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6.0 INTRODUCTION TO PLASTICS

INTRODUCTION
Plastics have been one of the most controversial material groups of the 20th century. Despite their wide use in a large number of household and industrial products, they have been seen as a serious threat to the worlds environment. However, a large percentage of plastics are recyclable with minimum effort (in terms of having lower melting temperatures when compared to those of metals). Thermoplastic polymers constitute 85% of plastics in use; they can be recycled many times by simply repeating the heating and cooling cycle. Thermoset polymers, on the other hand, constitute the remaining 15% of plastics in use today and cannot be recycled. Their resistances to corrosive degradation combined with their light weight have made plastics very suitable for use in industries such as construction, automotive, aerospace, and household products. They can be manufactured in continuous form (e.g., extrusion) or discrete form (e.g., injection molding). In the past several decades, plastics have also been reinforced with glass and carbon fibers to increase significantly their mechanical properties (strength and rigidity) to complement their excellent electrical and chemical properties.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course the student will be able to: Explain three types of polymer State the characteristic of plastics Explain various types of plastics and additives Describe various processes of plastic processing

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this course the student has the ability to: Describe the types and characteristic of polymer and plastics materials Explain various processing methods associated with the plastic materials

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6.1

INTRODUCTION
Before the advent of synthetic plastics, most forms of construction and production were dependent upon the use of natural materials such as metal, wood, rubber, and other materials. These materials are still very much in use today, but in many circumstances, new materials called plastics, elastomers and composites, which have some unique and remarkable properties, have replaced them. Composites shall be discussed in another chapter. This section shall concern itself with plastics or polymers and elastomers. Many different plastics have been used in agriculture, appliances, clothing, construction, electronics, furniture, packaging, transportation etc.

6.2

TYPES OF POLYMER
Generally they can be divided into three groups according to their characteristics after the processing stage. Types Thermoplastics General Structure Flexible linear chains Characteristics Softened by the application of heat and hardened when cooled Thermosetting Rigid network three dimensional Permanently rigid and incapable of being softened again Elastomers Linear cross-linked chains Very high elasticity but a very low modulus of elasticity

a. Thermoplastics These types of material are softened by the application of heat, and hardened when cooled, which fixes the shape of the molding which may be quite rigid or flexible according to the specific plastic used. No chemical change takes place because of this, the molded physical shape of the material could be re-ground into granules or powder form and be remolded again. One great disadvantage of thermoplastic is that they cannot be used for articles which must resist high temperatures.

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Chain Structure of Thermoplastic

b. Thermosetting These materials undergo a chemical change during the molding process, causing them to become permanently rigid and incapable of being softened again. Cold setting plastics which become permanently hard due to a chemical reaction which occurs at ordinary temperatures are similar in basic principles. Organic solvents have little or no effect on most thermosetting. They also have a hard surface and are used primarily in reinforced plastics. They are brittle but can be combined with reinforcements, such as fiber glass to form composites of great strength, some even surpassing metals in terms of strength to-weight ratios.

Chain Structure of Thermosetting Thermosetting raw materials for processing into end products are available as liquid resins, soluble liquid resins, coated fabrics and filaments, and molding components. Molding components are made into two forms: Dry, partially cured powders, granules, chopped fabrics and filaments. Soft and flexible bulk mixes.

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c. Elastomers These are virtually thermosetting materials, but which are characterized by a very high elasticity but a very low Modulus of Elasticity (Youngs Modulus, modulus is a measure of the stiffness of the material). It behaves like rubber.

6.3

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASTICS
Today, there is a wide range of plastic materials available for use in industrial, commercial, and domestic applications. Each type has its own characteristics, giving it suitable properties for particular uses. Most plastics are man-made materials with the ability to flow, take shape and solidify. Unlike metals, plastics are light in weight, pleasant to touch and easy to form. Complicated shapes are easily reproduced by molding, casting and laminating. Plastics are insulators; they are used extensively in electrical applications. They are also poor-conductors of heat, which accounts for-their life as pot handles, electric iron handles, refrigerator housings, and thermos bottles. Plastics are very versatile materials. Some have great transparency and most can be colored in a wide range of colors and shades. Plastic surfaces are also free from the atmospheric corrosion that is common with some metals. The light weight of plastics is still another advantage over metals. Most of the plastics produced are derived from substances such as: petroleum, coal, air, water, agricultural by-products. Some types of plastics come from milk, wood and cotton.

6.4

TYPES OF PLASTICS
a. Cellulose Plastics The cellulose in wood and cotton is mixed with other chemicals to produce the various cellulose plastics. Trade name Cellulose Nitrate, Cellulose Acetate and Cellulose Acetate Batyrate (C.A.B) Characteristics Highly flammable material, lack of stability to heat, discolors on exposure to sun light and deteriorates with age, light weight and can be colored, easily withstand a wide range of temperature. b. Polymethil Methacrylate Produced as a syrup for casting into sheet

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and granules for injection and extrusion processes. Trade name Characteristics Perspex, Acrylite, Lucite, Plexiglas, Butanene. Best known by its trade name Perspex. It has good weather properties and resistance to most acids and oils. Available from glass clear through and full range of translucent and opaque colors. Applications Fish tanks, watch glass, sink and bath tap tops, machine guards, fire guards, goggles, lighting optical lenses. c. Fluorocarbons The most well known plastic within the fluorocarbons group is Polvtetrafluoroethvlene (PTFE). Trade name Characteristics Applications Teflon Sufficiently heat resistant and with a low co-efficient of friction. Coating a variety of hand saws, equipment for food production, non-stick saucepans, frying pans, and sandwich toasters. Coating is applied by a process called electrostatic powder coating. By the process of sintering, industrial components such as nonlubricated, low load bearings, valves and gaskets can be produced with this material. Also used in the form of a thin tape as sealing aid for threaded pipe work and compression fittings. d. Polyethylene Trade name: Characteristics: Can be colored and is available as granules or powder form. Polythene, Manlex, Cling-Film. Tough, waxy, and appears translucent. Excellent resistance to moisture and chemicals. Applications: As sheeting for damp-proofing, plastic bag and wrapping for food products, kitchen household products, toys, bottles, and squeeze tubes, cable and wire insulation, water tanks, piping and fittings. e. Polypropylene Available as sheet, granules and powder in a varied color range for processing by injection, blow and vacuum forming.

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Characteristics

Resists most chemicals and oils, tough, with exceptionally good flexing properties (e.g. for hinges).

Applications

Milk bottle crates, packing trays, containers, cooling fans, electrical connectors on cars, molded toys, shoe heels, chairs, luggage, instrument cases.

f. Basic polystyrene Produced in pellets and granules that are naturally clear and can be given a full color range. Most commonly seen as a foamed polymer. Characteristics Quite brittle and rigid, affected by various oils and solvents but acid resistant. Packaging trays for food and confectionery, refrigerator parts, ballpoint pens toys, light shades, spools for tapes and film, ceiling tiles, wall insulation rolls.

Applications

6.5

ADDITIVES
Many of the plastics in their pure form are of little or no use commercially, being far too brittle or difficult to use. They are treated with additives to turn them into materials suitable for application. Various forms of additives are added into basic polymers. The type and quantity varies according to the plastic required. a. Plasticizers. These are added to make the basic polymer more flexible and easier to process. They lower the softening temperature and improve the strength. Certain properties can only be achieved by adding a mixture of different plasticizers. Refinery oils and chlorinated waxes are widely used in PVC production, with the prime aim of reducing cost, and flame retarding (flame-proofing). Other plastics that have plasticizers added include polyvinyl acetate, acrylic polymers and cellulose acetate. b. Fillers. These are used to improve the physical and mechanical properties of the plastic. Substances used include: wood, asbestos flour, chalk, glass (in fiber form), carbon fiber and synthetic fibers. Example: In a plasticized PVC compound, the addition of chalk will reduce die swell on extrusion, increase hardness, provide a white base for coloring, and improve electrical insulation.

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c. Stabilizers. These are added to give stability to the polymer and the color dyes or pigments. Some plastic materials such as Styrene and Vinyl are subject to breakdown in the presence of oxygen or heat. They prevent their properties from being destroyed when processed at high temperatures and fast production rates. d. Lubricants. These reduce the friction or adhesion (stickiness) of the plastic material to other material surfaces, especially the processing equipment. They can benefit the flow characteristics of the polymer. Examples: graphite and molybdenum disulphide, calcium and barium salts. e. Colorants. These are included to give visual appeal to the end products, especially in consumer products. Used also as a method of identification, a good example being the covering sheath on electrical cables. Plastics in their pure form are either transparent, translucent (allows light through it, but not transparent), opaque (not clear), nearly colorless or dark brown. There are four main methods used for coloring polymers. These are: surface coating (e.g. painting), surface dyeing, introduction of color forming groups into the polymer molecules, and mass coloration.

6.6

PLASTIC PROCESSING
The processing of plastics involves operations similar to those used to form and shape metals. Plastics can be molded, cast, formed, machined and joined; they can be processed into many shapes with relative ease and in few operations. Plastics melt or cure at relatively low temperatures; hence, unlike metals, they are easy to handle and require less energy to process.

There are a large number of different processes by which plastic can be converted into a desired shape or product. The methods used depend to large extent on the nature of the polymer, specifically whether it is thermoplastic or thermosetting. Thermoplastic polymers can be heated to temperatures at or near the melting temperature so that the material becomes either a formable solid or liquid. The polymer is then cast, injected into a mold or forced through a die to produce the desired shape. Thermosetting polymers

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allow far fewer options because, once the polymerization has occurred, the framework structure is established and no further deformation can occur. Thus, the polymerization reaction and the shape-forming process must be accomplished simultaneously.

6.6.1 INJECTION MOLDING

Injection molding is a process in which a polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and forced to flow under high pressure into a mold cavity, where it solidifies. The molded part, called a molding, is then removed from the cavity. The process produces discrete components that are almost always net shape. The mold may contain more than one cavity so that multiple moldings are produced each cycle. Injection molding is the most widely used molding process for thermoplastics.

Typical injection-molded products are cups, containers, housings, tools handles, knobs, electrical and communication components, toys and plumbing fitting. Process and Equipment An injection molding machine consists of two principal components; 1) the plastic injection unit and, 2) the mold clamping unit. The injection unit is much like an extruder. It consists of a barrel that that is fed from one end by a hopper containing a supply of plastics pellets. The functions of the injection unit are to; 1. 2. melt and homogenize the polymer inject it into the mold

The clamping unit is concerned with the operation of the mold. Its functions are to; 1. 2. 3. hold the two halves of the mold in proper alignment with each other keep the mold closed during the injection by applying the clamping force sufficient to resist the injection force open and close the mold at the appropriate times in the molding cycle

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Schematic diagram of the injection molding process

6.6.1.2THE MOLD
The mold is the special tool in injection molding; it is custom designed and fabricated for the given part to be produced. To accommodate part design, molds may have several components: runners, cores, cavities, cooling channel, inserts, knockout pins and ejectors.

The conventional two plate mold consists of two halves fastened to the two platens of the molding machines clamping unit. When the clamping unit is opened, the two mold halves open. Molds can contain a single cavity or multiple cavities to produce more than one part in a single shot.

6.6.2 BLOW MOLDING

In blow molding, a hot tube of polymer, called a parison is introduced into a mold; the mold closes; and air or gas pressure expands the tube outward against the walls of the mold. The mold then opens to release the product which is a hollow shape, such as a bottle or container.

6.6.3 THERMOFORMING
Thermoforming is a series of processes for forming thermoplastic sheet or film over a mold, by means of the application of heat and pressure. In this process, a sheet is then heated in an oven to the sag point (softening but not to the melting

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point). The sheet is then removed from the oven, placed over a mold, and forced against the mold through the application of vacuum.

The mold is usually at room temperature, hence the shape of the plastic become set upon contact the mold. Because of the low strength of the materials formed, the pressure differential caused by the vacuum is usually sufficient for forming, although air pressure or mechanical means are also applied for some parts.

Typical parts made by thermoforming are advertising signs, refrigerator liners, packaging, appliance housing and panels for shower stalls. Because thermoforming is a drawing and stretching operation, much like sheet-metal forming, the material should exhibit high uniform elongation; otherwise it will neck and fail. Thermoplastic have high capacity for uniform elongation, by virtue of their high strain rate sensitivity exponents.

Molds for thermoforming are usually made of aluminum, because high strength is not a requirement. The holes in the molds (to pull a vacuum) are usually less than 0.5mm in order not to leave any marks on the formed parts.

6.6.4 HOT COMPRESSION MOLDING

In compression molding, a preshaped charge of material, a premeasured volume of powder or a viscous mixture of liquid resin and filler material is placed directly into a heated mold cavity. Forming is done under pressure from a plug or from the upper half of the die. Compression molding result in the formation of flash, which is subsequently removed by trimming or by other means.

Typical parts made are dishes, handles, container caps, fittings, electrical and electronic components, washing machine agitators and housing. Fiber reinforced part with long chopped fibers are formed by this process exclusively.

The process is simple but it is usually restricted to the thermosetting polymers. Alternate heating and cooling of the mold would be required for the thermoplastic materials, and this is not economical.

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Schematic representation of the production of plastic parts by the Hot-compression molding process In order to contain the material within the die and to enable pressure to be built up, some type of seal is required on the hot-compression molding dies. Three types of seals are common; 1. Flash type 2. Straight type 3. Landed plunger type

In the flash type, excess material is provided that is squeezed out of the cavity during the final stages of mold closing. The resulting flash must be removed from the product and usually requires an additional manufacturing operation. In the straight plunger mold, no material can escape from the cavity. Close dimensional control requires that the raw material be precisely measured. The landed plunger mold is the most common, providing both good pressure and a definite cutoff to ensure accurate dimension.

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Three types of molds used in the hot-compression molding process a) Straight type ,b)Landed plunger type, c)Flash type

6.6.5 TRANSFER MOLDING

In order to prevent the turbulence and uneven flow that often result from the nonuniform, high pressures of hot compression molding, transfer molding is used. Transfer molding represent a further development of compression molding. A double chamber mold is used to form the thermosetting polymer. Unpolymerized raw material is placed within the plunger cavity, where it is heated until molten. The plunger then descends, forcing the molten plastic into the adjoining die cavities.

Because the material enters the cavities as a liquid, there is little pressure until the cavity is completely filled. Thin section, excellent detail, good tolerances and finish are all characteristics of the process.

Typical parts made by transfer molding are electrical and electronic components and rubber and silicone parts. The process is particularly suitable for intricate shape with varying wall thickness.

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Schematic diagram of the transfer molding process

6.6.6

Extrusion

In extrusion, raw materials in the form of thermoplastic pellets, granules or powder are placed into a hopper and fed into the extruder barrel. The rotating screw conveys the material through a preheating section, where it is heated, homogenized, and compressed and then forces it through a heated die and onto a conveyor belt.

As the plastic passes onto the belt, it is cooled by air or water sprays, which harden it sufficiently to preserve the shape imparted to it by the die. It continues to cool as it passes along the belt and is then either cut into lengths or coiled, depending on whether the material is rigid or flexible. The process is continuous and provides a cheap and rapid method of molding.

Common production shapes include solid forms, tubes, pipes, and even coated wires and cables. If the emerging tube is blown up by air pressure, allowed to cool, and then rolled, the product can be a double layer of sheet or film.

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