Islamic Azad University

Karaj Branch
Dr. M. Khosravy
Chapter 2
Conduction
1
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Chapter 2:
! Need to obtain detailed temperature profiles: Energy
conservation written for a differential volume
Conservation of Energy
Can be written for control volume or control surface
! Control volume and control surface: Convenient, but do not give
any information on actual temperature distributions
When there are no contributions of kinetic, potential, internal energy and work
Motivation
Chapter 1:
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Conduction Heat Transfer
Conduction refers to the transport of energy in a medium
(solid, liquid or gas) due to a temperature gradient.
The physical mechanism is random atomic or molecular
activity
Governed by Fouriers law
In this chapter we will learn
! The definition of important transport properties and what governs thermal
conductivity in solids, liquids and gases
! The general formulation of Fouriers law, applicable to any geometry and multiple
dimensions
! How to obtain temperature distributions by using the heat diffusion equation.
! How to apply boundary and initial conditions
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Thermal Properties of Matter
Recall from Chapter 1, Fouriers law for heat conduction:
! The proportionality constant is a transport property, known as thermal
conductivity k (units W/m.K)
Usually assumed to be isotropic (independent of the direction of
transfer): k
x
=k
y
=k
z
=k
s Is thermal conductivity different between gases, liquids and solids?
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Thermal Conductivity: Solids
Solid comprised of free electrons and atoms
bound in lattice
Thermal energy transported through
Migration of free electrons, k
e
Lattice vibrational waves, k
l
where
? What is the relative magnitude in pure metals, alloys and non-metallic
solids?
See Figure 2.4, Appendix Tables A.1, A.2 and A.3
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Thermal Conductivity: Gases
Intermolecular spacing is much larger
Molecular motion is random
Thermal energy transport less effective than in solids;
thermal conductivity is lower
! Kinetic theory of gases:
where n the number of particles per unit volume, the mean
molecular speed and l the mean free path (average distance travelled
before a collision)
? What are the effects of temperature, molecular weight and pressure?
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Thermal Conductivity: Liquids
Physical mechanisms controlling thermal conductivity
not well understood in the liquid state
Generally k decreases with increasing temperature
(exceptions glycerine and water)
k decreases with increasing molecular weight.
Values tabulated as function of temperature. See Tables
A.5 and A.6, appendix.
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Thermal Conductivity: Insulators
Can disperse solid material throughout an air space fiber, powder and flake type
insulations
Cellular insulation Foamed systems
! Several modes of heat transfer involved (conduction,
convection, radiation)
! Effective thermal conductivity: depends on the thermal
conductivity and radiative properties of solid material, volumetric
fraction of the air space, structure/morphology (open vs. closed
pores, pore volume, pore size etc.) Bulk density (solid mass/
total volume) depends strongly on the manner in which the solid
material is interconnected. See Table A.3.
? How can we design a solid material with low thermal
conductivity?
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Thermal Diffusivity
Thermophysical properties of matter:
Transport properties: k (thermal conductivity/heat transfer), n
(kinematic viscosity/momentum transfer), D (diffusion coefficient/mass
transfer)
Thermodynamic properties, relating to equilibrium state of a system,
such as density,r and specific heat c
p
.
the volumetric heat capacity r c
p
(J/m
3
.K) measures the ability of a material to store
thermal energy.
Thermal diffusivity a is the ratio of the thermal conductivity to the heat
capacity:
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The Conduction Rate Equation
Recall from Chapter 1:
Heat rate in the
x-direction
Heat flux in the
x-direction
x
We assumed that T varies only in
the x-direction, T=T(x)
Direction of heat flux is normal to
cross sectional area A, where A is
isothermal surface (plane normal
to x-direction)
T
1
(high)
T
2
(low)
q
x

x
1
x
2
A
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The Conduction Rate Equation
In reality we must account for heat transfer in three dimensions
Temperature is a scalar field T(x,y,z)
Heat flux is a vector quantity. In Cartesian coordinates:
for isotropic medium
Where three dimensional del operator in cartesian coordinates:
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Summary: Fouriers Law
It is phenomenological, ie. based on experimental evidence
Is a vector expression indicating that the heat flux is normal to
an isotherm, in the direction of decreasing temperature
Applies to all states of matter
Defines the thermal conductivity, ie.
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The Heat Diffusion Equation
Objective to determine the temperature field, ie. temperature
distribution within the medium.
Based on knowledge of temperature distribution we can compute
the conduction heat flux.
! Reminder from fluid mechanics: Differential control volume.
We will apply the
energy conservation
equation to the
differential control
volume
CV
Element of volume:
dx dy dz
T(x,y,z)
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Heat Diffusion Equation
Energy Conservation Equation
where from Fouriers law
(2.1)
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Heat Diffusion Equation
Thermal energy generation due to an energy source:
Manifestation of energy conversion process (between
thermal energy and chemical/electrical/nuclear energy)
! Positive (source) if thermal energy is generated
! Negative (sink) if thermal energy is consumed
Energy storage term
Represents the rate of change of thermal energy
stored in the matter in the absence of phase change.
is the time rate of change of the sensible
(thermal) energy of the medium per unit
volume (W/m
3
)
is the rate at which energy is generated
per unit volume of the medium (W/m
3
)
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Heat Diffusion Equation
Substituting into Eq. (2.1):
Heat Equation
Net conduction of heat into the CV
rate of
energy
generation
per unit
volume
time rate of
change of
thermal
energy per
unit volume
" At any point in the medium the rate of energy transfer by conduction into a unit volume
plus the volumetric rate of thermal energy generation must equal the rate of change of
thermal energy stored within the volume
(2.2)
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Heat Diffusion Equation- Other forms
If k=constant
is the thermal diffusivity
For steady state conditions
For steady state conditions, one-dimensional transfer in x-direction
and no energy generation
! Heat flux is constant in
the direction of transfer
(2.3)
(2.4)
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Heat Diffusion
Equation
In cylindrical coordinates:
In spherical coordinates:
(2.5)
(2.6)
Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer
Steady implies no change with time at any point within
the medium
Transient implies variation with time or time dependence
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Fourier-Poisson
Equation
Assumptions
Geometry
Boundary
and/or initial
conditions
Solve the Equation for T
Analytical or Numerical
Obtain Temperature
Profile
Fouriers Law of Heat
Conduction
Obtain rate of heat
transfer
TYPICAL METHOD FOR SOLVING
CONDUCTION PROBLEMS
COORDINATE
SYSTEM
Chapter 2
20 Dr. M. Khosravy
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Example (Problem 2.23 textbook)
The steady-state temperature distribution in a one-dimensional wall of
thermal conductivity 50 W/m.K and thickness 50 mm is observed to be T
(C)=a+bx
2
, where a=200C, b=-2000C/m
2
, and x is in meters.
a) What is the heat generation rate in the wall?
b) Determine the heat fluxes at the two wall faces. In what manner are these
heat fluxes related to the heat generation rate?
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Boundary and Initial Conditions
Heat equation is a differential equation:
Second order in spatial coordinates: Need 2 boundary conditions
First order in time: Need 1 initial condition
Boundary Conditions
1) B.C. of first kind (Dirichlet condition):
x
T(x,t)
T
s
Constant Surface Temperature
At x=0, T(x,t)=T(0,t)=T
s
x=0
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Boundary and Initial Conditions
2) B.C. of second kind (Neumann condition): Constant heat flux at the
surface

1. Finite heat flux
x
T(x,t)
x
T(x,t)
q
x
= q
s

2. Adiabatic surface
q
x
=0
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Boundary and Initial Conditions
3) B.C. of third kind: When convective heat transfer occurs at the surface
T(x,t)
T(0,t)
x
= q
conduction
q
convection

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Example 2.3, textbook
A long copper bar of rectangular cross section, whose width w is much
greater than its thickness L, is maintained in contact with a heat sink (for
example an ice bath) at a uniform initial temperature T
o
. Suddenly an
electric current is passed through the bar, and an airstream of
temperature is passed over the top surface, while the bottom
surface is maintained at T
o
. Obtain the differential equation, the boundary
and initial conditions that can be used to determine the temperature as a
function of position and time inside the bar.
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Example (Problem 2.39, textbook)
Passage of an electric current through a long conducting rod of radius r
i
and
thermal conductivity k
r
results in uniform volumetric heating at a rate of .
The conducting rod is wrapped in an electrically nonconducting cladding
material of outer radius r
o
and thermal conductivity k
c
, and convection cooling
is provided by an adjoining fluid.
For steady-state conditions, write appropriate forms of the heat equations for
the rod and cladding. Express appropriate boundary conditions for the solution
of these equations.
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Example (Problem 2.26 Textbook)
One dimensional, steady-state conduction with uniform internal energy generation
occurs in a plane wall with a thickness of 50 mm and a constant thermal
conductivity of 5 W/m.K. For these conditions, the temperature distribution has
the form T(x)=a+bx+cx2. The surface at x=0 has a temperature of T(0)
=To=120C and experiences convection with a fluid for which and
h=500 W/m2.K. The surface at x=L is well insulated.
(a) Applying an overall energy balance to the wall, calculate the internal
energy generation rate.
(b) Determine the coefficients a,b, and c, applying the appropriate boundary
conditions.
Example of Cylindrical Coordinate
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Summary
Generalized form of Fouriers law, to take into account conduction in 3
dimensions.
Physical meaning of thermal conductivity, k, and thermal diffusivity, a.
Modification of the energy balance, for cases involving conduction heat
transfer THE HEAT EQUATION
! Simplified forms of the heat equation
! Heat equation in cylindrical and spherical coordinates
! Identification of boundary conditions