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Grid Connected Photovoltaic Generation Grid Connected Photovoltaic Generation
Plants. Components and Plants. Components and Operation Operation

IE Tech News
November 2013
Plants. Components and Plants. Components and Operation Operation
Enrique Romero-Cadaval
University of Extremadura, Spain
Giovanni Spagnuolo
University of Salerno, Italy
Leopoldo G. Franquelo
University of Sevilla, Spain
Carlos-Andrs Ramos-Paja
Universidad Nacional de Colombia
Teuvo Suntio
Tampere University of Technology, Finland
Weidong-Michael Xiao
Masdar Institute of Science and Technology, UAE
1
Introduction Introduction
Cost (in US dollars) per watt
produce in photovoltaic plants has
decreased from 1.5$/W in 2009 to
0.6$/W in 2013 and this decreasing
tendency will continue
Grid Connected Photovoltaic Generation Plants. Components and Operation November 2013, IE Tech News
2
Therefore, the power generation of grid-
connected PV plants is increasing
continuously all over the world reaching
values of hundreds of megawatts
Components Components and Operation and Operation
I. PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS AND ASSOCIATIONS
Simulation models that can be used for testing and evaluating the performance
of the electronic converter control algorithms and to analyze the main problem
related with associated PV cells that electronic converters have to solve, the
mismatching effect mainly due to shadowing.
II. STRUCTURE AND TOPOLOGIES OF GRID-CONNECTED PV
SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS
Topologies used in the PV power processing system, as well as discusses their
advantages and drawbacks.
III.MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING SYSTEM
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) system is a basic and main part of the
control algorithm. Distributed MPPT that tries to improve the energy generation
coping with the mismatching effect.
IV.GRID CONNECTION
Issues related to the operation of these plants from the point of view of their
smart integration into the grid are analyzed, especially as far as synchronization,
protection and integration.
3
( )
( )
1
s
q V IR
s KTA
ph s
sh
V IR
I I I e
R
+ | |
|
\
(
+
=
(
(

Single-diode model (SDM):
( )
( ) ( )
s s
q V IR q V IR
V IR
| | | | + +
| |
( (
+
I. PHOTOVOLTAIC I. PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS AND ASSOCIATIONS CELLS AND ASSOCIATIONS
Conventional Equivalent Circuits of Photovoltaic Cells Conventional Equivalent Circuits of Photovoltaic Cells
( )
1 2
( ) ( )
1 2
1 1
s s
q V IR q V IR
KTA KTA s
ph s s
sh
V IR
I I I e I e
R
| | | | + +
| |
\ \
( (
+
( (
=
( (

Double-diode model (DDM):
I
ph
is the photon current; Rs is the series resistance; R
sh
is the shunt resistance;
q, K, and T and Ns are the electron charge, Boltzmann constant and cell temperature, respectively
For the SDM, the ideality factor and diode saturation current are symbolized by A and I
s
, respectively.
For DDM, the symbols of A
1
, A
2
, I
s1
and I
s2
represent the ideality factor and diode saturation current
since two diodes are applied.
Due to the modeling complexity and high computational burden, the DDM approach is not as
popularly utilized as the SDM.
4
( )
1
s
q V IR
KTA
ph s
I I I e
+ | |
|
\
(
=
(
(

Simplified Single-diode model #1 (SSDM1):

I
Iph
Rsh
+
-
V
SSDM1: Rsh = SSDM2: Rs = 0 ISDM: Rs = 0 and Rsh =
Simplified Simplified Equivalent Circuits of Photovoltaic Equivalent Circuits of Photovoltaic Cells Cells
Simplification objective:
Parameters can be directly identified by using product datasheets;
Efficient model is recommended for simulating complex grid-tied systems,
real-time applications and long term simulations.
Simplified Single-diode model #2 (SSDM2): 1
qV
KTA
ph s
sh
V
I I I e
R
| |
|
\
(
=
(
(

Ideal Single-diode model (ISDM):
1
qV
KTA
ph s
I I I e
| |
|
\
(
=
(
(

5
Step 1: Parameterization of SDM, SSDM, or ISDM
At Standard Test Condition (STC), identifying the parameters of the series resistance, the
shunt resistance, the ideality factor, the photon current, and the diode saturation current based
on PV cell specification or measured data sets.
Step 2: Constructing model for Simulation
Assuming the series resistance, the shunt resistance, and the ideality factor are constant, the
photon current and the diode saturation current should be constructed by the functions in
terms of solar irradiance and cell temperature.
Modeling Modeling and Simulating Photovoltaic Cells, Module, String, or and Simulating Photovoltaic Cells, Module, String, or Array Array
terms of solar irradiance and cell temperature.
Assuming all cells are under uniform solar irradiance and same temperature, the single cell
model can be aggregated to any size of PV array by using the number of cells in series
connection and/or parallel connection.
For code-based simulation, a flowchart should be constructed to reflect the variation of solar
irradiance, cell temperature, and the interaction between PV voltage and current.
For circuit-based simulation, such as, the SimPowerSystems for Simulink, PSIM, PSPICE,
and PSCAD etc., a block-diagram model should be constructed to support DC terminal
outputs.
6
Ia
+
V1
-
+
I2
+
V2
-
+
+
Va
+
VDS1
-
+
VDS2
-
D1 D2
I1
Bypass diode Blocking diode
Current and power curves in
mismatched conditions
The The bypass diode bypass diode activation activation
Bypass diodes are placed in antiparallel with PV modules.
If a module has lower current (e.g. due to shading) with respect to array current, the
associated bypass diode provides an alterative path for the current in excess.
In the example above, D
3
is activate for V
3
< 10.5 V.
Multiple peaks are generated in the power vs. voltage profile of the array.
The activation voltage of a bypass diode produces an inflection point in the power.
+
V3
-
+
V4
-
-
D3 D4
7
+
V1
-
+
V3
+
V2
-
+
V4
+
Va
+
VDS1
-
+
VDS2
-
D1 D2
D3 D4
+
V1
-
+
V2
-
+
V4
+
Va
+
VDS1
-
+
VDS2
-
D1 D2
D4
D
3
active
Changes Changes in the array structure due to bypass in the array structure due to bypass diodes diodes
- -
-
+
V1
-
+
V2
-
+
Va
-
+
VDS1
-
+
VDS2
-
D1 D2
-
-
An active bypass diode short-circuits
the associated PV module.
Active bypass diodes change the
electrical structure of the array.
The bypass diodes must be included
in the array model to provide mode
accurate predictions.
Uniform conditions D
3
and D
4
active
8
Step 1: Calculate the voltage of each inflection points:
Calculate the voltage V
k
of the module k in which the module current I
k
is equal to the
array current. In such a voltage the associated bypass diode D
k
becomes active.
Calculate the voltage of the modules with bypass diodes inactive.
The voltage of the inflection point k corresponds to the sum of all the modules voltages.
Step 2: Define the array structure:
For PV array voltages Va < Vk the bypass diode k is active. Hence, the associated module
Introducing Introducing the bypass diodes in the array the bypass diodes in the array model model
For PV array voltages Va < Vk the bypass diode k is active. Hence, the associated module
k is short-circuited (it does not produce power) and it is removed from the model.
Calculate the voltage of each module solving the system formed by the N-1 equations ik
= ik-1 and V1+V2++Vk+VN = Va, where N represents the active modules.
Step 3: Calculate the array current and power:
Calculate the module current ik (also the string current) from the module voltage Vk.
Calculate the array current by adding all the string currents.
Calculate the array power.
9
Overestimation
of 23% energy
Performance Performance of the model including the bypass of the model including the bypass diodes diodes
Disregarding the mismatching conditions (classical model) could produce significant
errors in the power estimation, e.g. black trace.
Improving the classical model by averaging the irradiance of all the modules produce
more accurate results, but it still introduce significant errors, e.g. red traces.
The model introducing the bypass diodes produces accurate results, where each
mismatched condition produces a particular electrical model for the PV array.
10
Centralized configuration.
A high number of PV panels
are connected in series-
parallel configuration (array).
Each string has a blocking
diode to prevent the energy
reversion.
String configuration.
It is a simplified version of the
centralized configuration,
where each string is connected
to one DC/AC converter.
II. STRUCTURE II. STRUCTURE AND TOPOLOGIES OF GRID AND TOPOLOGIES OF GRID--CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS
Common Photovoltaic Configurations (I) Common Photovoltaic Configurations (I)
where each string is connected
to one DC/AC converter.
Multi-string configuration.
It is an evolution of the string
configuration that unites the
advantages of string and
centralized configurations.
Each DC/DC converter
implements the Maximum
Power Point (MPP) Tracking
(MPPT) for the string.
11
AC modules. In this
configuration.
Each PV module incorporates
a DC/AC converter that
implements an Automatic
Control that performs the
MPPT control at module level.
Modular configuration.
It is based on a modular
II. STRUCTURE II. STRUCTURE AND TOPOLOGIES OF GRID AND TOPOLOGIES OF GRID--CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS
Common Photovoltaic Configurations (II) Common Photovoltaic Configurations (II)
It is based on a modular
design, with conventional
DC/DC and DC/AC converters
sharing a common DC bus.
12
II. STRUCTURE AND TOPOLOGIES OF GRID II. STRUCTURE AND TOPOLOGIES OF GRID--CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS
Classification of topologies for grid Classification of topologies for grid- -connected PV systems (I) connected PV systems (I)
With DC/DC converter
With isolation
High Frecuency Transformer (T1)
LowFrecuency Transformer (T2)
Without isolation (T3)
T1
13
T3
T2
Classification of topologies for grid Classification of topologies for grid- -connected PV systems (II) connected PV systems (II)
Without DC/DC converter
With isolation (T4)
Without isolation (T5)
T4
14
T5
Classification of topologies for grid Classification of topologies for grid- -connected PV systems (III) connected PV systems (III)
15
It is mandatory in order to extract the maximum power from the PV source
regardless of its actual operating conditions (irradiance, temperature, cells
health,)
III. MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING SYSTEM III. MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING SYSTEM
Maximum Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Implementation ) Implementation
The MPPT operation can be implemented by means of a DC/DC converter in
different ways: by acting on the duty cycle value (a) or on a reference signal (b).
The output power can be observed instead of the input one (c).
The MPPT operation usually acts on the PV voltage because of its logarithmic
dependence on the irradiance level.
16
a b c
The noise at a frequency that is the double of the grid one is the main cause of
worsening of the MPPT efficiency, that is the capacity of the MPPT algorithm to
keep the operating point close to the maximum power point at every time instant.
The noise, at different frequencies, occurs also in stand alone systems.
Endogenous Endogenous disturbances affecting the MPPT disturbances affecting the MPPT efficiency efficiency
Some solutions have been proposed in literature. One possibility is to apply the
MPPT technique to the reference voltage of a suitably designed closed loop dc/dc
converter.
17
Classical perturbative methods are able to perform a local optimization of the PV
power, thus not ensuring that the absolute MPP of the multi-modal PV characteristic
resulting from the mismatched operation is tracked.
Some real time global optimization methods have been presented in literature, but
they are usually very complicated.
The leading companies operating in the field have preferred to offer the possibility of
doing a periodical sweep of the PV curve in order to discover where the absolute
maximum power point really is.
A frequent sweep analysis improves the power production in the day hours when a
shadow affects the PV array, but reduces the power the system is able to produce
The The MPPT efficiency in presence of partial MPPT efficiency in presence of partial shading shading
shadow affects the PV array, but reduces the power the system is able to produce
when it works in homogeneous conditions.
An alternative is the dynamical reconfiguration of the PV.
18
By providing each PV module or its submodules with a dedicated MPP-tracking
converter the power produced by the PV array in mismatched conditions
increases.
Such arrangements are known as distributed or granular MPP-tracking
schemes.
In literature some estimation of the increase in the energy harvested is
proposed. The module-integrated MPP-tracking can improve the energy capture
in shaded conditions by 16 % compared to string-based MPP tracking. If the
granularity is extended to cell level, the improvement could be as high as 30%.
Distributed Distributed MPPT: MPPT: DMPPT DMPPT
19
The PV module-integrated distributed MPP-tracking arrangement can use DC-
DC converters:
a) parallel-connected or
b) series-connected.
DMPPT architectures DMPPT architectures
20
a b
The operation of inverters when they are connected
to the grid, compared to inverters that operate in
isolated installations, needs the implementation of
additional functions, such as synchronization and
protection functions.
IV. IV. GRID CONNECTION GRID CONNECTION
Connection Connection to the grid to the grid
protection functions.
The energy storage function usually needed in
isolated PV installations, is not so important in grid-
connected systems. However, energy storage is
becoming more important nowadays for achieving
a smart integration into the grid, as a consequence
of increasing the nominal power of PV plants
21
Most inverters operate as current
sources injecting a current that is
sinusoidal and in phase with the grid
voltage, with a power factor equal or
very close to unity.
Synchronization Synchronization
22
It is required that the inverter
synchronizes with the fundamental
component of the grid voltage, even
in the cases when the grid voltage is
distorted or unbalanced, or even
when the grid frequency varies
The synchronization system has to
guarantee the required filtering with the
desired dynamic and steady responses.
It has to be also taken into account the
start-up time that the synchronization
system requires for being operative and
for the inverter to start to inject energy.
Several methods are used:
Zero Crossing Detector (ZCD),
Phase Locked Oscillator (PLO),
Based on Digital Fourier Transformer (DFT),
Synchronization methods used in PV systems Synchronization methods used in PV systems
Comparison of Synchronization methods
Based on Digital Fourier Transformer (DFT),
Adaptive Notch Filter (ANF),
Based on Kalman filters (KF),
Weighted Least Squares Estimation (WLSE),
Artificial Neural Network (ANN),
Usual Phase Locked Loop (PLL),
Enhanced PLL (EPLL),
Adaptive PLL (APLL),
Synchronous Reference Frame PLL (SRF-PLL),
Combining SRF-PLL with LPF (SRF-PLL LPF),
Moving Average Filter (SRF-PLL MAF),
DFT (SRF-PLL DFT)
Using symmetric components (SRF-PLL SC)
23
Most national and international grid codes, that
regulate the PV plants connected to the grid, require
having maximum and minimum voltage and
frequency protections. If the grid RMS voltage
and/or frequency are outside of the pre-defined
operating range, the PV plant has to be disconnected
Protections Protections
operating range, the PV plant has to be disconnected
from the grid.
Another protection that is commonly implemented
in grid-connected inverters is the anti-islanding
protection, which prevents the inverter from
continuing to work when the grid is not energized
(due to a fault or a maintenance activity in the
electrical system).
24
Anti Anti- -Islanding protection Islanding protection
There are multiple methods that try to detect the absence of grid voltage and they can
be classified in two main groups:
local, implemented at inverter level, that could be passive, active or hybrid;
remote, implemented at grid level or based in communication systems.
The most relevant anti-islanding methods are:
Reactive Power Variation
(RPV),
Active Frequency Shift (AFS),
Slip-Mode frequency Shift
(SMS),
Active Frequency Drift with
25
Positive Feedback (AFDPF,
Sandia Frequency Shift),
Pulsating Chopping Factor
(AFDPC),
General Electric Frequency
Scheme (GEFS),
Grid Impedance Estimation by
Harmonic Injection (GIEHI),
Grid Impedance Estimation
using External Switched
Capacitors (GIEESC),
Based on Communication
Systems (BCS).
Several regulations (grid codes) have been established to avoid
problems of connecting a large number of PV installations into
the grid, due to their unmanageable behavior, to the injection
of current harmonics and to its operation under abnormal grid
states.
Some of the existing regulations related to harmonic injection,
could equally be applied to PV installations (for example, IEC
61000 or IEEE Std 519-1992).
Another major issue, when connecting photovoltaic installations
Other grid integration issues Other grid integration issues
Another major issue, when connecting photovoltaic installations
to the grid, is related to the ability to control reactive power in
both transient (under abnormal situations) and steady
conditions.
The association of Energy Storage Systems (ESS) with PV
installations is also a key factor to be solved in the future. The
strategies to determine charge and discharge the energy, taking
into account the prices of produced and consumed energy, as
well as the ESS size optimization, are known as Smart Energy
Storage.
26
Photovoltaic power processing plants connected to the grid are
increasing both in the number of installations and also in the rated
power of each plant.
There are different techniques and architecture that can reduce the effects
of control problems related to the non uniform operation of the
modules the PV array is made of. Some solutions to these problems are
related to the structure of the array itself and involve the use of block and
bypass diodes, and others are related to how to apply the MPPT algorithm,
covering distributed control and its integration in dedicated DC/DC
converter.
Conclusions Conclusions
converter.
The different single-stage and multiple-stage conversion topologies
proposed in recent literature can be compared in terms of their main
issues related to the grid connection, determining their pros and cons.
It has to be determined the synchronization, power (active and
reactive) control and protection functions that the inverter has to
implement to achieve a smart integration into the grid, taking into account
their main characteristics.
In the near future, Industrial Electronic Researchers will have to solve the
emerging problems associated with Smart Grids, as for example, the ones
related to control of multiple distributed generation plants integrated
within the houses, and to develop Smart Energy Storage systems.
27
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29
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These slides are made by authors to help readers quick and better These slides are made by authors to help readers quick and better
understanding of the subject. The opinions made or information presented understanding of the subject. The opinions made or information presented
here belong to the sole responsibility of the authors. here belong to the sole responsibility of the authors.
30
IE Tech News IE Tech News ((ITeN ITeN) neither endorses nor denounces any opinions made or ) neither endorses nor denounces any opinions made or
information presented. Part or full of these material may be used only with information presented. Part or full of these material may be used only with
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Plants. Components and Plants. Components and Operation Operation

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