Two gametes (originating from different organisms of the same species or from the same organism) fuse to produce

a zygote, which develops into a diploid sporophyte. This cycle, from sporophyte to sporophyte (or equally from gametophyte to gametophyte), is the way in which all land plants and many algaeundergo sexual reproduction. In those algae which have alternation of generations, the sporophyte and gametophyte are separate independent organisms, which may or may not have a similar appearance. Inliverworts, mosses and hornworts, the sporophyte is less well developed than the gametophyte, being entirely dependent on it in the first two groups. By contrast, the fern gametophyte is less well developed than the sporophyte, forming a small flattened thallus. In flowering plants, the reduction of the gametophyte is even more extreme; it consists of just a few cells which grow entirely inside the sporophyte.

Fundamental elements
The diagram below shows the fundamental elements of the alternation of generations in plants. The many variations found in different groups of plants are described by use of these concepts later in the article. [4] Starting from the right of the diagram, the processes involved are as follows:

Two single-celled haploid gametes, each containing n unpaired chromosomes, fuse to form a singlecelled diploid zygote, which now contains n pairs of chromosomes, i.e. 2n chromosomes in total. The single-celled diploid zygote germinates, dividing by the normal process (mitosis), which maintains the number of chromosomes at 2n. The result is a multi-cellular diploid organism, called the sporophyte (because at maturity it produces spores). When it reaches maturity, the sporophyte produces one or more sporangia (singular: sporangium) which are the organs that produce diploid spore mother cells (sporocytes). These divide by a special process (meiosis) that reduces the number of chromosomes by a half. This results in four singlecelled haploid spores, each containing n unpaired chromosomes. The single-celled haploid spore germinates, dividing by the normal process (mitosis), which maintains the number of chromosomes at N. The result is a multi-cellular haploid organism, called the gametophyte (because it produces gametes at maturity). When it reaches maturity, the gametophyte produces one or more gametangia (singular: gametangium) which are the organs that produce haploid gametes. At least one kind of gamete possesses some mechanism for reaching another gamete in order to fuse with it.

The 'alternation of generations' in the life cycle is thus between a diploid (2n) generation of sporophytes and a haploid (n) generation of gametophytes.

The situation is quite different from that in all animals, where the fundamental process is that a diploid (2n) individual directly produces haploid (n) gametes by meiosis. Spores (i.e. haploid cells which are able to undergo mitosis) are not produced, so neither is a haploid multi-cellular organism. The single-celled gametes are the only entities which are haploid

A complex life cycle

Graphic referred in text.

The diagram shows the alternation of generations in a species which is heteromorphic, sporophytic, oogametic, dioicous, heterosporic and dioecious. A seed plant example might be a willow tree (most [15] species of the genus Salix are dioecious). Starting in the centre of the diagram, the processes involved are:

An immobile egg, typically remaining in the archegonium, fuses with a mobile sperm, released from an antheridium. The resulting zygote is either 'male' or 'female'. A 'male' zygote develops by mitosis into a microsporophyte, which at maturity produces one or more microsporangia. Microspores develop within the microsporangium by meiosis. In a willow (like all seed plants) the zygote first develops into a seed within the ovule (megasporangium). Later the seed is shed and grows into a mature tree. A 'male' willow tree (a microsporophyte) produces flowers with only stamens, the anthers of which are the microsporangia. Microspores germinate producing microgametophytes; at maturity one or more antheridia are produced. Sperm develop within the antheridia. In a willow, microspores are not liberated from the anther (the microsporangium), but develop into pollen grains (microgametophytes) within it. The whole pollen grain is moved (e.g. by an insect or by the wind) to an ovule (megagametophyte), where a sperm is produced which moves down a pollen tube to reach the egg. A 'female' zygote develops by mitosis into a megasporophyte, which at maturity produces one or more megasporangia. Megaspores develop within the megasporangium; typically one of the four spores produced by meiosis gains bulk at the expense of the remaining three, which disappear. 'Female' willow trees (megasporophytes) produce flowers with only carpels (the megasporangia). Megaspores germinate producing megagametophytes; at maturity one or more archegonia are produced. Eggs develop within the archegonia. In a willow, megaspores develop into ovules (megagametophytes) within the carpels (megasporangia). An archegonium develops within the ovule and produces an egg. All of this happens within the carpel (the megasporangium). The whole of the gametophytic 'generation' remains within the protection of the sporophyte except for pollen grains (which have been reduced to just three cells).