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Show interrelationships between 3 types of rock; igneous, sedimentary & metamorphic rock, through internal and external processes. involve superficial processes such as weathering, transportation, and deposition; and internal processes such as magma generation and metamorphism. Plate movement is the mechanism responsible for recycling rock materials and therefore drives the rock cycle. Geologists recognize 3 major groups of rocks: 1. Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. 2. Each group contains a variety of individual rock types that differ from one another on the basis of composition or texture (the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains).
Rocks
ROCK IS AN AGGREGATE OF ONE OR MANY ROCK FORMING MINERALS THREE MAIN TYPES 1. IGNEOUS ROCKS 2. SEDEMENTARY ROCKS 3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS ROCKS AND SOILS ARE DESTROYED AND FORMED IN A CYCLIC PROCESS (ROCK CYCLE)
Rock-forming process
Crystallization
Example
Coarsely crystallized granite SEDIMENTARY Weathering and erosion of Exposed rocks Deposition, burial, and lithification Cross-bedded sandstone METAMORPHIC Rocks under high temperatures and pressures
Recrystallization neocrystallization
Gneiss
Also contain varying amounts of other elements like Na, K, Al, Ca, Mg, Fe, etc Dry magmas no volatiles Wet Magmas up to 15% volatiles Volatile content strongly effects the viscosity (ability to flow)
More volatiles, less viscous (easier to flow or more fluid)
Magma Movement
If magma did not move, no extrusive/volcanic rocks would ever have formed Magma rises because:
hotter and less dense than the surrounding rock and therefore buoyantly rises. the weight of the overlying rock (lithostatic pressure) literally squeezes the magma out.
Analogy: Think of stepping on a tube of toothpaste to force it out, or mud squishing through your toes when you step in a puddle
Volatiles: A substance that can easily change into a gas at relatively low temperatures (H2O, CO2, etc). The addition of volatiles at depth (mainly H2O) seeps into rocks and helps break bonds (aids in melting).
The order of crystal formation from magma as cooling occurs (how igneous rocks formed)
My question?...
Why do igneous rocks (volcanic & Plutonic) exhibit different types of composition? How does a single magma source produce chemically different types of igneous rocks?
Discontinuous series (different minerals form) and Continuous series (Plagioclase only) So, a melt gets less mafic as it cools; In heating, the first minerals to melt are felsic.
Explanation!
Bowen reaction series can describes why different rocks are formed which depend on the composition of magma itself, where cooling process is happen and also the rate of cooling. As magma cools, minerals crystals grow larger and some of them settle. The crystals that remain suspended in the liquid react with the remaining melt to form a new mineral at a lower temperature. The process continues until the entire body of melt is solidified. It can be classified into 2 groups: 1. Discontinuous Ferromagnesium reaction series which; Minerals formed are having different chemical composition and crystalline structure
2. Continuous Plagioclase feldspar reaction series which; Minerals formed are having different chemical compositions but similar crystalline structures
Magma
Some magma that never makes it to the surface solidifies relatively slowly because it takes it a long time to cool inside the hot Earth.
INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS -coarse grained
OR
Most commonly magma spills are from a volcanic eruption. As the magma moves quickly from the super-hot conditions of Earth's interior to the much cooler environment at the surface, it cools and solidifies rapidly.
Igneous Rocks
Also can be classified according to their mineral content. FELSIC or acidic MAFIC or basic
Hawaii
Cascades NW USA
Tabular intrusions: Dike, Sill, Laccolith (pseudo-tabular, or sheet-like) Non-tabular intrusions: Pluton, Batholith, Stock
Laccoliths
Laccolith: a dome-like sill that bends the layers above it into a dome shape
Batholith: A pluton that is 100 km2 in surface exposure Stock: A pluton that is <100 km2 in surface exposure
Effects of Intrusions
Dikes form in regions of crustal stretching Sills may cause uplift at the surface of the Earth
Effects of Intrusions
Dikes form in regions of crustal stretching Sills may cause uplift at the surface of the Earth
Effects of Intrusions
Plutons disrupt the surrounding layers of rock and may cause crustal stretching above Plutons grow by stoping: opening cracks and assimilating xenolithic blocks in the melt
OBSIDIAN (VOLCANIC)
COARSE GRAINED
Undergo LITHIFICATION
Sedimentary rocks
The process by which sediments become compacted and cemented together into a sedimentary rock.
Batu Cave
Chemical Weathering
Liquid Drain-O Highly weathered sandstone in Bryce Canyon N.P., UT
1) Erosion mobilizes particles by weathering, most commonly by rainfall & gravity. 2) Transportation Occurs when currents of wind, water, and moving ice (glaciers) transport particles to new locations (downhill or downstream) 3) Deposition sediment is deposited when the transporting current slows to the point that it can no longer carry its load. 4) Burial As layers of sediment accumulate, the layers accumulate in sedimentary basins. Older, previously deposited sediments are compacted. These layers remain at depth until either erosion or tectonic processes act on them. 5) Diagenesis & Lithification Refers to the physical and chemical changes that lithify sediment into rock. Includes pressure, heat and chemical reactions
Form from broken pieces of rock sediments deposited from the remains of plants and animals
Organic Sediments
Chemical Sediments
Glacier
NAMES OF SEDIMENTS
NAME OF SEDIMENT
ALLUVIUM (ALLUVIAL) AEOLINE (WIND) LACUSTRINE (LAGOONAL) GLACIAL COLLUVIUM LITTORAL SHALLOW SEA SEDIMENT DEEP SEA SEDIMENTS
DEPOSITION ENVIRONMENT
RIVER (FLUVIAL) DESERT OR COAST LAKE POLAR/MOUNTANEOUS GRAVITY FALLS/LANDSLIDES MARINE/COASTAL AND DELTAS MARINE SHALLOW SEA MARINE DEEP SEA
CLASTIC
Detrital sediments form rocks Eg: Shale, Sandstone, Conglomerate organic and chemical sediments Eg: Limestone, Coal
NONCLASTIC
3- Deposition
4- Burial 5- Lithification and Diagenesis
(compaction+cementation)
Rounded grains
Angular grains
Conglomerate
Breccia
Mostly grains of Sandstone quartz, feldspar, rock Subgroups are named fragments or mixed according to features with much silt and clay
Nonfissile (compact)
Siltstone
Shale
Claystone Shale
All sizes
Commonly altered from limestone Crystalline or Layers, lenses, amorphous nodules All sizes Crystals deposited as inorganic chemical precipitates All sizes or dense with Black and non-porous conchoidal fracture
CONGLOMERATE (CLASTIC)
Conglomerate could be thought of as a giant sandstone, containing grains of pebble size (greater than 4 mm) and cobble size (>64 mm).
SHALE (NON-CLASTIC)
Shale is a claystone that is fissile, splitting in layers. Shale is usually soft and does not crop out unless harder rock protects it.
Metamorphic rocks
produced when sedimentary or igneous rocks are transformed by heat and/or pressure. Metamorphic rocks are either foliated or nonfoliated. These extreme conditions are only present deep inside the Earth. E.g. Marble, Slate, Quartzite, Schist, Gneiss
A foliated Outcrop
of Gneiss
Recrystalization changes the shape and size of grains, but the same mineral remains. E.g. Sandstone may recystallize into quartzite. See (a) Phase Change When a mineral keeps the same composition but the atoms arrange into a new form (polymorph). E.g. quartz (SiO2) may change to coesite (SiO2). Metamorphic reaction/neocrystallization The result of chemical processes that decompose minerals and produce new minerals. Happens through diffusion of atoms through solid crystals. Very slow process. See (b) Pressure Solution Mineral grains dissolve where their surfaces are in contact. Occurs when rock is squeezed in one direction more than the others, at low temps, and usually in the presence of water. Usually zig-zag shaped and common in carbonates. See (c) Plastic Deformation At high temps, minerals can behave like soft plastic and become squished or stretched. Takes place without forming cracks and without changing the composition of the minerals. See (d)
3. 4.
FOLIATED
the minerals have been flattened and pushed down into parallel layers. Eg: Slate, Schist, Gneiss do not display layers. Eg: Quartzite, Marble
NONFOLIATED
Foliation
Foliation The repetition of planar surfaces or layers in a metamorphic rock. Layers can be paper-thin or meters thick.
Happens because when rocks are subjected to differential stress, platy minerals align or alternating light and dark layers form, giving the rock a planar fabric, called foliation. Note that this is different than bedding.
Slate, a foliated metamorphic rock makes nice roof shingles because its foliation creates cleavage planes that easily break
COARSE
FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROKS ROCK NAME TEXTURE SLATE SLATY CLEVAGE PHYLITE PHYLLITIC SCHIST PARALLEL ARRANGEMENT OF PLATY MINERAL GRAINS GNEISS COLOUR BANDING DUE TO ALTERNATING LAYERS OF DIFFERENT MINERALS
NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS ARE MANY. EG. QUARTZITE, CONGLOMERATE, AMPHIBOLITE, HORNFELS, MARBLE, GRAPHITE ETC.
SLATE
Heating within Earths interior results in convection cells that power the movement of plates, and also magma, which forms intrusive and extrusive igneous rock. Movement along plate boundaries may result in volcanic activity, earthquake and in some cases mountain building. The interaction between atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere contributes to the weathering of rocks exposed on Earths surface. Plates descending back into Earths interior are subjected to increasing heat and pressure, which may lead to metamorphism as well as generation of magma and yet another recycling of materials.
References
1. Harwant Singh Bujang Kim Huat, Basic Eng Geology for Tropical Terrain 2. http://www.beyondbooks.com 3. http://www.classzone.com 4. http://www.appstate.edu
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