INTRODUCTION TO BASIC

WORKSHOP PRATICE

BY

OKE DAVID B
. (B.ENG, M.Sc)

CHAPTER ONE
SAFETY
1.0

SAFETY IN THE WORKSHOP

Safety is of utmost important in the workshop and its importance can never be over
emphasized in view of many lives lost, permanent disablement for disfigurement of
workers, injuries resulting into sickness and damage done to machines and hand tools due
to industrial accidents.
It should be known that accidents do not happen; they are caused in many cases, the
victim knew at the time he is not supposed to do what he was about to do, but he takes a
chance, gets away with it many times but once in a while bad-luck so-called strikes and
he pays heavily for the carelessness.
If a worker obeys all safety rules and takes all precautions, then if misfortune strikes, he
will be assured it was beyond his control to help the situation and in many cases nothing
very serious can result.

1.1

CORRECT DRESSING IN THE WORKSHOP

1. An apron, shop coat or overall should be worn whenever in the workshop. Apron
strings should be tied at the back and the loose ends as short as possible
2. Strongly made shoes with hard sole and cap should be worn. Sandals, slippers and
canvas are not allowed.
3. Flowing gowns, loose ties, loose shirtsleeves are not allowed; ties should be tucked in
and shirtsleeves rolled up to the arm. It is safety to remove ties and wear short sleeve
shirts.
4. Orthopedic shoes and baggy trousers are not allowed as they hinder free movement
around the workshop.
5. Sunshades are for the sunny outside, not inside the workshop. Various goggles and
shades are available for various use in the workshop. Medicated glasses are however
allowed especially if sight is impaired without them.
6. When working on the bench or machines, remove wristwatch, rings, bracelets, chains
and other ornaments. Sad experiences can be had with these in the workshop.

1.2

BEHAVIOUR AT WORK
1. Obedience: This is the first and most important rule in the workshop. Instructions
given by authorized workshop personnel are to be carried out in so far as they are
correcting even if not convenient or pleasing. This applies to all rules of safety as well
as operation, maintenance, repairs, etc.
2. Humility: Be ready to learn from others at all times. All workshop staffs are to be
given their due respect and recognition rather than be despised. It takes time and
experience to develop workshop skill. IF IN DOUBT, ASK Confidence is
necessary to work well in workshop but over-confidence can be very costly.
3. Cooperation: Self-centeredness may not prove disadvantageous in other places but in
workshop, you must cooperate with others to achieve anything tangible and have
consideration for their safety before doing anything. Report any tool damaged by you
to the workshop staff immediately.
4. Horseplay: No horseplay in the shop.
5. Disturbance: Do not disturb anybody in your neighborhood in the workshop and do
not distract his attention. Dont touch a machine under operation by a worker without
his consent and if you must talk to him, seek his audience.
6. Fiddling: Dont fiddle with any switch, lever or tool. Press no switch and shift no
lever except it is safe to do so and that you are aware of its functions and the
consequent action. Handle tools only when and you need them.

1.3

DANGERS OF AIR, ELECTRICITY, NOXIOUS FUMES, GASES, BAD

ILLUMINATION ETC
1. The airline contains air at a high pressure and is used for cleaning purposes. Before
opening any valve, ensure a good grip of the nozzle as this may be flung by the
pressure effects in the nose and can prove dangerous to neighboring workers.
2. Do not work in ill-ventilated space. All windows, shutters and possibly doors are to
be opened.

3. Illumination must be good for effective working with the least strain. Most
fluorescent lighting in the workshop have twin lamp to avoid dangers of false sight of
fast-moving machines due to stroboscopic effect.
4. The body of a machine is metal. Electric shorts to the body of the machine could
serious shocks. This is why all electricity supplies to the shop are earthed. Further
precaution is taken by wearing shoes without metal parts at the sole.
5. Electric shock victims should be given artificial respiration after isolating from the
shock source. Report immediately and take to clinic.
6. Wear masks when working in areas filled with noxious fumes and gases.
7. Know the point of isolation of electric power from all machine tools and external to it
so these can be stopped when necessary without getting to them.
1.4

CORRECT USE AND HANDLING OF TOOLS

1. Use the right tool for right job and at the right time e.g. never use a screwdriver in
place of a chisel, or a light hammer for a heavy job.
2. Dont drop your tools carelessly or throw them about.
3. Return all tools to their respective places after used; be sure they are cleaned too.
4. Wear goggles when chiseling, grinding or other operations where metal articles are
likely to fly about.
5. Know and obey safety rules as applicable to different hand tools and machine tools.

1.5

GENERAL SAFETY IN THE WORKSHOP

1. Cultivate a safety-first habit. However good your job, if injuries are sustained, the
pain cannot be compensated.
2. Keep the workshop clean at all times, be a good housekeeper.
3. Take notice of safety-campaign posters displayed around the workshop. They are not
mere decorations.
4. Utilize all safety gadgets provided on machines or hand tools.
5. Be conversant with safety rules as applicable to various machines and hand tools and
obey them. Dont take chances.
6. Dont carry stock in a dangerous manner on your shoulders as this might his someone
behind you but carry vertically. Large stock should not be carried singly. Ask for
assistance whenever necessary and be willing to offer help when requested.
7. If you have to lift heavy objects, seek assistance. Before lifting, be sure you have a
firm footing with a distance of 20-30cm between your feet and get a good balance.
Dont move too far from the object so you dont overstretch yourself. Bend your
knees and squat rather than bending your back so that you can lift the body up with
strength supplied by your legs and not the backbone. Walk with firm steps and not
staggering ones without twisting your body to change direction rather change your
feets positions. When lifting, breaths normally dont hold your breath. If a group is
lifting, every member should be aware of the procedure to be taken and announce
when lifting is to commence. It is obvious that hot objects are not to be carried with
hands.
8. In a case of a fire breakout, ring the bell (or any other means) of announcing e.g.
break the glass), get children, old folks and others with incapability to walk from the
site, dial the fire authority with 199 and utilize whatever fire extinguisher is available.
9. Dont handle swarfs, chips and other metal cuttings with bare hands. Use brushes in
cleaning and dry air to blow.
10. In case of any accident, take an immediate assessment of the cause and nature of the
accident, take note of the extent of damage and estimate or assess too. Report to the
workshop staff immediately.

CHAPTER TWO
THE STANDRD OF LENGTH
2.0

INTRODUCTION: Standard of length is material representations of the fundamental

units and serves as legal and scientific bases to which all measurements must be referred.
Standards are usually subdivided into various grades as discuss below:

2.1

GRADES OR SUBDIVISIONS OF STANDARD OF LENGTH

(a) The Primary Standard: For precise definition of the unit it is essential that there shall
be one and only material standard. This is called the Primary Standard and is
preserved under the most careful conditions, used only at rare intervals and then
solely for comparison with secondary standards.
(b) Secondary Standard: Are made as nearly similarly as possible to the Primary Standard
with which they are compared at intervals, records being kept of their deviations from
it. These standards are distributed to a number of places for custody and are used in
their turn for occasional comparison with tertiary standards.
(c) Tertiary Standards: Are the first standards to be used for reference purposes in
Laboratories and workshops. The primary and secondary types exist only as ultimate
controls for reference at rare intervals. Tertiary Standards should be maintained as a
reference for comparison at intervals the working standards.
(d) Working Standards: Are the standards of daily use in the workshop and Laboratory.
Their form should be as nearly as possible uniform with those of the higher standards
but because of cost, e.t.c lower grades of material may be used

2.2

SYSTEM OF UNITS
The traditional system of units which are still commonly used today include the c.g.s
(centimeter-gram-second) system, the m.k.s (metre-kilogram-pound) system, the British
Imperial or
f.p.s (foot-pound-second) system.
(i)
The c.g.s System of Units:
In the c.g.s system, the basic quantities length, mass and time are measured in
centimeter (cm), gram (g) and second(s) respectively. The unit represents a rather
small scale of measurement. The system is very popular with the physicist.
(ii)
The Imperial (British) or F.p.s. System of Units:
The elementary units for length and mass in the F.p.s system are the foot (ft) and
the pound (Ib) respectively. These units are of the right order of magnitude for use
by engineers. Unfortunately, however, the relationships between the various
named units such as Ib, stone, cwt, ton (for masses) do not often have uniform
relating factors thereby problem and unnecessary strain on the memory.
The use of the F.p.s. system has been phased out to a large degree already even in
the U.K. In Nigeria, a decision was taken to phase out its use and adopt in its
place the S.I units.
(iii)
The S.I. Units:
This is an internal system of units, which, essentially is a modified or rationalized
form of the metric m.k.s system of units. The S.I. system of units is gaining
worldwide acceptance and is popular with scientist and engineers alike. Its
interrelations work in tens thus making conversions to the various named units of
the system very easy.
Furthermore, the metre, kilogram is of the right kind of order of magnitude for
measurements in engineering.
The use of standard metric multiples widens the range over which measurements
can made. The commonly used multiples with their associated names are listed
below.
Metric
106
103
Unit
10-3
10-6

Multiples

Illustration

using the metre symbol

MegaKilo-

Megametre
Kilometre
metre
millimetre
micrometre

Mm
Km
m
mm
m

millimicro-

2.2,1

CONVERSION OF UNITS.
It is possible to make conversion from one system of unit to another. One of the
technique that can be use to achieve the conversion is outlined below:
i.
Any physical quantity may be thought of as a number multiplied by unit
name
ii.
Unit names may be treated as if they were algebraic quantities
iii.
Relationships between units of the same kind are to be expressed by unity
brackets
Example 1 : A motorcycle uses fuel at the rate of 15 km/litre. What is the consumption
rate in mile/gallon? (Assume that 1-gallon is 4.546 litres and that 1-mile is 1.609 km)
Solution
Rate of fuel consumption = 15 km/litre
We want mile in place of km and gallon in place of litre
if 1 mile =1.609 km,
1 = 1 mile
1.609 km
Similarly, if 1 gallon = 4.546 litres = 1 = 1 gallon
4.546 litre
Thus the fuel consumption rate = 15 km 1 mile
litre 1.609 km
= 42.38 mile /gallon

4.546 litre
1 gallon

2.3

UNITS OF LENGTH
The basic unit of length is the metre (abbreviation; m). The metre has been defined in
terms of a wavelength of light, being the length equal to 1650763.73 vacuum wavelength
of orange radiation of krypton 86 under given reference conditions.
by this definition, the standard metre has become of no further use. In industrial
measurement technology, standard gauges are used to represent the unit of measure, these
gauges can be measured by comparison with wavelengths in official physics laboratories.

2.3,1

ANGLE UNITS
The flat angle is taken as a unit for which the arc radius ratio has the value 1. This unit
is called the radian (abbreviation: rad). Using this definition, the measurement of an
angle is reduced to that of two lengths.
The right angle (sign: ^) is equal to 0.5 times a radian: 1^ = /2 rad.
The degree (sign: o) is equal to the 90th part of a fight angle: 1o = /180 rad.
The grade (sign: g) is equal to the 100th part of a right angle: 1g = /200 rad.

1.3,2

ANGLE DIVISIONS
In manufacture, angles are generally indicated in degrees. The degree is divided into
minutes (sign: , 1o = 60 ) and into seconds (sign: , 1 = 60 ). The degree can also be
divided in the decimal system, for example: 30030 = 30 30 =30.5o; 1o45 = 1o 45
60
3600
o
=1.0125

CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS
3.0

Engineering Materials can be classified into Non-metallic materials and Metallic

Materials.
(a) Non-Metallic Materials: The Non-metallic includes Asbestos, Concrete,
Rubber, Wood, Oil, Ceramics, Diamonds and Plastics. These materials are
being used in ever-increasing quantities and are replacing metals in domestic
equipment, photographic equipment and similar products.
(b) Metallic Materials: They are classified as (i) Ferrous metallic, which consists
of iron, and alloys of iron with up to about 30% of other materials. (ii) Nonferrous metals and non-ferrous alloys. Non-ferrous metals are made other than
iron; Non-ferrous alloys are alloys that contain little or no iron.
Iron is the commonest and cheapest metal used in engineering, other common metals
being Copper, aluminum, zinc, magnesium, tin, lead, nickel, cloromium manganese and
tungsten. Pure metals are not used extensively in engineering. Some common metals (e.g.
iron) are difficult to produce in anything like the pure condition; furthermore, pure metals
tends to have extreme properties such as excellent electrical conductivity and poor
strength, so alloys are used to obtain compromised properties.

3.1

PROPERTIES OF METALS AND ALLOYS

Certain properties of metals are of great importance to engineering, and various methods
are employed to investigate these properties.
(1) Tenacity: This is the ability of a material to have the resistance to rupture
when subjected to tensile forces
(2) Elasticity: This is the ability of the material to return to its original shape
when the deforming force is removed.
(3) Ductility: A material is ductile when it can be drawn out permanently by a
tensile force. This property is particularly important to the product from
engineer when he makes wires.
(4) Malleability: Malleability is the ability of a material to be hammered or rolled
out without cracking. Very few materials have a good malleability when cold,
but most are malleable when heated to a suitable temperature.
(5) Plasticity: This is the property that allows a material to flow when under
pressure in the solid state, to change its shape, and to retain that shape when
the pressure is removed.
(6) Toughness: A tough material resists fracture by blows, because considerable
energy is required to crack or break it.
(7) Hardness: hardness can be defined as the resistance to indentation or
scratching and is usually stated relative to other materials.
(8) Brittleness: This property is the opposite of toughness. Brittle materials may
resist a steady force, but fail easily when subjected to a sharp blow.

3.2

PROPERTIES, COMPOSITION AND USE OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

For most engineering purposes, pure metals are too weak and the most important method
of increasing their strength, toughness or hardness is by blending them with other metals
or non-metals to from alloys. Often, the physical properties of the alloys can be further
improved by correct heat treatment, which consists of raising the metal to a required
temperature and then cooling it at a definite rate. It is therefore of a great importance to
know the composition properties, choice and uses of a range of engineering materials.

3.21

PLAIN CARBON STEELS

Plain carbon steels never have more than 1.5% carbon. The effect on steel of increasing
the carbon content is to produce a harder and stronger steel, but with a reduction in its
ductility and malleability. When the percentage carbon rises above 1% say to 1.5%
increase in the hardness still takes place, but the strength of the steel is reduced.
The carbon steels are divided into three groups:
1. Low Carbon (or Mild) Steel: It is the cheapest of the steels and the most ductile. Mild
steel (up to 0.25% carbon) can be heat-treated to produce a material with hard case
and a soft center or core. Gradually, mild steel is used for components where strength
and wear resistance are not of prime importance but is widely used where ductility

with reasonable strength and toughness are important, for example in body work,
tubing, brackets.
2. Medium Carbon Steel: It consists of 0.25%-0.55% carbon. This grade of steel is
stronger and harder than mild steel. The hardness and strength of the steels in this
range can be increased by quenching the metal from red heat. If this process is then to
follow by tempering, the ductility of the steel can be improved at the expense of its
hardness and strength. The typical uses of M.C.S. are keys, dowels, chain wheels,
crankshafts, connecting rods, front acle beams, push rods, gears and transmission
shafts.
3. High Carbon Steel: The high-carbon steel consists of 0.55-1.5 carbon, thus causing
increased hardness and strength of the metal, with a loss in ductility. The steel can be
heat-treated to obtain similar results to that of M.C.S. Typical uses are leaf and coil
springs and torsion bars.
4. Cast Iron: It contains from about 21/2%-4% carbon together with small quantities of
silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and manganese. Its melting point is 1,2000c
-The carbon content makes the fe flow more easily when molten, but strength of final
component is reduced.
-There are two types: 1. Grey cast Iron, 2. White cast Iron.
-Grey cast fe is cheap, flow readily into intricate moulds, can be easily machined, and
due to presence of free carbon in the form of graphite forms excellent bearing
surfaces.
-By placing metal chills in the sand mould, the hardness of the cast Iron can be led
due to the sudden cooling, and this procedure is often employed to produce wearresisting surfaces.
5. Malleable Cast Iron: Malleable cast iron has improved tensile strength, brittleness and
Ductility compared to Cast Iron.
-Because of the above fact, Malleable Iron is used for parts that have to withstand
shock.
-It is easy to machine and comparatively inexpensive.
-Its typical uses are for differential casing, and differential carriers, rear axle casings,
wheel hubs.
6. Brasses: brasses are formed when copper is alloyed with Zinc. Those containing less
than 36% zinc are widely used for cold working. Above this proportion, harder and
stronger brasses are obtained which are usually worked hot. Brass can be
strengthened by the addition of aluminum, tin, iron, and manganese to form the hightensile brasses.
7. Bronze: Bronze was originally an alloy of copper and tin, but the word has come to
be used for copper alloys containing no tin. Gunmetal, frequently used for
corrosion-resisting castings, contains about 10% tin and 2% zinc. Phosphorus bronze
usually has about 10% tin with 0.5% phosphorus. An important series of copper
alloys is the aluminum bronzes containing from 6% to 11% aluminum. Those with
the higher proportions often have additions of fe and nick and can have their strength
considerably increased by heat treatment.
8. Wrought Iron: The wrought iron contains 99% iron with slight impurities (iron
silicate). It is Malleable and ductile with a high tensile strength. It quickly recover
from overstrain.
-When heated remains in a pasty state the melting point is reached. Hence it forge
welds wall. It cannot be cast.
-It machines well but with a poor finish and
-Pins when being filled
-It is used for Haulage gear, anchor chains, crane hooks, boilerplates.
9. Nickel Steels: Nickel Steel contains Iron with 6 to 30% nickel
-Nickels refines grain structure and increase the strength.
-Corrosion resistant and heat.
-It is used for turbine blades, car engine valves.
10. Nickel-Chrome Steels: It contains Iron with 1 to 5% nickel and up to 2% chromium
-It is corrosion resistant, air hardening.
-It is used for heavily loaded machinery, armour plate.
11. Aluminum Alloys: There is about 40 standard aluminum alloys of with about half are
used for casting and half for wrought work.

-The commonest casting alloy is LM4. This is composed of 92% Al, 5% Si and 3%
Cu. Another common casting alloy is LM6, composed of 88% Al with 12% Si. This
latter alloy is very free flowing when cast.
12. Duralumin is the oldest Al alloy still in use and is used for pressings and sheet metal
work but not for casting, it is made up of 4% copper, 0.5% each of silicon, manganese
and magnesium with the remainder aluminum.
Duralumin posses the following properties:
-Has the approx. strength of mild steel with the weight of aluminum.
-Very susceptible to corrosion over a period of time
-Age hardens.
13. Working Qualities of Duralumin: Bends, flods and works well cold but quickly work
hardens cannot by normal methods. Can be forged, stamped, spun, bent and
hammered to shape.
Uses:
Aircraft parts, vehicle parts, pulleys, con. Rods, bolts, nuts, rivets, screws, etc.
Components where lightness of weight and strength are important.
14. Zinc Alloys: d are two standard Zinc casting alloys in common use; one with 3%
copper, 4%Al, 0.1% Mg and the remainder Zinc; the other with 0.1% Cu, 4%Al,
0.05% Mg and the remainder Zinc.
-The first mentioned alloy has greater strength than the latter, though it is not as
stable, losing some of this strength through ageing.
-Zinc alloys are susceptible to inter-crystalline corrosion and for this reason must be
made up from Zn which is at least 99.99% pure.
-Both alloys cast well taking a good finish and requiring only low casting
temperatures.

CHAPTER FOUR
MEASURING AND MARKING OUT INSTRUMENTS
4.0

Accurate marking out is the first step in all processes and the methods and instruments
are common to all metal working crafts. Measurements are taken either from one edge
made straight or from a centerline. Scriber lines on non-ferrous metals and oxide covered
steels are readily visible but bright steel needs coating with copper sulphate solution or
engineers blue (Prussians blue oil paint) if the line is to be easily seen.
Measuring and testing are continuous processes throughout manufacture whether
working with hand tools or machines.
Degrees of accuracy are specified on the workshopdrawings. Measuring methods in order
of accuracy are:
Direct measurement from a rule
Calipers set to a rule
Calipers set to a plug gauge
Vernier calipers
Micrometer readings
Dial indicator gauge
Tools in good working condition are easier and safer to use.

4.1

RULES:
The most important layout tool is the metal rule. This is obtainable in various sizes with a
wide choice of graduations made of carbon steel or stainless steel. The latter being well
worth the external expense. A metric scale and two types of imperial (mch) scale are
provided, one divided into tenths of an inch with sub-divisions down to 1/100 in, and the
other divided into sub-division of in, in, 1/8 in, 1/16 in and for parts of its length,
1/32 in and 1/64 in. The smallest division the eye can usefully distinguish is about
0.25mm and even this is difficult without the use of a magnifying lens. The markings
themselves are about 0.1mm wide; so further sub-division than 0.5mm serves no useful
purpose. In measuring a width by a rule, the greatest accuracy is obtained by working
between divisions and not the end. The end is only used when measuring to a shoulder or
when the rule is used as a scale to which a surface gauge or scribing block is set.

4.11

DIVIDERS
A pair of dividers has two pointed steel legs
attached at the top with a spring adjustment.
It is used for measuring between points,
transferring measurements directly from the
rule, and scribing arcs and circles. The legs
of dividers are hardened and ground to a
sharp point so they will remain accurate and
sharp for long time. A pair of dividers
should never be used as a scriber or prick
punch. In scribing an arc or circle, set the
dividers to the correct radius, one leg of the
dividers should be on the inch mark and the
other opened to the proper measurement

4.12

ODD-LEGS CALLIPERS
The body is made of steel with a scriber of
H.C.S. hardened and tempered to a straw.
The size is set by a steel rule using the finger
to support the leg. Odd-leg Calipers are used
for:
1. Scribing lines parallel to given edge e.g.
center lines. Not very accurate for this
purpose because the Odd legs must be
held square to the edge for a true
measurement. When used for
centerlines, the center is found by frail

and error from each side of the metal and

not by setting to a rule.
2. Finding the center of the end of a bar by
estimating from four different positions
4.13

CENTRE PUNCH
The Centre Punch is used to enlarge prick-punch holes to be drilled. The blunt point helps
the drill to get started. Striking the tool a sharp blow with a hammer makes the
indentation. If the mark is slightly off center, it can be corrected by tipping the punch and
lifting it toward the center.

4.14

VEE-BLOCK
The Vee block is made in pairs exactly alike in shape and size, and often with two vees,
one larger than the other. The sloping faces are at 900 with a groove at the base of the vee
for clearance. Small sizes are made of H.C.S. hardened and ground and provided with a
clamp for holding the work. Vee-Blocks of larger sizes are made of C.I. and are not
provided with a clamp because the weight of the work is enough to hold it in position.
The blocks are used for supporting round stock for marking out or for drilling.

4.15

SURFACE PLATE
Surface plates is used for: 1. Accurate marking out
2. Checking of surface for flat
3.Checking parts for alignment height etc.
It is made of C.I in sizes from 100 x150mm to 1m square. Various grades are made
grade A, plates being hand scraped accurate to less than 0.02mm. Lower grades are left
with a machine surface.
The plate is provided with three feet to prevent nock and give stability, and with two
handles for carrying it. The underside is ribbed to prevent warping and twisting of the top
face.

4.16

SURFACE GAUGE OR SCRIBING BLOCK

The surface gauge or scribing block consists of the following parts:
1. Scriber: It is made of H.C.S. hardened and tempered to a straw, one end is straight
and the other curved. Fully adjustable on spindle and capable of being locked in
position by a
2. Clamp and Nut: Clamp slides up down on the spindle and can be locked to it by
means of a knurled nut.
3. Spindle: It is fixed to base and able to swivel in one plane. It is locked to the rocker
arm by means of a collar and knurled nut.
4. Rocker Arm: It gives fine adjustment to scriber.
5. Base of Steel: This is hardened and ground. The underside has a vee groove for
applying to round stock. Two frictionally held pins are provided for use against the
edge of surface plate or any other datum edge
Surface gauge is used for:
a. Marking out on a surface plate or marking table.
b. Testing for parallelism or alignment
c. Truing work in the lathe
d. Finding the center of the end of a bar.

4.2

PRINCIPLES OF NON DIGITAL MICROMETER

In practice, the screw of a micrometer has a pitch of 0.50mm and the barrel has a scale
sub-divided into 0.5mm divisions. Thus one revolution of the thimble, or screw moves
the anvil 0.50mm. The circumference of the thimble is graduated into 50 equal divisions,
each equal to 1/50 of a revolution, which represent 1/50x0.50 > 0.01mm as shown below

10

Other micrometers for more accurate work have larger thimbles and barrels so that each
0.01mm unit on the thimble can be sub-divided into 10 equal parts each representing
0.001mm.
Note: that the micrometer principle is based principally on bolt and nut and can be
explains as follows:
1. To provide linear movement of the anvil through rotary movement of a screw
thread.
2. To divide the pitch of the screw into a convenient number of equal parts of the
thimble, each of which represents the basic unit of measurement.
4.21

External Micrometer
The external micrometer used for the accurate measurement of external diameters or
length, to a limit of 0.01mm or 0.001mm. It has the following parts
Spindle (or Moving Anvil) and Screw: made of hardened steel with a grounded thread
Frame: Roughly semicircular in shape, holding anvil, barrel and lock nut.
Barrel or Sleeve: graduated in mm. The measurement there shows the main reading i.e.
the diameter of the distance between fixed and moving anvils
Thimble: It rotates around the barrel and is divided or graduated into fifty (50) equal
divisions, each equal to1/50 of a revolution.
Ratchet: This provides the correct feel
4.22

READING A MICROMETER

1.
2.
3.
4.
4.3

Highest whole number visible on the barrel

5 x 1mm
= 5.00mm
Additional sub-division visible on the barrel
1 x 0.5
= 0.50mm
Figure visible on the thimble before datum line 15 x 0.01 = 0.15mm
Any additional division on thimble before datum 3 x 0.01 = 0.03mm
5.68mm

THE VERNIER PRINCIPLE

The basic principle of vernier scale is coincidence of the main scale and vernier scale, i.e.
the smallest unit of size to which the vernier can be read is equal to the difference in
length between the divisions on each scale.
The main scale and the vernier scale are slightly different, the divisions on the vernier
scale being smaller than those on the main scale. The eye can detect which of these
divisions are in line with each other, and it is this fact, which enable us to read a Vernier
to 0.02mm.

11

4.31

VERNIER CALIPER
The vernier caliper consists the following parts:
1. Fixed Jaw
2. Sliding Jaw
3. Rule (on which the main scale
4. Vernier scale
5. Clamp
6. Head lock
7. Clamp lock
8. Fine Setting screw
It is made in sizes from 150mm upwards and used for measuring large external and
internal diameters over a wider range than is possible with a micrometer

4.32

USING THE CALIPER

1. Bring the sliding jaw up to the work
2. Lock clamp screw
3. Exact setting made by fine setting screw
4. Lock sliding head and take reading.
For internal measurement, the width of the jaws must be added. Measure the width with a
micrometer.

4.33

READING THE VERNIER CALIPPER

To read the vernier setting for a particular measurement,
1. Read mm units on the main scale
2. Read 1/2mm units on main scale
3. Read the particular mark on the vernier scale, which is exactly opposite (coincide) a
division on the main scale.
4. Add all the above readings together.

4.4

VERNIER PROTRACTOR
The Vernier principle is applied to a protractor scale by having a vernier scale of suitable
radius sliding over the protractor scale. Most vernier protractor read to units of five
minutes of a degree.
The main scale is divided into 180 degrees round half the circumference of the outer ring.
The inner ring carries two Vernier scales, each of which reads either side of a common
zero. These scales should always be read in the same direction as the main scale.

12

Reading off the Vernier Protractor for the above Reading. The Reading on main scale
between zero on the main scale and the zero on the vernier scale = 530. Also continuing
in the same direction, there are 3 spaces between the vernier zero and the line on the
vernier, which coincides with a line on the main scale. Each of these spaces represents 5
minutes of one. The full reading is. 53 degree plus (3x5mm) = 53 degree 15 minutes
(53015).

13

CHAPTER FIVE
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CUTTING
5.0

In the workshop, most of the shaping of metals involves cutting the metal, and stopping
this at the correct place.
The usual conception of cutting suggests cleaving the substance apart with a thin knife or
wedge. The action is quite different when we cut metals being move in the nature of
shearing than cutting process. Cutting operation is generally the removal of pieces of
metals from the parent metal inform of clips.
When the cut is under way, the clip presses heavily on the top face of the tool and
continuous shearing takes place across the zone severance of the clip from the workpiece. At the same time, the clip suffers severe pressure and this, in conjunction with the
shearing action, results in the clip being compressed to a shorter and thicker length as it
leaves the tool.
Cutting of metals is performed in two ways depending on the machine and cutting
operation being employed: (i) The work moving (rotating) while the cutting tool is
stationary (ii) The work is stationary by the cutting tool is rotating or reciprocating.

5.1

GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF FILING

FILLING is one of the most common cutting operations employed by the fitter and thus
the file is the chief cutting tool employed by the fitter.
(a) CROSS FILING
1. When filing, the work should be held firmly in the vise with the minimum amount
projecting (this reduces noise and prevents some other hazards), and with the surface
to be filed truly horizontal. The file handle is grasped in right hand, the end of the file
handle pressing against the palm of the hand in line with the wrist-joint. The left hand
should be used to apply pressure at the end of the blade (for lighter filing, a rather
lighter grip is used with the right hand and the pressure is applied with finger and
thumb)
2. A position should be taken up on the left side vise and the feet firmly planted, slightly
apart. A stroke should be made by a slight movement of the right arm from the
shoulder, and by a sway of the body towards the work, each of these movements
being about equal. As the file moves over the work, it does not move parallel to its
length but in an oblique direction from left to right. The file must remain horizontal
through out the stroke, which should be long, slow and steady, with pressure only
applied on the forward motion. On the return stroke, although the pressure is relieved
from it, the file remains in contact with the work.

(b) DRAW FILING: Draw filing is used for finishing most surfaces, after being cross
filed flat, are draw file until all the cross filing marks disappear. The file is held at
right angle to the length of the metal and pushed back and forth along its length. The
hand should be held as close together as possible to reduce wobble.
5.11

GRADES OF FILE
Grades of file indicate the degree of coarseness of the teeth. The grade can be rough,
bastard, smooth, and dead smooth. Each grade of cut has teeth of different pitch in
different sizes.

14

5.2

TWIST DRIL DETAIL

The TANG: It is used for ejection of the
Drill.
The SHANK: The shank provides the drive.
The BODY: The body tapers slightly in
diameter from tip to shank to provide
clearance in deep holes.
The FLUTES: It provides a room for the
escape of chippings, gives the drill its fixed
rake angle and allows coolant to get to the
cutting edges.
The WED: Increases in thickness from tip to
shank. Consequently, when a drill breaks
and is reground the size of the chisel edge in
considerably increased.
The CHISEL EDGE: It is on the axis of the
drill and considerable pressure is needed to
force it through the metal being cut.
WEB THINNING: This reduces the size of
the chisel edge
1. On large drills it lessens the pressure
necessary to force the drill through the
work.
2. The depth of flute decreases from tip to
shank to give strength and rigidity and
therefore the web increases in thickness.
When constant grinding or breakage
shortens a drill, the chisel edge becomes
thick and the drill should be web
thinned.
If it is not done, the drill will not centralize itself properly and as considerable force is
needed to feed in the drill, the hole may be out of round or oversize.

5.21

REAMERS
A Twist drill cannot be relied upon to produce a hole
Very accurate in size and with a good finish for many
Purposes. When accurate holes are required, a reamer
must be used for finishing to size. A reamer will not
Drill a hole but will enlarge an existing hole making
it round, smooth and accurate in size. Reaming
however, will not correct any errors, which may be
in the hole with regard to its position, or direction
because the reamer merely follows the previously
drilled hole.
The accuracy with which a reamer cuts will depend
on its diameter
MACHINE REAMERS: The reamers have a mouse
taper shank and fit directly into the machine spindle,
e.g. the lathe tail stock. Some have straight flutes but
more often the flutes form a left hand helix or spinal.
If the helix were right hand, as a twist drill, the reamer
would try to screw itself into the metal.
HAND REAMERS: They are used by hand in a tap
Wrench. They may have straight or helical flute like
the machine reamers and they have the extreme end
tapered slightly to give it a lead into the hole.
Reamers are used with a clockwise or right-hand rotation and no backward turns are
necessary as with a tap. Cutting solution must be used as for drilling.

15

5.22

TAPS
Internal Threads are cut by means of TAPS. This is by hand on bench, on lathe or on
drilling machine. A Tap may be regarded as a bolt with a perfect thread cut on it, which
has been provided with cutting edges and hardened, so that when it is screwed into a hole,
it cuts an internal thread, which will fit an external thread of the same size.
Taps are made of high-carbon-steel (H.C.S) or high-speed steel (H.S.S) hardened and
tempered. Both types are very brittle and need care in use. They are usually made in sets
of three to cut any particular size. These are:
Taper Taps: Taper for two thirds of their length and are used first, to start the cutting of
the thread. No other tap is necessary for tapping thin plate because the taper tap will cut
full thread at the top end.
Second Taps (intermediate Taps): Taper for one third of their length and follow the taper
taps in use. Some sets have these taps omitted.
Bottoming Taps (Plug Taps): These are parallel for their complete length except for a
chamfer lead. They are used last of the set and are always necessary when a blind hole
has to be tapped.
Procedure For Tapping
1. Tapping size hole must be drilled
smaller than screw size.
2. It is important that a tap should be
started with its Axis parallel with the
center line of the hole. As soon as the tap
cuts it should be tested for Alignment
with a try square.
3. Sufficient lubricant (cutting fluid) must
be applied.
4. Turn clockwise two thirds of a
revolution to cut the thread and back a
quarter turn to clear the swarfs/clip.
5. A Taper Tap run through quarter thin
work gives a full thread.
6. A Blind Hole is tapped by using all the
three taps in turn starting with the Taper
Tap. The swarfs/clip should be cleared
out frequently to prevent choking of the
tap.
TAPPING HOLE SIZE: The size must be calculated or checked on standard table or
chart if available. An oversize hole may result in broken tap or the tap may not enter the
hole.
To calculate the tapping hole size, any of the two below formula can be used.
1. T = D 2 (0.
Where T = Tapping hole diameter
D = Major diameter of thread
P = Pitch of thread required
0.54 = Constant for 1.5v thread
2. Example54P)
T=DP
Calculate the tapping hole diameter to be drilled in a plate for a thread of M10x1.5. In
this example the major diameter is 10mm and the pitch is 1.5
Thus using formula No.1.
T = D 2 (0.54P)
= 10 2 (0.54 x1.5)
= 10 2 (0.810)
= 10 1.62
= 8.38
It is not possible to obtain the size 8.38mm drill bit, but this is close to 8.5mm diameter
drill. Thus, 8.5mm is chosen and use.
Using formula No. 2
T=DP
= 10 1.5 = 8.5mm diameter hole

16

5.23

DIES
External Threads are cut by means of dies, which fit into die stocks. Dies have the size,
kind of thread and pitch marked on the leading face. This face has a chamfer lead to
enable the cutting to start more easily. It is important that the die be placed the right way
round in the stock so that the correct face starts the cutting.
Circular Dies (spot dies): They have a limited adjustment for size provided by the
adjustment screws. They are most often used in sizes below 12mm.
- Center screw expands die
- Side screws lock die
Rectangular Dies (two piece dies): The dies have two parts to each size, number 1 and 2.
A wide range of adjustment for size is possible. They are most often used for cutting
fairly large diameter threads.
Die Nuts (solid dies): Die nuts are not intended for cutting threads from the solid but for
rectifying damage to existing threads or running an existing thread down to size.
Taps and Dies are precision tools, they must be handle with care, they must not be
dropped because they are brittle, keep them clean and return into their respective boxes
after use.
When using these tools on machine, the revs/min must be greatly reduced with plenty
lubricant to avoid damages to the tools.

5.3

CUTTING FLUID (SOLUTION, LUBRICANTS)

Reasons For Using Cutting Fluid: The following are the reasons for using cutting fluid,
solution or lubricant.
1. Keeps the tool cool. Excessive heat causes rapid wear of the tool and, consequently,
results in the need for slower cutting speed
2. Prevents overheating of the work due to friction from the tool. Excessive heat causes
expansion of the work resulting in inaccuracy when work is checked for size and
causing undue pressure on the lathe centers.
3. Permits the use of higher cutting speeds
4. Washes away chips
5. Imparts a good finishing
6. Serves as a lubricant between the cutting edge of the tool and the work between the
tool face and the chip which is being removed

5.4

SELECTION OF CUTTING FLUID FOR VARIOUS CUTTING OPERATIONS

Selecting a cutting fluid for a particular cutting operation depends on a number of factors.
These factors are: 1. The type of cutting operation specifies the cutting fluid to be employed.
2. The material of the work piece
3. The material of the cutting tool
4. Depends on whether lubricating or cooling effect is actually required
5. Cutting speed
Straight oils are cutting oils employed when lubrication is more important than cooling
effect
Operation
Cast iron
Mild steel &
Copper
wrought
Turning
Dry
Soluble oil
Soluble oil
Drilling
Dry
Soluble oil
Soluble oil
Threading
Dry
Soluble oil
Soluble oil
Reaming
Dry
Soluble oil
Soluble oil
Knurling
Dry
Soluble oil
Dry or soluble oil
Operation
Turning
Drilling
Threading

Brass
Dry
Dry
Dry

Reaming

Dry

Knurling

Dry

Aluminum
Turpentine
Turpentine
Turpentine or
paraffin
Turpentine or
paraffin
Turpentine

17

Lead
dry
Soluble oil
Dry

5.5

CUTTING SPEED AND FEED

Cutting speed: This is the speed with which the cutting tool passes over the surface of the
metal or conversely, the speed with which the metal passes over the cutting tool.
It is commonly expressed in metres per min. Cutting speed depend on: 1. The material being cut and the type of work being done on it
2. Condition and strength of tools or machinery
3. Depth of cut
4. Rate of feed
5. Material of which the tool is made
6. Whether or not a cutting solution is being used
Feed: The feed governs the thickness of the metal shaving that is removed. The rate of
feed depends on: 1. Smoothness of finish required
2. The condition and power of tools and machinery being used
3. Depth of cut
4. Whether or not a cutting solution is being used
5. Material being cut

18

CHAPTER SIX
6.0

SHAPING AND MILLING MACHINES

6.1

SHAPING PROCESS (OR THE GENERTINGPROCESS IN SHAPING

Definition of Shaping Machine
The Shaping machine may be defined as a machine tool designed to produce that surfaces
by generating process which used a reciprocating single-point tool. These surfaces may
be horizontal, vertical or at some angle between the two.

6.11

THE SHAPING OPERATION

During shaping the tool moves horizontally along a line A-B while the work moves along
a line C-D, thus producing a flat surface. The length of the stroke is adjusted so that the
tool clears the work piece at the start and end of each stock.
A
D

B
C

The quality of finished surfaces will depend on:

1. The width and convexity of the cutting edge of the tool
2. The speed of machine
3. The rate of feed
4. To some extent, the use of a cutting solution.
6.2

THE ESSENTIAL MOTIONS FOR THE MACHINE TO FULFIL SHAPING

OPERATION
1. Reciprocating Motion of Tool: This motion supplies the power for cutting and must
be adjusted for speed, length of stock and position of stroke over the work piece.
2. Feed Motion for horizontal Surface: This is the motion of the table across the front of
the machine, which may be hand or power fed.
3. Feed Motion for vertical Surface: This is normally a hand fed motion of the tool post
in a head slide mounted on the front of the ram-head, but it may be power fed.
4. Feed Motion for Inclined Surface: This is a variant of (3) above; the head slide over at
the angle of inclination required and tool feeds down at this angle.
5. Vertical Table Adjustment: This is an additional motion not normally used for feed
purposes but to adjust the height of the table accommodate wide variations in the
height of the work.
1
2
4
3
5
Basic motion of tool and work
on a shaping machine.

6.3

PARTS OF SHAPING
Base or Body: This is a heavy hollow casting supporting the main parts. The ramoperating mechanism and often the motor drive is contained within the casting.
The Saddle: It is fixed to the front vertical face of the body. It can be raised and lowered
by hand and locked in position.
The Table: This is of machined cast iron, slotted on top, bottom and slides for the bolting
on of work. It is sometimes made to swivel and can be traversed sideways by hand or
power feed.

19

Ram: The base casting has slide ways machined on its top face to take the Ram, which
moves horizontally across it to supply the cutting power.
The Head: It can move vertically and is usually arranged so that it can swivel as well.
Vertical movement of the head is usually by hand although automatic feed is sometimes
provided.
Tool Box or Clapper Box: This is fixed to the head and can be swiveled and locked at an
angle to alter the position of the tool in relation to the work. The box carries the cutting
tool and swivels on a pin for relief and lift on the backstroke
Front Support or Table Steady: This supports the table during cutting operations
DRIVING MECHANISM
Ram

Bull wheel

Link
Crank
Crank pin

Crank pivot
The Crank is slotted and rotates on the Pivot. It is connected to the bull wheel or crank
gear by means of crank pin. The link connects the crank to the ram. The length of stroke
of the ram is decided by the position of the crank pin in the slot of the bull wheel. The
further it is from the center the longer the stroke. This same mechanism ensures that the
idle return stroke is quicker than the forward cutting stroke.
Cutting Tools: They are basically the same shape as lathe tools but they are often deeper
and therefore stronger.
6.4

ALIGNMENTS TESTING
Parallelism: Through wear in the front vertical slide and the weight of the table, there is
tendency for the table to sag at the front every time the vertical adjustment is used. The
amount of sag can be checked by mounting a dial gauge in the tool post and using the
reading as it is traversed over the table. If the front is low the bolts on the front table
support should be locked and the rear of the table lowered by the vertical adjustments
until the reading on the dial gauge is constant.
Squareness: When adjacent horizontal and vertical faces are to be shaped at one setting,
the vertical face will be machined square when the vertical feed motion of the head slide
is truly square to the table surface. When this slide has been set over to machine an
inclined surface, it can be readjusted to the perpendicular position with the aid of a dial
gauge and try square.

6.5

METHODS OF HOLDING A WORK-PIECE

1. Vice: Shaper vices are relatively large and usually of the swiveling type. They bolt
down to the shaper table by means of the Tee slots provided in the table. The vice
must be bolted down to the machine table with jaws at right angles to the stroke, so
that the cutting forces are taken against the vice jaws. If two opposite face of the
work-piece have to be machined parallel to each other, the work-piece should be
supported with parallel strips.
2. Vee Block: Round work is supported on vee blocks and clamped to the table.
3. Angle plates: They are often useful when setting up castings and other awkward
shapes.
4. Clamping to the Table: Bolting the work directly to the top or side of the table is
often better than using a vice or fitting.

6.6

MILLING MACHINE
A Milling Machine may be defined as one whose main function is to produce flat
surfaces with a rotary cutter, by either a copying or a generating process.
Milling is a cutting operation in which each tooth of a multi-toothed rotating cutter
engages the work-piece in turn, and removes a relatively small amount of metal in the
form of a chip.
Milling operations can be broadly classified as end cutting and peripheral-cutting. Milling
is usually used to produce plane surfaces, or suitable combination of cutter and work-

20

piece movements, circular or part-circular surfaces. Vertical milling machines are also
used for drilling reaming and boring.
6.7

TYPES
Milling machines can be classified into the Knee-and-column machines and bed-type
machines.
Knee-and-Column machines: These machines consist of two main parts as their names
suggest. The column is a massive casting that contains the drive, lubrication, and
transmission systems and supports the knee, which is carried on slides at the front of the
column.
The knee is a casting, which in turn carries the table, it can be raised and lowered as
required and locked in position. The two basic machines in this group are the horizontal
milling machine and the vertical milling machine. In the horizontal machine, the cutter is
normally mounted on an arbor with its axis horizontal and peripheral-cutting cutters are
used. The arbor is supported by the over arm at its extreme end, and is driven by the
spindle.
End-cutting cutters can be held in a short arbor, and used to machine vertical surfaces.
When its operation is done, the over arm is unlocked and pushed back to give more room
for the work-piece and the operator.
In the vertical milling machine, the cutter is held in an arbor with its axis vertical, it is
more usually end cutting, but special shank mounted peripheral-cutting cutters can be
used. The vertical milling machine is also needed for drilling, weaving and boring. It can
be used as a for of jig boring machine, if the table is positioned under the cutter by
using stops and end bars.
The Universal milling machine is similar to the horizontal milling machine, but the table
can be sung about a vertical axis and locked in position. It is used in conjunction with a
dividing head to generate helices, and is associated with the tool-room and similar small
production shape.
Bed-Type Machines: The knee and column machines are quickly set but tend to lack
rigidity. Unlike bed-type machine, this lack of rigidity is overcome to a large extent by
having the table support directly by the bed of the machine. This type is a form of
horizontal milling machine in which vertical adjustment is by movement or the spindle
and over arm. Its horizontal adjustment is usually by positioning the cutter along the
arbor. Adjustment for depth of cut is usually a fairly long operation, nut this machine is
used for production work, where the machine is set up for the production of a large
number of similar components, without the need to apply a large number of cuts.

6.8

TYPES OF MILLING CUTTERS

Milling cutters are classified according to the cutting action i.e. (peripheral-cutting and
end-cutting), the mounting (from the cutter bore or from the cutter shank), and according
to the method of regrinding (from cutters are reground in a different manner from other
cutters and are designed accordingly).
1. Roller Cutters- These are for peripheral cutting and are used for the milling of
large plane surfaces. This type of cutter tends to cause vibration, because the
cutting action is intermittent. A smoother cutting action is obtained by making the
cutting edges helical so that each tool commences its cut before the previous one
has finished producing its chip.
The disadvantage associated with this type of cutter is that a thrust is set up along
the axis of the arbor. This can be mortified by using two cutters of opposite but
equal helix angle and mounting them back-to-back.
2. Side and Face Cutter: To produce a groove, a narrow roller type-cutter could be
used but a large number of passes would be required. To do this operation and to
be speeded up, a cutter with cutting edges on its sides has to be used in addition to
those on its periphery. Variations of side and face cutters are available with
helical teeth
3. Form-Milling Cutter: It is needed to produce a gear treating each teeth space in
turn as a special groove. It is reground by the removal of metal from the face of
each tooth whereas other cutters are re-ground by the removal of metal from their
periphery or sides.
For-cutter cannot be reground by the removal of metal from the periphery because this
would cause the form to be incorrect and the teeth gap would become wider as a result of
regrinding. The teeth must also be given a clearance to prevent rubbing

21

6.9

MILLING TECHNIQUES
The Milling cutters (especially side-and-face and helical) can be presented to work in two
ways known as up-cut milling and down-cut milling.
The down-cut milling is also called climb milling. The most important difference
between the two is the way and manner in which the forces are exerted whilst the cutting
is in progress and also the paths taken by each cutter relative to work piece.
The path taken by the cutter teeth and cutting must be considered in conjunction with the
material to be cut, the clamping system and the milling machine.
Up-cut milling - when this method is used, the cutter teeth enters the work at the bottom
of the cut and leave at the surface of the job. Each tooth enters sthe job gradually
production a chip which increases in thickness along its length. The horizontal cutting
force is directed against the movement of the table, so that backwash is the table met and
lead screw is taken up.
The milling machine table may be lifted due to vertical cutting force. It is essential that
the table and its mechanism must be in good condition and correctly adjusted to obtain a
better surface finish. This method is ideal for machine not lifted with backlash
elimination. The forces during up milling tend to lift work from the machine table. And
the start of the chip produces the finishes.
Down-cut (climb) milling machine milling cutters makes contact with the work surface
at the thickness point on the chip and leaves the work at the bottom of the cut. Rotation of
the cutter is in the same direction as the feed movement and there is a horizontal force
pulling the work under the cutter. If the machine is not fitted with backlash elimination,
the feed nation will be interrupted because of the cutter milling, the work and table along
to take up the backlash in the lead screws nut. This irregular movement may result in
poor surface finish and in machine vibration. The end of the chip produces the finished
surface. The forces during down milling tend to press the work down on to the table. If
the lead screw is in good order, down-cut milling is better in view of its forces.
To operate this method successfully, it must be used on machines fitted with backlash
elimination. This is a device, which ensures that non-driving flanks of the lead screw
thread are confirm in contact.
Straddle Milling The rate of metal removal can be increased, if more than one cutter is
used at a time. In straddle milling, two cutters are mounted on the arbor, so that the faces
milled simultaneously but the cutters need to be separated by a distance of 77mm on the
machine arbor. It takes cut at one pass. This is important when a number of works have to
be machined.
The distance between the two cutters is controlled by a spacer piece and if matched or
mounted correctly, features such as spanner flats, squares and hexagons can be cut to two
faces at a time the work being held vertically in direct indexing head.
Gang milling It is economical where a considerable number of parts are to be
machined. Three or more cutters can be mounted on the arbor allowing several faces to
be machined simultaneously. But these cutters must be of correct appropriate diameters
and thickness since the shape of the surface is a copy of the form produced by the cutters
in combination.

6.10

WORK PIECE LOCATION AND HOLDING

Clamping directly to the table- this is generally used for large work piece that can not be
conveniently held by other methods. It produces accurate work but sometimes presents a
problem in aligning the work. The clamps and bolts located in the T-slots, which run the
length of the table, are used to clamp the work to the table. The work is positioned on the
table with the aid of dial indicators, spirit levels and sine bars in conjunction with jacks
and wedge.
Machine Vice the plain (non-swiveling) machine vice consists of base with a fixed jaw
at one end and a moving jaw, which slides along the base of the vice and is operated by a
lead screw. It is a piece of precision equipment and is sometimes located by tenants in the
center tee-slot so that the fixed jaw is at right angles to the table motion. In that case, a
face or slot milled in a work piece should be square to the face clamped against the fixed
jaw. The actual gripping faces of the jaws are normally ground and are perpendicular not
only to the table motion but also to the table surface.
The vice should normally be set so that the cutting forces act against the fixed jaw and
not against the moving jaw, where the cutting forces would be resisted only by the lead
screw thread which might become strained or loosened by the vibration.

22

The plain vice is normally limited to work piece whose faces and slots are to be machined
at right angles.
The swiveling machine vice is for work pieces that have to be machine at the angles other
than right angles, which is mounted on a rotary base, graduated in degrees, and is infact,
almost identical to the shaping machine vice. Though, the facility of swiveling through an
angle is some ways a disadvantage since the fixed alignment of the plain vices are lost.
Despite that the rotary base is provided with a scale of degree, it is not accurate enough to
be relied upon for squareness and parallelism.
For squareness, the fixed jaw should be checked with a dial gauge against the
longitudinal table motion. Smaller work piece are held in a machine vice, if the quantity
to be produced does not justify the manufacture of a milling fixture.

23

CHAPTER SEVEN
DRILLING MACHINE
7.0

In drilling, two forces are required, a torque to provide the tangential cutting force and a
direct thrust normal to the work surface to feed in the drill. Thus, any drilling machine
must provide two motions to the drill.
1. A rotary motion whose speed is adjustable to give the required cutting speed and
whose power is sufficient to provide the necessary tangential force for cutting.
2. A linear motion for the feed.
If the machine is to produce accurate holes without exerting bending force on the drill:
(a) The drill must rotations its own axis, i.e. run true without eccentricity, which
demands an accurate drill-holding device.
(b) The drill must cut equally on both cutting edges.
(c) The feed motion must be along the line of the axis of the drill.
Furthermore, a rigid base or table must be provided on which the work can be fixed for
the drilling operation. This table must normally be at right angles to the axis of rotation of
the drill and therefore at right angles to the direction of feed.
These requirements are called the basic alignments of the machine. They are common to
all drilling machines, and machines differ only in size, power and the way the drill is
positioned over the work.

7.1

TYPES OF DRILLING MACHINES

Drilling Machines can be classified into:
1. Those in which the work is moved into position under a fixed drill axis, which are the
most common type.
2. Those in which the work is fixed and the drill axis is moved into position over the
hole.

7.11

FIXED AXIS MACHINE

1. The Sensitive Drilling Machine: These machines are usually bench mounted,
although pedestal machines are available. They are of small capacity used for holes up to
about 12mm diameter. They do not have power feed. Thus, the operation by hand
feeding, hence the name sensitive. The adjustments available are as follows:
(a) Speed adjustment by changing the belt on the pulleys.
(b) Table heights adjustment to accommodate different work heights within the
spindle feed range. In some machines, the position of the drill head and
spindle housing on the column can also be adjusted.
(c) Table position adjustment about the column. This enables the table to be
swung clear to accommodate larger work pieces.
(d) Spindle feed stop to allow holes to be drilled to a set depth.
2. The Pillar Drilling Machine: This is also known as upright drilling machine. The
machine is in sizes up to that which can drill holes up to 50mm diameter. It is simply a
much more robust version of the sensitive drill, floor mounted and provided with power
feed, usually at three rates, and with a wide range of spindle speeds provided by a gear
box rather than by cone pulleys. The table can be swung clear of the base to allow large
castings to be accommodated, as with a sensitive drilling machine. This has the
disadvantage that although the machine is more massive, it loses rigidity since the table
cannot be supported from underneath. A similar machine using a box column is much
more rigid, since the table moves on slides on the front of the column, and is supported
under the point of drill thrust by the table raising screw. However the table cannot be
moved to position the work under the drill, nor swung clear.
3. The Compound Table Drilling Machine:
-A development of the box column machine with a table mounted on two slide ways to
give horizontal motions at 90o to each other and controlled by lead screws.
-The work is clamped to the compounds table, which can then be accurately adjusted to
bring each hole center under the spindle axis in turn for drilling.

7.2

MOVING AXIS MACHINES

The only common machine of this type is the Radial Drilling Machine. It is so called
because the drilling head is mounted to move or slide along a radial arm which itself can
be swung about the end column. The base of the machine itself is the worktable and is
provided with tee-slots for clamping large work pieces.

24

An auxiliary table is usually provided to which smaller work pieces can be clamped and
in some cases, where utilization is high, two such tables are used. One is placed on the
machine while drilling is in progress and the other is at one side, having the previous
work is completed the table are inter-changed by hoist, the radial arm being swung clear
for the purpose.
7.21

OTHER TYPES OF DRILLING MACHINES

The fitter will have occasion to use various types of the hand drilling appliances for holes
where it is not possible to bring the work up to a machine.
1. The Breast Drill: May be used for holes up to about 12mm diameter
-Pressure is applied to the drill by pressing the body on the shaped end plate, whilst
the handle rotates the drill.
2. Electric Hand Drill
-For quickness of operation, the electric drill has a great advantage over the breast
drill, for not only does it leave both hands free to guide and feed the drill, but also
rotates the drill with more uniformity and possesses that extra amount of weight
necessary to give improved balance and manipulation.
-A switch is incorporated for the hand so that the drill may be positioned before it is
started up.
3. The Ratchet brace.

7.22

SAFETY ON DRILLING MACHINE

(i)
Clamp job firmly to the vice or machine table with packing or paralleled
strips underneath to avoid drilling the vice or table
(ii)
More care is required when drilling the job.
(iii)
Release pressure when the drill is breaking through when using hand feed.
(iv)
Always remove or clear the chips or swart frequently when drilling deep
holes especially those of small diameters.
(v)
Do not drill over-lapping holes.
(vi)
Keep all hair, ties or clothing clear of the revolving parts.
(vii) Use the guards provided.
(viii) Use the correct speed.

7.3

TAPER TURNING
Taper Turning is the production of conical surface. When a tool is fed parallel to the
spindle, a cylinder is turned, if however, the tool is still kept in a horizontal plane through
the work axis, and moved at an angle with this axis, a conical surface will be produced.

Taper Turning
The Same effect will be obtained if the tool moves in its original direction and the work
axis is altered to be at an angle with the line of the tool motion.
7.31

METHODS OF TURNING TAPER SURFACES

There are basically three methods of turning Taper surfaces:
1. Compound Slide Method: The compound slide is swiveled or swung, locked at the
required angle and the tool fed by hand, using the slide handle. Power feed cannot be
used and the length of taper that can be turned is restricted to the length of travel to
the compound slide. Because of the hand feed, a good finish is obtained only with
difficulty. This method therefore is used only for taper of short length.
2. Off-Setting the Tail Stock (setting over the Tail Stock): This method can be used only
for long gradual tapers (slow external tapers), the tail stock is intentionally set out of
line with the head stock. The work then becomes angled to the direction of movement
of the carriage and will be tapered in proportion to the amount of set-over.

25

The amount of set-over (the amount of off-set) =

Length of work in mm x Taper per metre
1000
2
3. The Taper Turning Attachment: Many modern lathes have a taper bar fitted at the
back of the bed, which can be adjusted through a range of angles to the spindle axis.
The bar carries a sliding block which, during taper turning, is attached by a link to the
back of the cross slide. The lead screw of the cross slide is released so that it no
longer controls the depth of cut setting, and the slide is thus freed when the saddle is
moved along the bed the cross-slide now follows the taper bar, so that the tool moves
parallel to the bar and a taper is produced. The top slide is swung through 90o to lie at
right angles to the work axis so that it can be used to apply the cut.
The length of the taper bar allows large degree divisions on its degree scale, which
enable accurate setting to be carried out, an angle vernier often being incorporated.
The taper is produced by the movement of the saddle under power feed, giving
improved and controllable surface finish and a long taper is possible. It is however,
limited to semi-angle of taper of about 15o (30o include angle).

26

CHPATER EIGHT
8.1 IN-PLATE EDGES AND JOINTS
8.11

SAFE EDGE (OR PEEN DOWN JOINT)

1. Mark out using oodles or dividers.
2. Bend over at right angles using Folding bars
and mallet.
3. Increase the angle of bend over a hatchet stake
if necessary this stage may be omitted.
4. Mallet edge over a piece of waste tinplate
5. Mallet edge down on a stake

8.12

LAP SEAM
A lap of 3mm or 5mm is usual for small work.
The corner lap is first bent up in folding bars.
Both types of lap are finished by soldering.

8.13

GROOVED SEAM
The allowance for a grooved seam is x on one
side of the development and 2x on the other
where x = seam size.
1. Mark out allowance and bends in opposite directions.
2. Fold both laps over scrap tin plate
3. Hook the two parts together and mallet to tighten the joint
4. Close down with a grooving tool.

8.14

WIRED EDGE
Allowance for wiring is 21/2 x diameter Of wire,
this allowance being added to the given height or other
dimension
1. Mark out this allowance using dividers or odd legs
2. Bend over at right angles in the folding bars using
a mallet
3. Mallet down the allowance over a piece of scrap metal
approx. equal in thickness to the diameter of the wire.
4. Place wire in position and trap with mallet blows.
5. Bring to final shape on a flat stake, creasing iron or
with a tucking hammer or grooving tool
Where possible, it is best to do wiring in the flat before
any bending to shape. The joint of the wiring is so arranged
that it is hidden when the shape is finally formed, as at A.
Difficulty may be experienced in preventing the collapse of
the open part of the joint a. This may be overcome by
filling the gap with a waste piece of wire during the
shaping or filing half way through the wire at a, at a
convenient spot and breaking off the wire after bending
Circular work involving a grooved seam and wired edge gives difficulty when bringing
the joint together at A. Avoid this by cutting out an extra allowance for clearance
equaling x 2t where t = thickness of tinplate.

27

8.15

KNOCKED-UP BOTTOPM (JOINT)

1. Mark out allowance for Knocking-up, usually
3mm or 5mm. It is wise to allow a little extra
on this amount because some metal will be lost
due to distortion in bending.
2. Throw up this edge gradually on the half-moon stake.
Gradual coaxing of the metal is needed to avoid too
much distortion. If any ripples appear they must be
malleted out before they develop too far. Rotate the
edge of the metal whilst malleting.
3. Finish shape on a round-bottomed stake.
4. Set down square on a flat-faced stake

8.2

SOFT SOLDERING
This is a process of joining metals by means of an alloy. In soft soldering, solder
(soldering lead) is the alloy used to unite metals. Solder is an alloy of lead and tin and is
purchased in stick form. A heated copper bit (called soldering iron) is used to heat the
joint not melt the solder. To solder a joint, clean the two pieces of metal to be joined in
the viscosity of the joint and apply soldering flux. Heat the tinned soldering iron (to just
under a red hot heat) and quickly wipe it clean on a rag. Dip the bit into the flux and then
into the solder, to cause a small global of solder to adhere to it. Place the tip of the bit at
the end of the joint (the two pieces of metal to be joined may be held in position with
round nose plier) and leave it there for a few moment (to heat the joint) and then draw it
slowly along the joint.

8.3

WELDING
Welding differs from soldering in that generally, no foreign metal is used to make the
joint. The parts are heated locally to melting point until they fuse and flow together. Thus
a welding joint should be continuous, and ideally, even microscopic joint should not
reveal the joint. As the weld proceeds, a filler rod of similar metal supplies additional
metal to fill the joint and make good any losses.
Heating must be very rapid to confirm it to a local area, and an oxy-acetylene flame or an
electric arc is used. In case of oxy-acetylene, the flame must be supplied by a correct
balance of oxygen and acetylene so that it is neither oxidizing nor carbonizing, since
either or these flames would weaken the weld.
In arc welding, the electrode is coated with a flux, which vaporizes and provides a
gaseous shield to prevent atmospheric attack.
OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING
Low-Pressure System
Low-pressure system. It is where the welding
process is carried out at fixed points on a
production line and large quantities of acetylene are required. The acetylene is produced
in a generator by the action of water on calcium
carbide and pipe to the work stations, a special
injector type of blow pipe being required. When
this method is used, the acetylene has to be by
passing through a purifier.

8.31

High-Pressure System
High-Pressure System. This is used
in general engineering maintenance
nod garage work. It has the great
advantages that it is portable,
requires no power supplied and the
capital cost of equipment is relatively low.

PRESSURE REGULATOR
Before the gases are fed to the blowpipe, their pressure must be reduced by a pressure
regulator. By suitably adjusting the oxygen control in the blowpipe, three types of flames
can be produced.
-Oxidizing Flame excess oxygen
-Carbonizing Flame excess acetylene
-Neutral Flame Complete combusting with the minimum necessary oxygen
For most purposes, a neutral flame is desirable. If a carbonizing flame is used when
welding steel, the carbon content of the weld becomes greater than that of the parent

28

metal and the weld becomes brittle.

A carbonizing flame is used for depositing stellite, i.e. in hard-facing work, while an
oxidizing flame is used when welding alloys containing Zinc, e.g. brass.

8.32

WELDING TECHNIQUES
Basically, there are two methods that are employed for producing a weld by gas welding.
These are illustrated below. They are called leftward and rightward welding.

(a) Leftward Method

(b) Rightward Method
Leftward, or forward welding is carried out with the torch in the right hand, the
movement being from right to left, with the flame pointing into the unwelded portion of
the work limited to work of 4-5mm thickness or less.
Rightward, or backward welding uses the opposite technique, with the flame playing over
the weld already produced. This reduces the cooling rate and has an annealing effect,
improving the ductility of the weld. The method is used for thicker materials.
8.33

FLAME CUTTING
If iron or steel is heated almost to melting temperature and a stream of oxygen is then
played upon it, the metal is rapidly oxidized. The melting temperature of the iron oxide is
less than that of the metal from which it is formed, so the oxide, being in a liquid state, is
blown away from the zone by the stream of oxygen being used.
Thus, oxy-acetylene cutting blowpipe has two functions
(a) It must provide a suitable flame for pre-heating the metal and
(b) Provide a stream of oxygen for cutting.

8.4

THE ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

An Electric arc is formed when an electric current passes between two electrodes
separated by short distance from each other. One electrode is the welding rod or coated
wire while the other is the metal to be welded.

8.41

DETERMINATION OF POLARITY
The arc is generated by electrons flowing from the ve to +ve pole, and the electrical
energy is changed in the arc into heat and light. Two-third of the heat is developed near
the +ve pole, which burns into the form of a crater, the temperature near the crater being
about 3500-4000oC, which the remaining third is developed near to the ve pole. As a
result on electrode connected to the +ve pole will burn away 50 faster than if connected
to the ve pole. For this reason, it is usual to connect medium coated electrodes and bare
wire rod to the ve pole, so that they will not burn away quickly. Heavily coated
electrodes are connected to the +ve pole because, due to the extra heat required to melt
the heavy coating, they burn more slowly than other electrode.

29

8.42

SELECTION OF WELDING CURRENT

After familiarized with the above, then the current is the next variation. This can be best
observed by one operator calling out the reading of the meters while the other operator
welds. The machine is set so as to give a voltage of 20 to 24 across the arc, and using a
medium-coated rod and current is set at the lowest-value. There is poor penetration with a
very shallow crater, and the metal heaps up on the plate, producing overlap. The sound of
the arc is splitting more than a crackle. The current is increased until at say, 140 empires
using a 3mm rod. The crater is deeper about 1.5mm, giving good penetration, the metal
flows well, and the arc is very easily controlled and the sound is a steady crackle. In
short, the cover of the coasted rod determines the current to the use on the type of the
coating material.
CONDITION OF WELDING CIRCUIT
Too low current

EFFECT
Poor penetrating shallow crater metal heaps
up on plate with over-lap; arc has unsteady
spluttering sound.

Too high current tags

Deep crater, too deep penetrations, and flat

bead fierce arc with loud crackle.

Electrons
becomes red hot, much spatten.
Too low voltage

Rod sticks to work, are difficult to maintain

shutters sound as arc goes in and out, metal
deposited in bulbs with no penetration.

Too high voltage

Noisy hissing, arc fierce and wandering arc,

Bend tennis to be porous and flat, spatten

8.43

PREPARATION OF METAL EDGES FOR VARIOUS THICKNESS AND

TECHNIQUES
The operations should now be able to produce to the making of welded joints, and it will
be well to consider first of all the methods of preparation of plate of various thickness
which is as listed below:

8.5

DISTORTION
This is term given to the deformation that occurs during welding which is either elastic or
plastic deformation caused by varying conditions of expansion and contraction, called
Residual Stresses.
Techniques Of Controlling Distortion: There are various ways of controlling the ample
effect that shall be discussed as follows:

8.6

STEP WELDING OR BACK SIDERING

This is often used to reduce distortion, in the method the line-welded metal is broken up
into short lengths, each length ending when the other began. This has the effect of
reducing the heat in any section of the plate, and it will be seen that in this way when the
finish of step 2 meets the beginning of step 1, we have expansion and contraction area
next to each other helping to neutralize each other effect as shown below:

30

Skip Welding: In this process a short length of weld is deposited in one part of the seam,
then the next length is done some distance away, keeping the sections as far away from
each other as possible, thus localizing the heat as shown below:

Pre-Heating: In the welding of cast iron with the blowpipe, pre-heating is always
necessary unless the casting is of simplest shape. The casting to be welded is heated into
its red-hot heat and the welding is then done at the state temperature.
Post-Heating: This is the heating of the welded cast iron and then controlling the rate of
cooling in a confined atmosphere the cooling is allowed to take place for 12, 24, or 36
hours, according to the size and shape of the cast.

31