an wi th o+ 11 M"ps> rough!y the same as that o+ o! > tra itiona! %thernet. 272.11a an 272.11g W*)Ns support #4 M"ps> that is appro1imate!y one9ha!+ the "an wi th o+ 6ast %thernet. 6urthermore> Wi96i per+ormance is istance sensiti-e> meaning that ma1imum per+ormance wi!! egra e on computers +arther away +rom the access point or other communication en point. )s more wire!ess e-ices uti!i0e the W*)N more hea-i!y> per+ormance egra es e-en +urther.

Overall% the performance of J;6$<<a and J;6$<<" s suff c ent for home Internet connect on shar n" and f le shar n"% but "enerally not suff c ent for home '() "am n"$ The "reater mob l ty of w reless '()s helps offset the performance d sadvanta"e$ .ob le computers do not need to be t ed to an +thernet cable and can roam freely w th n the 2'() ran"e$ *owever% many home computers are lar"er des!top models% and even mob le computers

must somet mes be t ed to an electr cal cord and outlet for power$ Th s underm nes the mob l ty advanta"e of 2'()s n many homes$

Security
&n theory> wire!ess *)Ns are !ess secure than wire *)Ns> "ecause wire!ess communication signa!s tra-e! through the air an can easi!y "e intercepte . To pro-e their point> some engineers ha-e promote the practice o+ war ri-ing> that in-o!-es tra-e!ing through a resi entia! area with Wi96i eAuipment scanning the airwa-es +or unprotecte W*)Ns. /n "a!ance> though> the weaknesses o+ wire!ess security are more theoretica! than practica!. W*)Ns protect their ata through the Wire %Aui-a!ent Pri-acy :W%P; encryption stan ar > that makes wire!ess communications reasona"!y as sa+e as wire ones in homes.

)o computer networ! s completely secure and homeowners should research th s top c to ensure they are aware of and comfortable w th the r s!s$ Important secur ty cons derat ons for homeowners tend to not be related to whether the networ! s w red or w reless but rather ensur n":

the homeBs &nternet +irewa!! is proper!y con+igure the +ami!y is +ami!iar with the anger o+ &nternet Dspoo+ emai!sD an how to recogni0e them the +ami!y is +ami!iar with the concept o+ DspywareD an how to a-oi it "a"ysitters> housekeepers an other -isitors o not ha-e unwante access to the network

Conclusion
MouB-e stu ie the ana!ysis an are rea y to make your ecision. 4ottom !ine> then> which is "etter 9 wire or wire!essE The ta"!e "e!ow summari0es the main criteria weB-e consi ere in this artic!e. &+ you are -ery cost9conscious> nee ma1imum per+ormance o+ your home system> an onBt care much a"out mo"i!ity> then a wire %thernet *)N is pro"a"!y right +or you.

If on the other hand% cost s less of an ssue% you l !e be n" an early adopter of lead n"Ded"e technolo" es% and you are really concerned about the tas! of w r n" your home or small bus ness w th +thernet cable% then you should certa nly cons der a w reless '()$ .any of you w ll naturally fall somewhere n between these two e8tremes$ If you4re st ll undec ded% cons der as! n" fr ends and fam ly about the r e8per ences w th bu ld n" '()s$ (nd% spend just a few more m nutes w th our nteract ve -ome Network Ad(isor tool$ It should help you dec de on the type of networ! as well as the "ear you w ll want to have$ 0 ve t a try: *ome )etwor! (dv sor

*ired (s *ireless

Wire Installation Cost mo erate i++icu!ty !ess

Wire!ess easier> "ut "eware inter+erence more reasona"!y high goo reasona"!y goo outstan ing

*eliability high Performanc -ery goo e Security +obility reasona"!y goo !imite

Character st cs of a Computer )etwor! The pr mary purpose of a computer networ! s to share resources:

Cou can play a CD mus c from one computer wh le s tt n" on another computer Cou may have a computer that doesn[t have a D9D or -lu1ay (-D) player$ In th s case% you can place a mov e d sc (D9D or -D) on the computer that has the player% and then v ew the mov e on a computer that lac!s the player Cou may have a computer w th a CD&D9D&-D wr ter or a bac!up system but the other computer(s) doesn[t (don4t) have t$ In th s case% you can burn d scs or ma!e bac!ups on a computer that has one of these but us n" data from a computer that doesn[t have a d sc wr ter or a bac!up system Cou can connect a pr nter (or a scanner% or a fa8 mach ne) to one computer and let other computers of the networ! pr nt (or scan% or fa8) to that pr nter (or scanner% or fa8 mach ne) Cou can place a d sc w th p ctures on one computer and let other computers access those p ctures Cou can create f les and store them n one computer% then access those f les from the other computer(s) connected to t
Characteristics of a Computer Network The primary purpose o+ a computer network is to share resourcesC P Mou can p!ay a C< music +rom one computer whi!e sitting on another computer P Mou may ha-e a computer with a C< writer or a "ackup system "ut the other computer oesnQt ha-e itL &n this case> you can "urn C<s or make "ackups on a

computer that has one o+ these "ut using ata +rom a computer that oesnQt ha-e a C< writer or a "ackup system P Mou may ha-e a computer that oesnQt ha-e a <,< p!ayer. &n this case> you can p!ace a mo-ie <,< on the computer that has a <,< p!ayer> an then -iew the mo-ie on a computer that !acks a <,< p!ayer P Mou can connect a printer :or a scanner> or a +a1 machine; to one computer an !et other computers o+ the network print :or scan> or +a1; to that printer :or scanner> or +a1 machine; P Mou can p!ace a C< with pictures on one computer an !et other computers access those pictures P Mou can create +i!es an store them in one computer> then access those +i!es +rom the other computer:s; connecte to it

Co&puter network
6rom Wikipe ia> the +ree encyc!ope ia Kump toC na-igation> search DComputer networksD re irects here. 6or the perio ica!> see Computer Networks :journa!;. D<atacomD re irects here. 6or other uses> see <atacom : isam"iguation;.

Network science

Theory , -istory

0raph ? Comple8 networ! ? Conta" on SmallDworld ? ScaleDfree ? Commun ty structure ? Percolat on ? +volut on ?

Controllab l ty ? Topolo"y ? 0raph draw n" ? Soc al cap tal ? ' n! analys s ? Opt m 3at on 1ec proc ty ? Closure ? *omoph ly Trans t v ty ? Preferent al attachment -alance ? )etwor! effect ? Influence Types of Networks

"nformation ? Telecommun cat on Soc al ? - olo" cal ? )eural ? Semant c 1andom ? Dependency ? ,low .raphs

9erte8 ? +d"e ? Component D rected ? .ult "raph ? - part te 2e "hted ? *yper"raph ? 1andom Cycle ? 'oop ? Path )e "hborhood ? Cl :ue ? Complete ? Cut Data structure ? (djacency l st F matr 8 Inc dence l st F matr 8 /rowse Topics , 'o+tware , Network scientists 0raph theory ? )etwor! theory

t e

( com#uter network% or s mply a network% s a collect on of computers and other hardware components nterconnected by commun cat on channels that allow shar n" of resources and nformat on$S<T 2here at least one process n one dev ce s able to send&rece ve data to&from at least one process res d n" n a remote dev ce% then the two dev ces are sa d to be n a networ!$ S mply% more than one computer nterconnected throu"h a commun cat on med um for nformat on nterchan"e s called a computer networ!$

)etwor!s may be class f ed accord n" to a w de var ety of character st cs% such as the med um used to transport the data% commun cat ons protocol used% scale% topolo"y% and or"an 3at onal scope$ Commun cat ons protocols def ne the rules and data formats for e8chan" n" nformat on n a computer networ!% and prov de the bas s for networ! pro"ramm n"$ 2ellD!nown commun cat ons protocols nclude two +thernet% a hardware and l n! layer standard that s ub :u tous n local area networ!s% and the Internet protocol su te% wh ch def nes a set of protocols for nternetwor! n"% $e$ for data commun cat on between mult ple networ!s% as well as hostDtoD host data transfer% and appl cat onDspec f c data transm ss on formats$ Computer networ! n" s somet mes cons dered a subDd sc pl ne of electr cal en" neer n"% telecommun cat ons% computer sc ence% nformat on technolo"y or computer en" neer n"% s nce t rel es upon the theoret cal and pract cal appl cat on of these d sc pl nes$

ontents

1 History 2 Properties 3 Communication me ia

o o o

3.1 Wire techno!ogies 3.2 Wire!ess techno!ogies 3.3 %1otic techno!ogies

4 Communications protoco!s an network programming

o o o o o

4.1 %thernet 4.2 &nternet Protoco! 'uite 4.3 '/N%T8'<H 4.4 )synchronous Trans+er Mo e 4.# Network programming

# 'ca!e
o o o o

#.1 Persona! area network #.2 *oca! area network #.3 Home area network #.4 'torage area network

o o o o o o o o

#.# Campus area network #.( 4ack"one network #.. Metropo!itan area network #.2 Wi e area network #.3 %nterprise pri-ate network #.17 ,irtua! pri-ate network #.11 ,irtua! Network #.12 &nternetwork

( /rgani0ationa! scope
o o

(.1 &ntranets an e1tranets (.2 &nternet

. Network topo!ogy
o o

..1 Common !ayouts ..2 /-er!ay network

2 4asic har ware components

o o o o o o

2.1 Network inter+ace car s 2.2 5epeaters an hu"s 2.3 4ri ges 2.4 'witches 2.# 5outers 2.( 6irewa!!s

3 Network per+ormance 17 Network security 11 Network resi!ience 12 ,iews o+ networks 13 'ee a!so 14 5e+erences

1# 6urther rea ing 1( %1terna! !inks

-istor$

<istri"ute processing This section reAuires e1pansion. (December

,-.-!

-efore the advent of computer networ!s that were based upon some type of telecommun cat ons system% commun cat on between calculat on mach nes and early computers was performed by human users by carry n" nstruct ons between them$ .any of the soc al behav ors seen n today4s Internet were demonstrably present n the <>th century and ar"uably n even earl er networ!s us n" v sual s "nals$

&n 'eptem"er 1347> @eorge 'ti"it0 use a Te!etype machine to sen instructions +or a pro"!em set +rom his Mo e! at <artmouth Co!!ege to his Comp!e1 Num"er Ca!cu!ator in New Mork an recei-e resu!ts "ack "y the same means. *inking output systems !ike te!etypewriters to computers was an interest at the ) -ance 5esearch Projects )gency :)5P); when> in 13(2> K.C.5. *ick!i er was hire an e-e!ope a working group he ca!!e the D&nterga!actic Computer NetworkD> a precursor to the )5P)N%T. %ar!y networks o+ communicating computers inc!u e the mi!itary ra ar system 'emi9 )utomatic @roun %n-ironment :')@%;> starte in the !ate 13#7s. The commercia! air!ine reser-ation system semi9automatic "usiness research en-ironment :')45%; went on!ine with two connecte main+rames in 13(7.N2ON3O &n 13(4> researchers at <artmouth e-e!ope the <artmouth Time 'haring 'ystem +or istri"ute users o+ !arge computer systems. The same year> at Massachusetts &nstitute o+ Techno!ogy> a research group supporte "y @enera! %!ectric an 4e!! *a"s use a computer to route an manage te!ephone connections.

Throughout the 13(7s *eonar I!einrock> Pau! 4aran an <ona! <a-ies in epen ent!y conceptua!i0e an e-e!ope network systems which use packets that cou! "e use in a network "etween computer systems. 13(# Thomas Mari!! an *awrence @. 5o"erts create the +irst wi e area network :W)N;. This was an imme iate precursor to the )5P)N%T> o+ which 5o"erts "ecame program manager. The +irst wi e!y use te!ephone switch that use true computer contro! was intro uce "y Western %!ectric in 13(#. &n 13(3 the =ni-ersity o+ Ca!i+ornia at *os )nge!es> the 'tan+or 5esearch &nstitute> =ni-ersity o+ Ca!i+ornia at 'anta 4ar"ara> an the =ni-ersity o+ =tah were connecte as the "eginning o+ the )5P)N%T network using #7 k"it8s circuits.N4O Commercia! ser-ices using ?.2# were ep!oye in 13.2> an !ater use as an un er!ying in+rastructure +or e1pan ing TCP8&P networks.

Today% computer networ!s are the core of modern commun cat on$ (ll modern aspects of the publ c sw tched telephone networ! (PST)) are computerDcontrolled% and telephony ncreas n"ly runs over the Internet Protocol% althou"h not necessar ly the publ c Internet$ The scope of commun cat on has ncreased s "n f cantly n the past decade% and th s boom n commun cat ons would not have been poss ble w thout the pro"ress vely advanc n" computer networ!$ Computer networ!s% and the technolo" es needed to connect and commun cate throu"h and between them% cont nue to dr ve computer hardware% software% and per pherals ndustr es$ Th s e8pans on s m rrored by "rowth n the numbers and types of users of networ!s% from the researcher to the home user$ Interconnected collect on of autonomous computers(un :ue dent ty) s !nown as computer networ!$

Pro#erties
Computer networ!s:
6aci!itate communications =sing a network> peop!e can communicate e++icient!y an easi!y -ia emai!> instant messaging> chat rooms> te!ephone> -i eo te!ephone ca!!s> an -i eo con+erencing. Permit sharing o+ +i!es> ata> an other types o+ in+ormation &n a network en-ironment> authori0e users may access ata an in+ormation store on other computers on the network. The capa"i!ity o+ pro-i ing access to ata an in+ormation on share storage e-ices is an important +eature o+ many networks. 'hare network an computing resources

&n a networke en-ironment> each computer on a network may access an use resources pro-i e "y e-ices on the network> such as printing a ocument on a share network printer. <istri"ute computing uses computing resources across a network to accomp!ish tasks. May "e insecure ) computer network may "e use "y computer hackers to ep!oy computer -iruses or computer worms on e-ices connecte to the network> or to pre-ent these e-ices +rom norma!!y accessing the network : enia! o+ ser-ice;. May inter+ere with other techno!ogies Power !ine communication strong!y istur"s certain N#O+orms o+ ra io communication> e.g.> amateur ra io.N(O &t may a!so inter+ere with !ast mi!e access techno!ogies such as )<'* an ,<'*.N.O May "e i++icu!t to set up ) comp!e1 computer network may "e i++icu!t to set up. &t may a!so "e -ery cost!y to set up an e++ecti-e computer network in a !arge organi0ation or company.

ommunication media
Computer networ!s can be class f ed accord n" to the hardware and assoc ated software technolo"y that s used to nterconnect the nd v dual dev ces n the networ!% such as electr cal cable (*omeP)(% power l ne commun cat on% 0$hn)% opt cal f ber% and rad o waves (w reless '())$ In the OSI model% these are located at levels < and 6$ ( wellD!nown family of commun cat on med a s collect vely !nown as +thernet$ It s def ned by I+++ J;6 and ut l 3es var ous standards and med a that enable commun cat on between dev ces$ 2 reless '() technolo"y s des "ned to connect dev ces w thout w r n"$ These dev ces use rad o waves or nfrared s "nals as a transm ss on med um$

#ired technolo'ies
The order of the follow n" w red technolo" es s% rou"hly% from slowest to fastest transm ss on speed$

/wiste pair wire is the most wi e!y use me ium +or te!ecommunication. Twiste 9pair ca"!ing consist o+ copper wires that are twiste into pairs. /r inary te!ephone wires consist o+ two insu!ate copper wires twiste into pairs. Computer networking ca"!ing :wire %thernet as e+ine "y &%%% 272.3; consists o+ 4 pairs o+ copper ca"!ing that can "e uti!i0e +or "oth -oice an ata transmission. The use o+ two wires twiste together he!ps to re uce crossta!k an e!ectromagnetic in uction. The transmission spee ranges +rom 2 mi!!ion "its per secon to 17 "i!!ion "its per secon . Twiste pair ca"!ing comes in

two +ormsC unshie! e twiste pair :=TP; an shie! e twiste 9pair :'TP;. %ach +orm comes in se-era! category ratings> esigne +or use in -arious scenarios.

'oa0ial cable is wi e!y use +or ca"!e te!e-ision systems> o++ice "ui! ings> an other work9sites +or !oca! area networks. The ca"!es consist o+ copper or a!uminum wire surroun e "y an insu!ating !ayer :typica!!y a +!e1i"!e materia! with a high ie!ectric constant;> which itse!+ is surroun e "y a con ucti-e !ayer. The insu!ation he!ps minimi0e inter+erence an istortion. Transmission spee ranges +rom 277 mi!!ion "its per secon to more than #77 mi!!ion "its per secon . &T=9T @.hn techno!ogy uses e1isting home wiring :coa1ia! ca"!e> phone !ines an power !ines; to create a high9spee :up to 1 @iga"it8s; !oca! area network. )n optica! +i"er is a g!ass +i"er. &t uses pu!ses o+ !ight to transmit ata. 'ome a -antages o+ optica! +i"ers o-er meta! wires are !ess transmission !oss> immunity +rom e!ectromagnetic ra iation> an -ery +ast transmission spee > up to tri!!ions o+ "its per secon . /ne can use i++erent co!ors o+ !ights to increase the num"er o+ messages "eing sent o-er a +i"er optic ca"!e.

#ireless technolo'ies

/errestrial microwave R Terrestria! microwa-e communication uses %arth9"ase transmitters an recei-ers resem"!ing sate!!ite ishes. Terrestria! microwa-es are in the !ow9gigahert0 range> which !imits a!! communications to !ine9o+9sight. 5e!ay stations are space appro1imate!y 42 km :37 mi; apart. 'ommunications satellites R The sate!!ites communicate -ia microwa-e ra io wa-es> which are not e+!ecte "y the %arthBs atmosphere. The sate!!ites are statione in space> typica!!y in geosynchronous or"it 3#>477 km :22>777 mi; a"o-e the eAuator. These %arth9or"iting systems are capa"!e o+ recei-ing an re!aying -oice> ata> an T, signa!s. 'ellular an P'# systems use se-era! ra io communications techno!ogies. The systems i-i e the region co-ere into mu!tip!e geographic areas. %ach area has a !ow9power transmitter or ra io re!ay antenna e-ice to re!ay ca!!s +rom one area to the ne1t area. Ra io an sprea spectrum technologies R Wire!ess !oca! area network use a high9 +reAuency ra io techno!ogy simi!ar to igita! ce!!u!ar an a !ow9+reAuency ra io techno!ogy. Wire!ess *)Ns use sprea spectrum techno!ogy to ena"!e communication "etween mu!tip!e e-ices in a !imite area. &%%% 272.11 e+ines a common +!a-or o+ open9stan ar s wire!ess ra io9wa-e techno!ogy. &n+rare communication can transmit signa!s +or sma!! istances> typica!!y no more than 17 meters. &n most cases> !ine9o+9sight propagation is use > which !imits the physica! positioning o+ communicating e-ices. ) g!o"a! area network :@)N; is a network use +or supporting mo"i!e across an ar"itrary num"er o+ wire!ess *)Ns> sate!!ite co-erage areas> etc. The key cha!!enge in mo"i!e communications is han ing o++ user communications +rom one !oca! co-erage area to the ne1t. &n &%%% Project 272> this in-o!-es a succession o+ terrestria! wire!ess *)Ns.N2O

4otic technolo'ies
There have been var ous attempts at transport n" data over more or less e8ot c med a:

&P o-er )-ian Carriers was a humorous )pri! +oo!Bs 5eAuest +or Comments> issue as *!C ##0%. &t was imp!emente in rea! !i+e in 2771.N3O %1ten ing the &nternet to interp!anetary imensions -ia ra io wa-es.N17O

-oth cases have a lar"e roundDtr p delay t me% wh ch prevents useful commun cat on$

ommunications #rotocols and network #rogramming

&nternet map. The &nternet is a g!o"a! system o+ interconnecte computer networks that use the stan ar &nternet Protoco! 'uite :TCP8&P; to ser-e "i!!ions o+ users wor! wi e. Main artic!eC Communications protoco!

( commun cat ons protocol s a set of rules for e8chan" n" nformat on over a networ!$ It s typ cally a protocol stac! (also see the OSI model)% wh ch s a #stac!# of protocols% n wh ch each protocol uses the protocol below t$ (n mportant e8ample of a protocol stac! s *TTP runn n" over TCP over IP over I+++ J;6$<< (TCP and IP are members of the Internet Protocol Su te% and I+++ J;6$<< s a member of the +thernet protocol su te)$ Th s stac! s used between the w reless router and the home user4s personal computer when the user s surf n" the web$ Commun cat on protocols have var ous propert es% such as whether they are connect onDor ented or connect onless% whether they use c rcu t mode or pac!et sw tch n"% or whether they use h erarch cal or flat address n"$ There are many commun cat on protocols% a few of wh ch are descr bed below$

thernet
Main artic!eC %thernet

+thernet s a fam ly of protocols used n '()s% descr bed by a set of standards to"ether called I+++ J;6 publ shed by the Inst tute of +lectr cal and +lectron cs +n" neers$ It has a flat address n" scheme and s mostly s tuated at levels < and 6 of the OSI model$ ,or home users today% the most wellD!nown member of th s protocol fam ly s I+++ J;6$<<% otherw se !nown as 2 reless '() (2'())$ *owever% the complete protocol su te deals w th a mult tude of networ! n" aspects not only for home use% but espec ally when the technolo"y s deployed to support a d verse ran"e of bus ness needs$ .(C br d" n" (I+++ J;6$<D) deals w th the rout n" of +thernet pac!ets us n" a Spann n" Tree Protocol% I+++ J;6$<P descr bes 9'()s% and I+++ J;6$<5 def nes a portDbased )etwor! (ccess Control protocol% wh ch forms the bas s for the authent cat on mechan sms used n 9'()s% but t s also found n 2'()s Q t s what the home user sees when the user has to enter a #w reless access !ey#$

Internet Protocol Suite

The Internet Protocol Su te% often also called TCP&IP% s the foundat on of all modern nternetwor! n"$ It offers connect onDless as well as connect onDor ented serv ces over an nherently unrel able networ! traversed by data"ram transm ss on at the Internet protocol (IP) level$ (t ts core% the protocol su te def nes the address n"% dent f cat on% and rout n" spec f cat on n form of the trad t onal Internet Protocol 9ers on ? (IPv?) and IPvB% the ne8t "enerat on of the protocol w th a much enlar"ed address n" capab l ty$

S$N T/SDH
Main artic!eC 'ynchronous optica! networking

Synchronous Opt cal )etwor! n" (SO)+T) and Synchronous D " tal * erarchy (SD*) are standard 3ed mult ple8 n" protocols that transfer mult ple d " tal b t streams over opt cal f ber us n" lasers$ They were or " nally des "ned to transport c rcu t mode commun cat ons from a var ety of d fferent sources% pr mar ly to support realDt me% uncompressed% c rcu tDsw tched vo ce encoded n PC.(PulseDCode .odulat on) format$ *owever% due to ts protocol neutral ty and transportDor ented features% SO)+T&SD* also was the obv ous cho ce for transport n" (synchronous Transfer .ode ((T.) frames$

Asynchronous Trans%er 5ode

Main artic!eC )synchronous trans+er mo e

(synchronous Transfer .ode ((T.) s a sw tch n" techn :ue for telecommun cat on networ!s$ It uses asynchronous t meDd v s on mult ple8 n" and encodes data nto small% f 8edDs 3ed cells$ Th s d ffers from other protocols such as the Internet Protocol Su te or +thernet that use var able s 3ed pac!ets or frames$ (T. has s m lar ty w th both c rcu t and pac!et sw tched networ! n"$ Th s ma!es t a "ood cho ce for a networ! that must handle both trad t onal h "hDthrou"hput data traff c% and realDt me% lowDlatency content such as vo ce and v deo$ (T. uses a connect onD

or ented model n wh ch a v rtual c rcu t must be establ shed between two endpo nts before the actual data e8chan"e be" ns$ 2h le the role of (T. s d m n sh n" n favor of ne8tD"enerat on networ!s% t st ll plays a role n the last m le% wh ch s the connect on between an Internet serv ce prov der and the home user$ ,or an nterest n" wr teDup of the technolo" es nvolved% nclud n" the deep stac! n" of commun cat ons protocols used% see$S<<T

Network pro'ra&&in'
Main artic!eC Computer network programming Main artic!eC Network socket

Computer networ! pro"ramm n" nvolves wr t n" computer pro"rams that commun cate w th each other across a computer networ!$ D fferent pro"rams must be wr tten for the cl ent process% wh ch n t ates the commun cat on% and for the server process% wh ch wa ts for the commun cat on to be n t ated$ -oth endpo nts of the commun cat on flow are mplemented as networ! soc!etsI hence networ! pro"ramm n" s bas cally soc!et pro"ramm n"$

Scale
Computer network types by "eo"raphical scope

Near +ie! :N6C; 4o y :4)N; Persona! :P)N; Near9me :N)N; *oca! :*)N;
o o

Home :H)N; 'torage :')N;

Campus :C)N; 4ack"one Metropo!itan :M)N;

Wi e :W)N; &nternet &nterp!anetary &nternet

t e

)etwor!s are often class f ed by the r phys cal or or"an 3at onal e8tent or the r purpose$ /sa"e% trust level% and access r "hts d ffer between these types of networ!s$

Personal area network

( personal area networ! (P()) s a computer networ! used for commun cat on amon" computer and d fferent nformat on technolo" cal dev ces close to one person$ Some e8amples of dev ces that are used n a P() are personal computers% pr nters% fa8 mach nes% telephones% PD(s% scanners% and even v deo "ame consoles$ ( P() may nclude w red and w reless dev ces$ The reach of a P() typ cally e8tends to <; meters$S<6T ( w red P() s usually constructed w th /Sand , rew re connect ons wh le technolo" es such as -luetooth and nfrared commun cat on typ cally form a w reless P()$

Local area network

( local area networ! ('()) s a networ! that connects computers and dev ces n a l m ted "eo"raph cal area such as home% school% computer laboratory% off ce bu ld n"% or closely pos t oned "roup of bu ld n"s$ +ach computer or dev ce on the networ! s a node$ Current w red '()s are most l !ely to be based on +thernet technolo"y% althou"h new standards l !e IT/DT 0$hn also prov de a way to create a w red '() us n" e8 st n" home w res (coa8 al cables% phone l nes and power l nes)$S<=T

Typica! !i"rary network> in a "ranching tree topo!ogy an contro!!e access to resources

( sample '() s dep cted n the accompany n" d a"ram$ (ll nterconnected dev ces must understand the networ! layer (layer =)% because they are handl n" mult ple subnets (the d fferent colors)$ Those ns de the l brary% wh ch have only <;&<;; .b t&s +thernet connect ons to the user dev ce and a 0 "ab t +thernet connect on to the central router% could be called #layer = sw tches# because they only have +thernet nterfaces and must understand IP$ It would be more correct to call them access routers% where the router at the top s a d str but on router that connects to the Internet and academ c networ!s4 customer access routers$ The def n n" character st cs of '()s% n contrast to 2()s (2 de (rea )etwor!s)% nclude the r h "her data transfer rates% smaller "eo"raph c ran"e% and no need for leased telecommun cat on l nes$ Current +thernet or other I+++ J;6$= '() technolo" es operate at data transfer rates up to <; 0b t&s$ I+++ has projects nvest "at n" the standard 3at on of ?; and <;; 0b t&s$S<?T '()s can be connected to 2 de area networ! by us n" routers$

Ho&e area network

( home area networ! (*()) s a res dent al '() wh ch s used for commun cat on between d " tal dev ces typ cally deployed n the home% usually a small number of personal computers and accessor es% such as pr nters and mob le comput n" dev ces$ (n mportant funct on s the shar n" of Internet access% often a broadband serv ce throu"h a cable T9 or D " tal Subscr ber ' ne (DS') prov der$

Stora'e area network

( stora"e area networ! (S()) s a ded cated networ! that prov des access to consol dated% bloc! level data stora"e$ S()s are pr mar ly used to ma!e stora"e dev ces% such as d s! arrays% tape l brar es% and opt cal ju!ebo8es% access ble to servers so that the dev ces appear l !e locally attached dev ces to the operat n" system$ ( S() typ cally has ts own networ! of stora"e dev ces that are "enerally not access ble throu"h the local area networ! by other dev ces$ The cost and comple8 ty of S()s dropped n the early 6;;;s to levels allow n" w der adopt on across both enterpr se and small to med um s 3ed bus ness env ronments$

Ca&pus area network

( campus area networ! (C()) s a computer networ! made up of an nterconnect on of '()s w th n a l m ted "eo"raph cal area$ The networ! n" e:u pment (sw tches% routers) and transm ss on med a (opt cal f ber% copper plant% Cat7 cabl n" etc$) are almost ent rely owned (by the campus tenant & owner: an enterpr se% un vers ty% "overnment etc$)$ In the case of a un vers ty campusDbased campus networ!% the networ! s l !ely to l n! a var ety of campus bu ld n"s nclud n"% for e8ample% academ c colle"es or departments% the un vers ty l brary% and student res dence halls$

6ack(one network
( bac!bone networ! s part of a computer networ! nfrastructure that nterconnects var ous p eces of networ!% prov d n" a path for the e8chan"e of nformat on between d fferent '()s or subnetwor!s$ ( bac!bone can t e to"ether d verse networ!s n the same bu ld n"% n d fferent bu ld n"s n a campus env ronment% or over w de areas$ )ormally% the bac!bone4s capac ty s "reater than that of the networ!s connected to t$ ( lar"e corporat on wh ch has many locat ons may have a bac!bone networ! that t es all of these locat ons to"ether% for e8ample% f a server cluster needs to be accessed by d fferent departments of a company wh ch are located at d fferent "eo"raph cal locat ons$ The e:u pment wh ch t es these departments to"ether const tute the networ! bac!bone$ )etwor! performance mana"ement nclud n" networ! con"est on are cr t cal parameters ta!en nto account when des "n n" a networ! bac!bone$ ( spec f c case of a bac!bone networ! s the Internet bac!bone% wh ch s the set of w deDarea networ! connect ons and core routers that nterconnect all networ!s connected to the Internet$

5etropolitan area network

( .etropol tan area networ! (.()) s a lar"e computer networ! that usually spans a c ty or a lar"e campus$

'amp!e %PN ma e o+ 6rame re!ay W)N connections an

ia!up remote access.

'amp!e ,PN use to interconnect 3 o++ices an remote users

#ide area network

( w de area networ! (2()) s a computer networ! that covers a lar"e "eo"raph c area such as a c ty% country% or spans even ntercont nental d stances% us n" a commun cat ons channel that comb nes many types of med a such as telephone l nes% cables% and a r waves$ ( 2() often uses transm ss on fac l t es prov ded by common carr ers% such as telephone compan es$ 2() technolo" es "enerally funct on at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the phys cal layer% the data l n! layer% and the networ! layer$

nterprise pri7ate network

(n enterpr se pr vate networ! s a networ! bu lt by an enterpr se to nterconnect var ous company s tes% e$"$% product on s tes% head off ces% remote off ces% shops% n order to share computer resources$

8irtual pri7ate network

( v rtual pr vate networ! (9P)) s a computer networ! n wh ch some of the l n!s between nodes are carr ed by open connect ons or v rtual c rcu ts n some lar"er networ! (e$"$% the Internet) nstead of by phys cal w res$ The data l n! layer protocols of the v rtual networ! are sa d to be tunneled throu"h the lar"er networ! when th s s the case$ One common appl cat on s secure commun cat ons throu"h the publ c Internet% but a 9P) need not have e8pl c t secur ty features% such as authent cat on or content encrypt on$ 9P)s% for e8ample% can be used to separate the traff c of d fferent user commun t es over an underly n" networ! w th stron" secur ty features$ 9P) may have bestDeffort performance% or may have a def ned serv ce level a"reement (S'() between the 9P) customer and the 9P) serv ce prov der$ 0enerally% a 9P) has a topolo"y more comple8 than po ntDtoDpo nt$

8irtual Network
)ot to be confused w th a 9 rtual Pr vate )etwor!% a 9 rtual )etwor! def nes data traff c flows between v rtual mach nes w th n a hyperv sor n a v rtual comput n" env ronment$ 9 rtual )etwor!s may employ v rtual secur ty sw tches% v rtual routers% v rtual f rewalls and other v rtual networ! n" dev ces to d rect and secure data traff c$

Internetwork
(n nternetwor! s the connect on of mult ple computer networ!s v a a common rout n" technolo"y us n" routers$ The Internet s an a""re"at on of many connected nternetwor!s spann n" the +arth$

@rganiAational sco#e
)etwor!s are typ cally mana"ed by or"an 3at ons wh ch own them$ (ccord n" to the owner4s po nt of v ew% networ!s are seen as ntranets or e8tranets$ ( spec al case of networ! s the Internet% wh ch has no s n"le owner but a d st nct status when seen by an or"an 3at onal ent ty Q that of perm tt n" v rtually unl m ted "lobal connect v ty for a "reat mult tude of purposes$

Intranets and e4tranets

Intranets and e8tranets are parts or e8tens ons of a computer networ!% usually a '()$ (n ntranet s a set of networ!s% us n" the Internet Protocol and IPDbased tools such as web browsers and f le transfer appl cat ons% that s under the control of a s n"le adm n strat ve ent ty$ That adm n strat ve ent ty closes the ntranet to all but spec f c% author 3ed users$ .ost commonly% an ntranet s the nternal networ! of an or"an 3at on$ ( lar"e ntranet w ll typ cally have at least one web server to prov de users w th or"an 3at onal nformat on$ (n e8tranet s a networ! that s l m ted n scope to a s n"le or"an 3at on or ent ty and also has l m ted connect ons to the networ!s of one or more other usually% but not necessar ly% trusted or"an 3at ons or ent t es\a company4s customers may be " ven access to some part of ts ntranet\wh le at the same t me the customers may not be cons dered trusted from a secur ty standpo nt$ Techn cally% an e8tranet may also be cate"or 3ed as a C()% .()% 2()% or other type of networ!% althou"h an e8tranet cannot cons st of a s n"le '()I t must have at least one connect on w th an e8ternal networ!$

Internet
The Internet s a "lobal system of nterconnected "overnmental% academ c% corporate% publ c% and pr vate computer networ!s$ It s based on the networ! n" technolo" es of the Internet Protocol Su te$ It s the successor of the (dvanced 1esearch Projects ("ency )etwor! ((1P()+T) developed by D(1P( of the /n ted States Department of Defense$ The Internet s also the commun cat ons bac!bone underly n" the 2orld 2 de 2eb (222)$

Part c pants n the Internet use a d verse array of methods of several hundred documented% and often standard 3ed% protocols compat ble w th the Internet Protocol Su te and an address n" system (IP addresses) adm n stered by the Internet (ss "ned )umbers (uthor ty and address re" str es$ Serv ce prov ders and lar"e enterpr ses e8chan"e nformat on about the reachab l ty of the r address spaces throu"h the -order 0ateway Protocol (-0P)% form n" a redundant worldw de mesh of transm ss on paths$

Network to#olog$
Co&&on layouts
( networ! topolo"y s the layout of the nterconnect ons of the nodes of a computer networ!$ Common layouts are:

) "us networkC a!! no es are connecte to a common me ium a!ong this me ium. This was the !ayout use in the origina! %thernet> ca!!e 174)'%# an 174)'%2. ) star networkC a!! no es are connecte to a specia! centra! no e. This is the typica! !ayout +oun in a Wire!ess *)N> where each wire!ess c!ient connects to the centra! Wire!ess access point. ) ring networkC each no e is connecte to its !e+t an right neigh"our no e> such that a!! no es are connecte an that each no e can reach each other no e "y tra-ersing no es !e+t9 or rightwar s. The 6i"er <istri"ute <ata &nter+ace :6<<&; ma e use o+ such a topo!ogy. ) mesh networkC each no e is connecte to an ar"itrary num"er o+ neigh"ours in such a way that there is at !east one tra-ersa! +rom any no e to any other. ) +u!!y connecte networkC each no e is connecte to e-ery other no e in the network.

)ote that the phys cal layout of the nodes n a networ! may not necessar ly reflect the networ! topolo"y$ (s an e8ample% w th ,DDI% the networ! topolo"y s a r n" (actually two counterD rotat n" r n"s)% but the phys cal topolo"y s a star% because all ne "hbor n" connect ons are routed v a a central phys cal locat on$

$7erlay network
(n overlay networ! s a v rtual computer networ! that s bu lt on top of another networ!$ )odes n the overlay are connected by v rtual or lo" cal l n!s% each of wh ch corresponds to a path% perhaps throu"h many phys cal l n!s% n the underly n" networ!$ The topolo"y of the overlay networ! may (and often does) d ffer from that of the underly n" one$

) samp!e o-er!ay networkC &P o-er '/N%T o-er /ptica!

,or e8ample% many peerDtoDpeer networ!s are overlay networ!s because they are or"an 3ed as nodes of a v rtual system of l n!s run on top of the Internet$ The Internet was n t ally bu lt as an overlay on the telephone networ!$S<7T The most str ! n" e8ample of an overlay networ!% however% s the Internet tself: (t the IP layer% each node can reach any other by a d rect connect on to the des red IP address% thereby creat n" a fully connected networ!I the underly n" networ!% however% s composed of a meshDl !e nterconnect of subnetwor!s of vary n" topolo" es (and% n fact% technolo" es)$ (ddress resolut on and rout n" are the means wh ch allows the mapp n" of the fully connected IP overlay networ! to the underly n" ones$ Overlay networ!s have been around s nce the nvent on of networ! n" when computer systems were connected over telephone l nes us n" modems% before any data networ! e8 sted$ (nother e8ample of an overlay networ! s a d str buted hash table% wh ch maps !eys to nodes n the networ!$ In th s case% the underly n" networ! s an IP networ!% and the overlay networ! s a table (actually a map) nde8ed by !eys$ Overlay networ!s have also been proposed as a way to mprove Internet rout n"% such as throu"h :ual ty of serv ce "uarantees to ach eve h "herD:ual ty stream n" med a$ Prev ous proposals such as IntServ% D ffServ% and IP .ult cast have not seen w de acceptance lar"ely because they re:u re mod f cat on of all routers n the networ!$Scitation neededT On the other hand% an overlay networ! can be ncrementally deployed on endDhosts runn n" the overlay protocol software% w thout cooperat on from Internet serv ce prov ders$ The overlay has no control over how pac!ets are routed n the underly n" networ! between two overlay nodes% but t can control% for e8ample% the se:uence of overlay nodes a messa"e traverses before reach n" ts dest nat on$ ,or e8ample% (!ama Technolo" es mana"es an overlay networ! that prov des rel able% eff c ent content del very (a ! nd of mult cast)$ (cadem c research ncludes end system mult cast and

overcast for mult castI 1O) (res l ent overlay networ!) for res l ent rout n"I and OverPoS for :ual ty of serv ce "uarantees% amon" others$

Basic hardware com#onents

Main artic!eC Networking har ware

(part from the phys cal commun cat ons med a themselves as descr bed above% networ!s compr se add t onal bas c hardware bu ld n" bloc!s nterconnect n" the r term nals% such as networ! nterface cards ()ICs)% hubs% br d"es% sw tches% and routers$

Network inter%ace cards

( networ! card% networ! adapter% or )IC (networ! nterface card) s a p ece of computer hardware des "ned to allow computers to phys cally access a networ! n" med um$ It prov des a lowDlevel address n" system throu"h the use of .(C addresses$ +ach +thernet networ! nterface has a un :ue .(C address wh ch s usually stored n a small memory dev ce on the card% allow n" any dev ce to connect to the networ! w thout creat n" an address confl ct$ +thernet .(C addresses are composed of s 8 octets$ /n :ueness s ma nta ned by the I+++% wh ch mana"es the +thernet address space by ass "n n" =Doctet pref 8es to e:u pment manufacturers$ The l st of pref 8es s publ cly ava lable$ +ach manufacturer s then obl "ed to both use only the r ass "ned pref 8(es) and to un :uely set the =Doctet suff 8 of every +thernet nterface they produce$

!epeaters and hu(s

( repeater s an electron c dev ce that rece ves a s "nal% cleans t of unnecessary no se% re"enerates t% and retransm ts t at a h "her power level% or to the other s de of an obstruct on% so that the s "nal can cover lon"er d stances w thout de"radat on$ In most tw sted pa r +thernet conf "urat ons% repeaters are re:u red for cable that runs lon"er than <;; meters$ ( repeater w th mult ple ports s !nown as a hub$ 1epeaters wor! on the Phys cal 'ayer of the OSI model$ 1epeaters re:u re a small amount of t me to re"enerate the s "nal$ Th s can cause a propa"at on delay wh ch can affect networ! commun cat on when there are several repeaters n a row$ .any networ! arch tectures l m t the number of repeaters that can be used n a row (e$"$ +thernet4s 7D?D = rule)$ Today% repeaters and hubs have been made mostly obsolete by sw tches (see below)$

6rid'es
( networ! br d"e connects mult ple networ! se"ments at the data l n! layer (layer 6) of the OSI model$ -r d"es broadcast to all ports e8cept the port on wh ch the broadcast was rece ved$ *owever% br d"es do not prom scuously copy traff c to all ports% as hubs do% but learn wh ch

.(C addresses are reachable throu"h spec f c ports$ Once the br d"e assoc ates a port and an address% t w ll send traff c for that address to that port only$ -r d"es learn the assoc at on of ports and addresses by e8am n n" the source address of frames that t sees on var ous ports$ Once a frame arr ves throu"h a port% ts source address s stored and the br d"e assumes that .(C address s assoc ated w th that port$ The f rst t me that a prev ously un!nown dest nat on address s seen% the br d"e w ll forward the frame to all ports other than the one on wh ch the frame arr ved$ -r d"es come n three bas c types:

*oca! "ri gesC <irect!y connect *)Ns 5emote "ri gesC Can "e use to create a wi e area network :W)N; !ink "etween *)Ns. 5emote "ri ges> where the connecting !ink is s!ower than the en networks> !arge!y ha-e "een rep!ace with routers. Wire!ess "ri gesC Can "e use to join *)Ns or connect remote stations to *)Ns.

Switches
( networ! sw tch s a dev ce that forwards and f lters OSI layer 6 data"rams (chun!s of data commun cat on) between ports (connected cables) based on the .(C addresses n the pac!ets$S<BT ( sw tch s d st nct from a hub n that t only forwards the frames to the ports nvolved n the commun cat on rather than all ports connected$ ( sw tch brea!s the coll s on doma n but represents tself as a broadcast doma n$ Sw tches ma!e forward n" dec s ons of frames on the bas s of .(C addresses$ ( sw tch normally has numerous ports% fac l tat n" a star topolo"y for dev ces% and cascad n" add t onal sw tches$S<HT Some sw tches are capable of rout n" based on 'ayer = address n" or add t onal lo" cal levelsI these are called mult Dlayer sw tches$ The term switc' s used loosely n mar!et n" to encompass dev ces nclud n" routers and br d"es% as well as dev ces that may d str bute traff c on load or by appl cat on content (e$"$% a 2eb /1' dent f er)$

!outers
( router s an nternetwor! n" dev ce that forwards pac!ets between networ!s by process n" nformat on found n the data"ram or pac!et (Internet protocol nformat on from 'ayer = of the OSI .odel)$ In many s tuat ons% th s nformat on s processed n conjunct on w th the rout n" table (also !nown as forward n" table)$ 1outers use rout n" tables to determ ne what nterface to forward pac!ets (th s can nclude the #null# also !nown as the #blac! hole# nterface because data can "o nto t% however% no further process n" s done for sa d data)$

9irewalls
( f rewall s an mportant aspect of a networ! w th respect to secur ty$ It typ cally rejects access re:uests from unsafe sources wh le allow n" act ons from reco"n 3ed ones$ The v tal role

f rewalls play n networ! secur ty "rows n parallel w th the constant ncrease n 4cyber4 attac!s for the purpose of steal n"&corrupt n" data% plant n" v ruses% etc$

Network #erformance
Main artic!eC network per+ormance

Network #erformance refers to the serv ce :ual ty of a telecommun cat ons product as seen by the customer$ It should not be seen merely as an attempt to "et #more throu"h# the networ!$ The follow n" l st " ves e8amples of )etwor! Performance measures for a c rcu tDsw tched networ! and one type of pac!etDsw tched networ!% v 3$ (T.:

Circuit9switche networksC &n circuit switche networks> network per+ormance is synonymous with the gra e o+ ser-ice. The num"er o+ rejecte ca!!s is a measure o+ how we!! the network is per+orming un er hea-y tra++ic !oa s.N12O /ther types o+ per+ormance measures can inc!u e noise> echo an so on. )TMC &n an )synchronous Trans+er Mo e :)TM; network> per+ormance can "e measure "y !ine rate> Aua!ity o+ ser-ice :So';> ata throughput> connect time> sta"i!ity> techno!ogy> mo u!ation techniAue an mo em enhancements.N13O

There are many d fferent ways to measure the performance of a networ!% as each networ! s d fferent n nature and des "n$ Performance can also be modelled nstead of measuredI one e8ample of th s s us n" state trans t on d a"rams to model :ueu n" performance n a c rcu tD sw tched networ!$ These d a"rams allow the networ! planner to analy3e how the networ! w ll perform n each state% ensur n" that the networ! w ll be opt mally des "ned$S6;T

Network securit$
Main artic!eC network security

In the f eld of networ! n"% the area of network securit$S6<T cons sts of the prov s ons and pol c es adopted by the networ! adm n strator to prevent and mon tor unauthor 3ed access% m suse% mod f cat on% or den al of the computer networ! and networ!Daccess ble resources$ )etwor! secur ty s the author 3at on of access to data n a networ!% wh ch s controlled by the networ! adm n strator$ /sers are ass "ned an ID and password that allows them access to nformat on and pro"rams w th n the r author ty$ )etwor! Secur ty covers a var ety of computer networ!s% both publ c and pr vate that are used n everyday jobs conduct n" transact ons and commun cat ons amon" bus nesses% "overnment a"enc es and nd v duals$

Network resilience
Main artic!eC resi!ience :network;

In computer networ! n": ]'esilience s the ab l ty to prov de and ma nta n an acceptable level of serv ce n the face of faults and challen"es to normal operat on$^S66T

Biews of networks
/sers and networ! adm n strators typ cally have d fferent v ews of the r networ!s$ /sers can share pr nters and some servers from a wor!"roup% wh ch usually means they are n the same "eo"raph c locat on and are on the same '()% whereas a )etwor! (dm n strator s respons ble to !eep that networ! up and runn n"$ ( commun ty of nterest has less of a connect on of be n" n a local area% and should be thou"ht of as a set of arb trar ly located users who share a set of servers% and poss bly also commun cate v a peerDtoDpeer technolo" es$ )etwor! adm n strators can see networ!s from both phys cal and lo" cal perspect ves$ The phys cal perspect ve nvolves "eo"raph c locat ons% phys cal cabl n"% and the networ! elements (e$"$% routers% br d"es and appl cat on layer "ateways) that nterconnect the phys cal med a$ 'o" cal networ!s% called% n the TCP&IP arch tecture% subnets% map onto one or more phys cal med a$ ,or e8ample% a common pract ce n a campus of bu ld n"s s to ma!e a set of '() cables n each bu ld n" appear to be a common subnet% us n" v rtual '() (9'()) technolo"y$ -oth users and adm n strators w ll be aware% to vary n" e8tents% of the trust and scope character st cs of a networ!$ ("a n us n" TCP&IP arch tectural term nolo"y% an ntranet s a commun ty of nterest under pr vate adm n strat on usually by an enterpr se% and s only access ble by author 3ed users (e$"$ employees)$S6=T Intranets do not have to be connected to the Internet% but "enerally have a l m ted connect on$ (n e8tranet s an e8tens on of an ntranet that allows secure commun cat ons to users outs de of the ntranet (e$"$ bus ness partners% customers)$
S6=T

/noff c ally% the Internet s the set of users% enterpr ses% and content prov ders that are nterconnected by Internet Serv ce Prov ders (ISP)$ ,rom an en" neer n" v ewpo nt% the Internet s the set of subnets% and a""re"ates of subnets% wh ch share the re" stered IP address space and e8chan"e nformat on about the reachab l ty of those IP addresses us n" the -order 0ateway Protocol$ Typ cally% the humanDreadable names of servers are translated to IP addresses% transparently to users% v a the d rectory funct on of the Doma n )ame System (D)S)$ Over the Internet% there can be bus nessDtoDbus ness (-6-)% bus nessDtoDconsumer (-6C) and consumerDtoDconsumer (C6C) commun cat ons$ +spec ally when money or sens t ve nformat on s e8chan"ed% the commun cat ons are apt to be secured by some form of commun cat ons secur ty mechan sm$ Intranets and e8tranets can be securely super mposed onto the Internet% w thout any access by "eneral Internet users and adm n strators% us n" secure 9 rtual Pr vate )etwor! (9P)) technolo"y$