Sophocles AJAX Prologue (1-134) Characterisation in Sophocles Ajax.

. and there you see the power of the gods, Odysseus. Is it not great? Gods in Tragedy: Gods and mortals interact regularly on the tragic stage. Occasionally the gods are fully developed characters, but usually, as here, they only make brief appearances. The roof (theologeion) of the stake building (skene) was used as an upper level for actors and most likely position of a god. Alternatively, gods could be presented as hovering in the air, using a special crane (mechane). As the drama unfolds, it becomes clear that (at first at least) Odysseus cannot see Athena but Ajax seems to be able to. This could mean that Athena is simply out of Odysseus line of sight, or that she is invisible, but appears as an illusion to the demented Ajax. The character of Athena: 1) Throughout the prologue Athena makes reference to her own knowledge and role in causing Ajaxs madness. Find 4/5 such references and quote them. 2) What impression does this give the audience of Athena? Is it a sign of self- satisfaction or simply a reminder of the omniscience which distinguishes gods from mortals? Or both? 3) pg 21-22: Athena speaks to the deluded Ajax. What impression do we get of Athena from this exchange? The Homeric Hero: In 5th Cent Greece the heroes of the Trojan War were known primarily from Homers Iliad. For Homers heroes, gaining honour (time) and excelling all others was the primary aim of life. Cowardice was the most shameful of all vices, as it would damage ones honour and reputation.

The character of Odysseus: 1) What do we learn about Odysseus character from this scene? (think specifically about Athenas description of him on pg 17 and his reaction to Athena calling out Ajax). 2) How does this compare to what you know of Odysseus from the Odyssey? Ajaxs first appearance: As Athena tells us, she has driven Ajax mad. Madness plays a role in several tragedies, though it is not clear how madness would have been presented on stage in the ancient theatre. It may have been indicated by gesture and intonation, by a special mask, or simply left to emerge from what he says.

The character of Ajax:

1) What do we learn from Athena about the character of Ajax? (Especially from her description of his actions/ punishment on pg 19) 2) What do we learn from Odysseus about the character of Ajax? (Think particularly about what Odysseus has to say both before and after he has witnessed Ajax in his demented state). 3) What impression do we get from Ajax himself, during his dialogue with Athena? Think about his pitiful state of delusion, but also his extreme anger and hatred. 4) Overall, what are your initial thoughts about the plight of Ajax? Is he to be pitied or is he receiving just punishment for his intended actions?

Aim at the great and you cannot miss Parados (134-200) The Chorus (Ajaxs men, sailors from Salamis) enter, pg 22). As we have already seen in Agamemnon, besides participating in dialogue, the Chorus perform lyric passages, which include the parados and other choral odes. Choral odes, originally set to music, are an integral part of tragedys overall structure. They serve to separate the dramatic episodes of a play but are closely related to the action in the narrative sections (in theme even if not in content). They often comment on past events relevant to the play, or speculate about the events to come. The Chorus sang their odes along tpo the music and danced while they did it this was an important aspect of the theatrical spectacle.

First Episode (201-595) Tecmessa comes out of Ajaxs tent and engages in dialogue with the Chorus. Tecmessa is referred to as Ajaxs captive wife. She was the daughter of a Trojan noble, was captured by the Greeks during the Trojan war and given to Ajax as part of his share in the war booty. As such her relationship with Ajax is of the same sort as that between Agamemnon and Cassandra. However, from the presentation of Tecmessas relationship with Ajax in this play, we may get the impression that their union was a more heartfelt and lasting bond.... 1) Looking at Tecmessas opening lines, what impression can we begin to form about her relationship with Ajax from these words? What do we learn about the Chorus attitude to Tecmessa in their initial response to her? - Top of pg 26: It is plain. There is no escape from the awful thing you are telling. This is one of several remarks that create an air of inevitability about Ajaxs fate. Often in tragedy, the power of a play rests in the tension between this air of inevitability and the sense that during the play the catastrophe may yet be averted. -pg 28: Tecmessas first major speech: Ajaxs crime has been mentioned several times already. Here, Tecmessa pieces together the whole account to give a broader version. There seems to have been one massacre in the field and then a second bout of slaughter in the tent. Tecmessa was an eyewitness for the scene in the tent but stresses she does not know what happened outside.

2) How far do the events described by Tecmessa tally with what we saw in the prologue? -pg 30: Ajaxs second appearance: To stage this, Ajax would have probably been wheeled on stage through the central doors of the skene on the ekkyklema. Stage props (including the slaughtered beasts) would perhaps be used to give the idea of being inside Ajaxs tent. 3) Pgs 31-32: O darkness that is my light...to take my life. How is Ajaxs sense of isolation (and his self-centeredness) brought out in these lines? pg 32 (430-480): Ajaxs first major speech. This is the first point in the text where a lucid Ajax speaks in coherent terms up until now all his lines have been either delusional or emotionally intense outbursts. He pays little attention to the Chorus or Tecmessa instead he dwells on the mockery of his enemies. Telamon, Ajaxs father, is mentioned several times here by Ajax and also by Teucer later on in the play. Ajax describes his fathers achievements in a previous Greek expedition to Troy with Heracles. During this adventure (exactly what happened is disputed, but it involved a sea monster), Telamon won Teucers mother Hesione, King Laomedons daughter, as a special prize. Also in this speech, Ajax expresses his isolation from everyone else the progressive alienation of the protagonist is a common feature of the tragic hero (compare the sense of isolation felt by Medea (when we read it). He also proves, in his words pertaining to life, honour and death that he is a true Homeric hero, which very much implies that he is unlikely to live in dishonour for very long: Honour in life, or honour in death; there is no other thing a noble man can ask for. That is all

4) What prize comparable to that of Telamon has Ajax won? Tecmessas second major speech (485-524). Tecmessa begins her address to Ajax by mentioning that despite being born into a good family, she had been forced into slavery, but had accepted her misfortune. This reminds the audience that Tecmessa can empathise with Ajaxs peripateia. 5) What is peripateia? 6) Tecmessa uses a succession of arguments to try to dissuade Ajax from taking any hasty action. Briefly explain the affect she says his death would have on: a) b) c) d) Herself and her son His name His parents his son (again)

N.B: Tecmessas speech closely echoes part of the scene between Hector and his wife Andromache in the Iliad, Book 6. This play is set shortly after the end of the Iliad in the tenth and final year of the Trojan War. pg 36-7 (545-582): Ajaxs second major speech - ignoring Tecmessas speech and the advice of the chorus, Ajax addresses his son Eurysaces (who would have appeared on stage, but doesnt speak). This again recalls the scene from the Iliad with Hector, Andromache and their son Astyanax.

7) To what extent does this speech emphasise Ajaxs harshness and self-centeredness? Is there any evidence of a humane or tender side to his character? First Stasimon (596-645) (pg 38-9) O glorious Salamis: The whole of this ode is addressed to Salamis, the island home of Ajax and the Chorus. At the time of the play being performed, Salamis was part of the Athenian empire. This ode acts as a lyric interlude between episodes. Its mood, mirroring the action on stage, is sombre and pessimistic. The Chorus express nostalgia about their homeland and lament Ajaxs present condition. They pity Ajaxs parents and ultimately conclude that death should take a man diseased. Second Episode (646-92) Ajaxs third major speech (646-92) (pg40-1) *1) Ajax seems to have undergone quite a dramatic change of heart. What has he now resolved to do? How consistent is this speech which his other two major speeches in the play? This speech is very difficult to interpret. Is Ajax being sincere? If so, how do we explain his later actions? Or is he being deceitful? If so, why? Or maybe he is being truthful in a way calculated to deceive (much like Clytemnestra throughout the Agamemnon). While Ajaxs motivations for uttering these lines is unclear, this speech certainly plays an important function for the drama as a whole: It means that whatever his intentions at this moment in time, Ajax will be allowed to leave the stage unimpeded by either the Chorus or Tecmessa and be alone to act while the others are off their guard. It also forces the audience members to entertain the idea that maybe, just maybe, the drama will unfold contrary to their expectations... which adds a greater sense of poignancy when Ajax does kill himself. 2nd Stasimon (693-718) (pg41-42) In response to Ajaxs speech, the Chorus sing a short song of jubilation, which is in marked contrast to their first ode. Ajax as a Homeric hero The tragic Ajax of this play shares a number of qualities with Ajax as depicted in the Iliad. Heroes in this mould are emotionally intense, inflexible and strong-willed, intolerant of injustice and mockery, and exhibit a fierce sense of honour and a death or glory attitude to life. *2) How true is this of the character of Ajax from your reading of the play so far?

Third Episode (719-814) (pg 42-45) Just when the chorus and Tecmessa begin to feel more confident about Ajaxs recovery and change of heart, a messenger arrives with disturbing news...

Messenger speeches are a common feature of tragedy used to relate events which take place offstage to the audience. Messenger speeches are usually emotionally charged. They use direct speech and lots of detail to try and make the events they are describing as vivid as possible. Offstage events are narrated for two main reasons either they were too violent or complex to present on stage, or because they take place elsewhere or prior to the action of the play.

In Ajax, the messenger speech tells us about Teucers arrival in the Greek camp. These events therefore take place at a different location and happen a little before the current action. Also these events would be difficult to stage as they would require too many actors to present the Greek army. pg 43 it immediately becomes clear that the messenger has arrived too late to give his message. This adds tension to the drama and a sense of foreboding that bad things will happen, in accordance to the prophecy of Calchas. Prophets are important figures in Greek tragedy. They give important and infallible indications of what is to come in the play as well as insight into the will of the gods. 1) Sum up Calchas prophecy as related by the messenger on pg 43-4. Where else have we met Calchas? Briefly recall what his prophecy was then? 2) In the messenger speech, we hear of two past events when Ajax revealed his hubris. What is hubris? In what two ways does Ajax demonstrate his hubris? How does this account of Ajaxs past character help to explain the events of our play?

3) If weve lost him, Ajax has not an hour to live, or Calchas is no true prophet". What is the effect of this final remark? Tecmessa now appears on stage again with her infant son Eurysaces. The sight of these two, who are as yet unaware of the news of the messenger, would undoubtedly evoke pity in the audience. Once Tecmessa is informed of the new information, everyone leaves the stage in search of Ajax. At this point the proscenium and the orchestra are left empty. This does not seem to occur in any other Greek Tragedy we know of. From here on in the action of the play takes place not outside Ajaxs tent but in a remote place nearby. Usually the action of Greek tragedy takes place in a single fixed location and so this scene change is very rare. Fourth Episode (815-65) (pgs 45-47) Ajaxs final speech Ajax is the only character visible now to the audience. In all other Greek tragedies, the only time a character may be alone on stage, without the chorus, is in the prologue. pg 46, at this moment Ajax shows he is not completely impious by attending to his prayers. He prays that it might be Teucer who finds his body first so that his dead body could receive proper burial. Burial was of great importance because the ancient Greeks believed that without burial the soul

could not rest in peace. Remember that this issue is also touched upon in Agamemnon, where the Chorus worry about who would bury Agamemnon, since his wife could not be trusted to perform her traditional role. Ajaxs final words. Ajax thinks briefly of his parents before falling on his sword. Interestingly, he makes no mention of Tecmessa or Eurysaces in his final words, but instead focuses on elements of the natural world. *4) What qualities, positive or negative does Ajax show in his final speech? You can answer in the form of a table, but do make reference to the text. What overall impression of Ajax are the audience left with. After his speech Ajax kills himself. On stage. Seeing someone die on stage is another way in which this play differs from convention Greek tragedy. 5) The notes have mentioned several ways in which the dramatist Sophocles breaks with dramatic convention during this part of the play. What is the effect of these unusual occurrences on the dramatic impact of the play? Fifth Episode (866-1184) (pg 47-59) The Chorus re-enter in two different groups (i.e, two different search parties), probably from two different sides of the stage and make their way to the orchestra. At this moment it is unclear what, if anything is on stage. Due to the three actor rule, the actor who was playing Ajax would probably have had to get up to take up a new part after the death of the tragic hero. However, from this point onwards, characters in the play still refer to Ajax as if his body were on stage. It therefore seems likely that a dummy was used to represent Ajaxs corpse in the following scenes. Staging At first the Chorus are unable to see either Tecmessa or Ajax. We may suppose that they are either concealed by stage props at this time, or that they are not there at first, but that Tecmessa appears on the ekkyklema standing or kneeling over the dummy of Ajax. Reaction to Ajaxs death The Chorus first reaction is to think of the impact of Ajaxs death on themselves. They do express grief at their commanders death, but it does not seem as heartfelt as Tecmessas. At the bottom of pg 49, they even say that Ajaxs death was inevitable. *1) How consistent do you find the response of the Chorus with what they have said about Ajax since their first appearance in the play on pg 22? Tecmessa pg 50 o my little son, what harness now shall bow our necks, what eyes watch over us? Tecmessas fears are common to many bereaved women in epic and tragedies concerning the Trojan war (compare with Andromache in Iliad Book VI)

PG 51,Tecmessas lament is very moving. She shows a defiant spirit in her defence of Ajax. Her claim that she feels more grief that his enemies feel pleasure at his death serves to emphasise his greatness and belittle them.

*2) How consistent is this speech with Tecmessas character as displayed elsewhere in the play? Entry of Teucer pg 52, Teucer makes a long lament about the effects of the death of his half brother. He provides further information about their father Telamon and mentions the role of the gods in Ajaxs downfall. His speech is very sorrowful, slightly self-pitying, and also contains traces of (darkly humourous) irony. Notice that Teucer addresses his speech directly to Ajax. Even though he is dead, Ajax continues to be the focal point of the play. Teucer says that his father will have no mercy on him and refers to himself as the bastard brat of a captive concubine. This reminds us that Teucer was an illegitimate son, because his mother was not the queen of Salamis (Periboea) but Hesione, who was, like Tecmessa, a Trojan captive. This reminds the audience that little Eurysaces has the same lowly social standing. Teucer also fears that he will be branded a slave, an outlaw. Here he expresses a fear of being an exile from his native land. To the Greeks, being a free citizen of a particular state was an essential part of their existence. Exile therefore meant loss of social status and rights, but also a sense of identity. In Euripides Medea, one of Medeas main complaints as a foreigner living in Corinth is about being stateless.

The arrival of Menelaus Menelaus arrives and immediately forbids that Ajaxs body be buried. This sets the scene for the debate over Ajaxs dead body which provides the dramatic tension until the end of the play. The first agon (1047-1162) an agon is a formal debate it was a conventional feature of both Greek tragedy and comedy. Some kind of agon occurs in most extant Greek plays. (Clytaemnesta and Agamemnons argument over whether he should stand on the tapestries could also be called an agon). Athenians were fond of all forms of debate as it was a prevalent feature of political and legal life, since the Athenian political system was a radical democracy, in which every Athenian citizen was entitled to have their say about how their state should be governed. The characterisation of Menelaus and differences between Homer and Sophocles. In Homers Iliad and Odyssey, Menelaus is portrayed simply as a brave and honourable warrior, however here he is rather tyrannical and unpleasant. Tragedians freely change characters from how they appear in Homer, which also explains why Odyssey is portrayed differently here from how you might be used to him from the Odyssey. Menelaus speech suggests that Ajax did not listen to orders while he was alive. This is consistent to what Calchas said about him earlier and is consistent with his hubristic nature in this play, but in Homer, Ajax shows no such unruliness.

Politics in Menelaus speech: pg 55 There is no law in a city where there is no fear. Menelaus thinks that a political system should be run in the same way as the military system with two commanders in charge (like him and his brother) and everyone else doing what they are told. Since the Athenian audience were governed by a radical democracy, where, in theory, every citizen had an equal say in how the state was run, the system of government advocated by Menelaus would seem like tyranny and would affect how they felt about Menelaus. The presentation of Menelaus may itself be politically motivated. Menelaus was the king of Sparta, which was still ruled by two soldier kings in the 5th century. At the probable date of performance of this play, Athens and Sparta were either at war or on the brink of war. Therefore, it was only natural that Menelaus would be portrayed in a very negative light. After Menelaus outlines the reasons why Ajax should not be buried, the Chorus say that his precepts are true and wise. This should not be taken as showing disloyalty to Ajax. Rather the Chorus are adopting the role of mediator, which they generally adopt during agons in Greek tragedy. Teucers response (pg 55-56) Teucer begins by questioning the supposed link between high birth and personal virtue. He then attempts to answer Menelaus points in the manner of a debate. *3) Which points does Teucer answer effectively and which does he overlook? As was often the case in Agamemnon, the crux of the agon is between two competing views of what justice is. One Greek definition of what virtuous action entailed was helping ones friends and harming ones enemies: Teucer, thinks that it would be unjust to leave Ajax unburied as he was his relation and friend. Menelaus however says that it would be unjust to bury Ajax, since his actions showed that he was an enemy of the Greek army and so he should be treated like an enemy. pg 58 Arrival of Tecmessa and Eurysaces Menealus departs and Tecmessa arrives with her son. They do not speak now, but go about participating in certain funeral rites to prepare the body for burial. This gives the scene an air of solemnity which contrasts sharply with the noisy arguments of the preceding scene and the scene to come. Teucer refers to Tecmessa and Eurysaces as suppliants, which means people who plea or make requests. It is there role to watch over the body in case their enemies should try to seize it. Tecmessa, Eurysaces and Teucer all offer a lock of hair as a token of supplication Teucer goes to prepare a final resting place for Ajax He suggests that no one should try to remove Tecmessa or Eurysaces from Ajaxs side. Suppliants were under the protection of Zeus and violation of this protection was seen as the utmost sacrilege. Third Stasimon (1185-1222) (pg 59)

After despairing at the length of the Trojan War, the Chorus go on to deliver a categorical condemnation of war as a whole. Such an anti-war stance is common in tragic choral odes, especially in plays connected with the Trojan War, and was a major feature of choral odes in the Agamemnon also. Role of the Chorus: Notice that this is only the third and final choral ode in this play. How many were there in Agamemnon? While in Aeschylus the Chorus play a full part in the drama, we can see that in Sophocles plays, it was common for the Chorus to play a diminished role, similar to that of a minor character in the play. Exodos (1223-14180) (pg 60-67) Second agon (1226-1315) Now Agamemnon himself arrives to confront Teucer. Their entry onto stage is a bit awkward, with Teucer having to run ahead of Agamemnon and explain his approach. The characterisation of Agamemnon In the Iliad, Agamemnon is portrayed as a brave warrior, but also an aggressive, arrogant and quarrelsome leader. Most of the action in the Iliad is the consequences of a quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles caused by Agamemnon taking Achilles concubine Briseis away from him. In Aeschylus Agaememnon, we see particular focus on the worst parts of Agamemnons character.

*1) What impression of Agamemnon do we get here from his speech on pg 60-61? Think about the style of his language as well as his attitude to Teucer, and support your points with reference to the text. Teucers reply Teucer begins his reply by addressing the dead Ajax, lamenting how quickly a persons past deeds can be forgotten and commenting on the ingratitude shown by Agamemnon. Teucer then proceeds to remind Agamemnon of how valuable a warrior Ajax had been. He refers to the events told in Iliad book VII in which Hector had driven the Greeks back to their ships and they were only saved from defeat by Ajax leading a counter- attack. He also refers to the duel between Ajax and Hector, which was abandoned without any clear winner, but which Ajax seemed to have gained the upper hand. After he mentions Ajaxs greatness, Teucer turns to the supposed greatness of Agamemnon and his family and proceeds to rake up some dirt on the chequered past of the house of Atreus... Teucer goes systematically through Agamemnons charges and implied criticisms, as he did with Menelaus. *2) What are the main points Teucer makes, and how thoroughly does he refute Agamemnons accusations and insults? In the end, how convincing is Teucers overall defence of Ajax? Is his defence weakened by his silence, in both agons, about Ajaxs attempt to murder the Greek leaders? The arrival of Odysseus

Just when it seems that the dispute between Agamemnon and Teucer could come to blows, Odysseus enters. As the Chrous say, it is unclear, at first, whether he will try to mediate the situation or whether he will make it worse. Tension. 3) As it transpires (pg 63-64) Odysseus advises Agamemnon not to stand in the way of Ajaxs burial because to do so would be both unjust and offensive to the gods. How surprising is Odysseus opinion here, given what we learn about his relationship to Ajax earlier in the play? Treatment of enemies After gaining Agamemnons consent to speak freely, Odysseus advocates respect for the dead. He says that by not gloating over the dead, Agamemnon will be showing his nobility. The dispute between Agamemnon and Odysseus here again involves competing conceptions of justice: Agamemnon believes that we should be help our friends and harm our enemies While Odysseus says that we should act justly in all situations because a friend today may be a foe tomorrow (pg 65), which is the same sentiment Ajax expressed in his penultimate speech (pg41) (though whether he actually meant it was questionable).

Two major themes in this play are: The transformative power of time mans inability to see the future.

Odysseus displays intelligence and wisdom in this play through his understanding of these ideas. He is also shown as very cunning and persuasive in convincing Agamemnon to change his mind. The way that he exploits their good relationship and appeals to his nobility through flattery are not dissimilar to those tactics used by Clytaemenstra in Agamemnon. Teucers reaction He thanks Odysseus for his goodwill but he will not let him help bury Ajax, in case it would offend the pride of the dead hero. He also curses Agamemnon and Menelaus, re-affirming his hatred of them. This shows that Teucer has not been converted to the enlightened view of Odysseus. Rather, he maintains the same values that have been shown by Ajax, Menelaus and Agamemnon, namely, that evil should be repaid by evil. The ending of the play: Teucer issues instructions for the burial ceremony. It is a very solemn ending, with Ajaxs half brother and his son attending to his burial. Does the action of the play support Teucers claim that Ajax was a perfect man? How fitting an end to the play is this scene?

Tragedies often end with a brief conclusion by the Chorus. The tone of the last few lines is similar to Athenas pronouncement on human mortality in the prologue of the play. BUT whereas Athena warns Odysseus about how gods really control human affairs, the chorus simply conclude that life is unpredictable and the future is unknowable.