Hbsc3203 Chemistry II Full Version Reading Brick

READING BRICK
HBSC3203 CHEMISTRY II
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Table of Content
Reading List TOPIC 1 : TOPIC 2 : TOPIC 3 : TOPIC 4 : Appendix 1 Appendix 2 TOPIC 5 : TOPIC 6 : TOPIC 7 : Appendix 3 Appendix 4 TOPIC 8 : NATURAL MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED OR MANMADE MATERIALS 275 SPEED OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS . 137 HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS I . HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS II 172 238 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US METALS ............................................................................ ELECTROLYSIS... OXIDATION AND REDUCTION i 1 41 66 85
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READING LIST FOR HBSC3203 CHEMISTRY II TOPIC 1: THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US TOPIC 2: METALS TOPIC 3: ELECTROLYSIS TOPIC 4: OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
Rao, C. N. R.. Understanding Chemistry. World Scientific Publishing Co.,
TOPIC 5: SPEED OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS TOPIC 6: HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS I TOPIC 7: HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS II
Whitten, K.W., Davis, R.E.,Peck,M.L and Stanley, GG. (2008). Chemistry (Ninth Edition). 2010 Brooks/Cole.
TOPIC 8: NATURAL MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED OR MAN MADE MATERIALS
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TOPIC 1: THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US
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Topic1
TheAirand
Resources AroundUs
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Describe the composition of air; 2. Explain the percentage of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air; 3. Examine the properties of oxygen and carbon dioxide using water and sodium hydroxide; 4. Discuss the importance of oxygen in respiration and combustion; 5. Describe air pollution, its sources, effects, and steps to control and prevent air pollution; 6. Examine the different resources on earth and their importance; and 7. Describe the agencies involved in environmental protection and their approach.
TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US
INTRODUCTION
Do you know this song? If you are not familiar with it, this lovely song was sung by Jordin Sparks, the 2007 American Idol winner. The lyrics describe how important it is to have someone that you care around you, as important as it is to have air around you. Air is all around us, wherever we are. We know that even though we cannot see it. In fact, there is a huge layer of air surrounding the earth. We call this the atmosphere. We use the air in the atmosphere for a lot of things. Breathing is one of them. Can you name other uses? Have you ever flown a kite or seen anyone doing so? How does the kite manage to sway in the sky? The reason is there is air which maintains the kites position. The moving air makes it possible to fly a kite. We will discuss the air further as we study the composition of air and the properties of oxygen and carbon dioxide. ACTIVITY 1.1 Tilt the mouth of an empty bottle in a basin of water. Answer the following: (a) Do you see bubbles coming out of the bottle? (b) Do you hear any bubble sound? (c) Can you guess what is in the bottle?
1.1
COMPOSITION OF AIR
Before we learn about the composition of air, let us do this activity. Put out your hand in front of your face and breathe in deeply. Then, gently blow outward towards your fingers. What do you feel? Do your fingers feel cool and tingly? I am sure you felt something blowing past your fingertips. This is commonly referred to as the air. Our earth is surrounded by a thick layer of air which we call atmosphere. The air is held around the earth by the force of gravity. This gravity pulls the gas particles towards the earth. Do you know the composition of the air that we breathe in? In ancient times, people thought that air was only one substance. Now, we know that the air is actually a mixture of gases. These gases are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and inert gases. The inert gases in the air include argon, neon, helium, krypton, xenon and methane. Let us look at Table 1.1, which illustrates the composition of air. Table 1.1: Composition of Air Name Nitrogen Oxygen Argon Carbon Dioxide Neon Helium Methane Krypton Hydrogen Xenon Symbol N2 O2 Ar CO2 Ne He CH4 Kr H2 Xe Per Cent by Volume 78.084% 20.9476% 0.934% 0.0351% 0.001818% 0.000524% 0.0002% 0.000114% 0.00005% 0.0000087%
Source: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
ACTIVITY 1.2
Try these activities to show your students that there is air around us. (a) Ask two students to run along the corridor. (b) Next, ask them to run again along the same Corridor, holding a large sheet of card in front of them. So, which was easier running with the card or without it? Ask your students to explain.
1.2
PERCENTAGE OF GASES IN THE AIR
What are the characteristics of air? Air is colourless, tasteless and odourless. Air supplies the oxygen necessary for life. Air is also a mixture of gases nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. Do you know that the most abundant gases found in our atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen? This is true as nitrogen makes up around 78% of the total atmosphere, oxygen 21% and carbon dioxide 0.035%. This means when you inhale, you breathe in 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% argon, with trace amounts of other gases, such as methane, hydrogen, helium, neon, krypton and carbon dioxide. These percentages of gases are shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Composition of our atmosphere
However, this does not mean nitrogen will keep on increasing in the atmosphere. It is constantly being removed or cleansed from the atmosphere. A small amount of nitrogen is removed by living organisms. Rain and snow also wash nitrogen out of the atmosphere. As we learnt before, plants consume carbon dioxide. Plants use carbon dioxide in the air for photosynthesis and release oxygen during the process. This oxygen is later removed from the air by animals and other life forms. Oxygen is the most important gas in our atmosphere due to its strong relation with human and animal life. Without it, each of us, and most of the animals on earth would perish in a matter of minutes. Now, let us conduct an experiment to find out how much oxygen is in the air. The following is an experiment to find the
percentage of oxygen in the air.

Experiment1.1 Objective: To find out how much oxygen is in the air. Procedure: Start by pushing in completely one gas syringe. Heat up the copper turnings strongly. As they are heated, air is passed over them by pushing in one syringe first and then the other. As the reaction happens, you will notice the copper turnings becoming black. This is because they have reacted with the oxygen from the air. What do you think is the name of this black compound? Continue heating until no more copper turnings turns black and the amount of air in the syringes stays the same. Result:
You will find that the amount of air left in the syringes at the end is 79cm3. How much air has been used up? You will find that this is the amount of oxygen in 100cm3 of air. As you can see, nearly one-fifth of the air is filled with oxygen. Next, let us do an activity to calculate the exact percentage of oxygen in the air. Let us start!
ACTIVITY 1.3
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Air is a mixture of gases. State two reasons to support this statement. 2. State the percentage of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air.
1.3 PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE

We know that oxygen and carbon dioxide are two of the most important gases in the air. The amount of carbon dioxide is very small, about three parts in ten thousand. However, oxygen comprises 20.94% of the air. We are now going to look into the properties of oxygen and carbon dioxide. We will look into three matters: (a) Their solubility in water; (b) Their reactions with sodium hydroxide; and (c) The tests for oxygen and carbon dioxide. Before we discuss further, let us look at the general properties of oxygen and carbon dioxide first (Table 1.2). Table 1.2: Seven General Properties of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Properties Features Solubility in water Solubility in sodium hydroxide solution Solubility in alkaline pyrogallol solution Lime water reaction Combustion pH Carbon Dioxide Colourless and odourless More soluble than oxygen Very soluble Not soluble Turns cloudy Does not support and does not burn Acidic Oxygen Colourless and odourless Slightly soluble Not soluble Soluble No effect Supports but does not burn Neutral
1.3.1
Solublity in Water
We have just learnt the properties of oxygen and carbon dioxide in Table 1.2. Now, let us look at the difference of solubility of these gases by doing Experiment 1.2. Experiment 1.2 Objective: To show the solubility of oxygen and carbon dioxide in water. Procedure:
Invert two test tubes containing oxygen and carbon dioxide in a beaker of water. Watch the rise in the water level. What can you conclude about this experiment?
Result:
You will notice that in the test tube containing oxygen, a little water enters the test tube (Figure a). This shows that oxygen dissolves slightly in water. However, in the test tube containing carbon dioxide, more water enters the test tube (Figure b). This shows that carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen.
(a)
(b)
1.3.2
Reaction with Sodium Hydroxide
What are the reactions of oxygen and carbon dioxide with sodium hydroxide? Let us find out by doing Experiment 1.3. Experiment 1.3 Objective: To show the reactions of oxygen and carbon dioxide to sodium hydroxide. Procedure: Invert a test tube of oxygen into abeaker of sodium hydroxide solution (Figurea). Removethestopperandshakethetesttubegently. Observetheflowofsodiumhydroxidesolutionintothetesttube. Repeattheexperimentusingatesttubecontainingcarbondioxide(Figureb).
(a) (b) Result: Sodium hydroxide solution does not rise in the test tube containing oxygen. This shows that oxygen is not soluble in sodium hydroxide solution. Sodium hydroxide solution rises rapidly in the test tube containing carbon dioxide. This indicates that carbon dioxide is very soluble in sodium hydroxide solution.
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1.3.3
Tests for Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
We can test the presence of oxygen by testing it with a burning splinter. As for carbon dioxide, we will test it with lime water. Look at Experiments 1.4 and 1.5 on how to conduct these tests. Experiment 1.4 Objective: To test the presence of oxygen. Procedure: Light up a burning splinter. Insert the burning splinter into a test tube containing oxygen (Figure a). What can you see?
Burning splinter
(a)
(b)
Result You will see that the burning splinter will light up (Figure b). The splinter glows because oxygen supports combustion.
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Experiment 1.5 Objective: To test the presence of carbon dioxide. Procedure: Put lime water into a test tube that has been filled with carbon dioxide gas. Close the test tube with a cork. Shake the test tube for a while. What can you see after that?
Result:
The lime water will turn cloudy in the presence of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide reacts with lime water to form calcium carbonate, which is insoluble in water.
ACTIVITY 1.1 SELF- CHECK 1.2
Look at the diagram.
1. Which candle in the diagram takes a longer time to extinguish? 2. What conclusion can you arrive at from this observation?
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1.4
IMPORTANCE OF OXYGEN
As mentioned earlier, oxygen is a basic element in life. How about its features? It is colourless, highly reactive and is said to come from water vapour. It turns into a bluish liquid at a temperature of -183C. We are aware that oxygen plays an important role in our lives. Can you name some of its uses? It is used for breathing, decomposition of organic wastes, the support of aquatic life in the form of oxygen dissolved by water and creation of energy in living cells.
1.4.1
Respiration
Why do you think oxygen is needed in respiration? Let us find out! All organisms require energy to carry out all living processes such as growth, reproduction, response, movement, breathing, digestion and excretion. Energy is stored in the form of chemical energy in organic substances such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. It needs to be converted into a form of energy which can be readily used by cells. This calls for respiration as respiration is the chemical breakdown of food to release the energy which is essential for all living things. Do you know that respiration is divided into two stages? Let us look at what these two stages are as shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: Two stages of respiration
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Now, let us look at the definition of external respiration.
External respiration is a mechanical process of inhalation and exhalation of air through the respiratory system.
Can you imagine how this process works? Look at Figure 1.3. During breathing or external respiration, oxygen is inhaled and carbon dioxide is released
Figure 1.3: Breathing or external respiration How about internal respiration? Internal respiration occurs inside the cells and tissues of the body. Thus, it is often called cell respiration, or tissue respiration. To respire, we need a constant supply of oxygen. When this oxygen reaches the cells, it combines with glucose (a sugar which comes from food that has been converted). Energy is then released, together with waste products of carbon dioxide and water. Respiration, which uses oxygen, is called aerobic respiration. However, under certain circumstances, energy can be released from food without oxygen. This process is called anaerobic respiration.
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As a conclusion, we have learnt that the products of respiration are energy, carbon dioxide and water vapour (Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4: The products of cellular respiration This chemical reaction can be written as: C6H12O6 Glucose + 6O2 Oxygen 6CO2 + Carbon dioxide 6H2O Water + Energy
SELF-CHECK 6.1 SELF-CHECK 1.3
The following statements are false. Rewrite them to make them true. 1. Respiration and breathing are the same process. 2. Only animals carry out respiration. 3. Acrobatic respiration is the process where energy is made from sugar in the presence of oxygen. 4. The reactants used in respiration are water and carbon dioxide. 5. The only gas we breathe in is oxygen.
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1.4.2
Combustion
What is combustion? Let us look at what combustion stands for.
Combustion is the process of burning.

Here is a simple principle behind combustion. For combustion to occur, fuel, oxygen (air) and heat must be present together. In other words, combustion takes place when chemicals mix together and give off heat and light in the form of fire. For example, the charcoal in a barbecue grill burns because it mixes with oxygen in the air. In Figure 1.5, the fire goes out if the grill is closed because air cannot reach the coals. Figure 1.6 shows us materials containing
chemicals that burn easily when heated

Figure 1.5: Charcoal burning in a barbecue grill
Source: World Book Illustration
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Figure 1.6: Materials containing chemicals that burn easily Source: World Book Illustration
Now that you have understood what combustion is, let us carry out an experiment. What gas do you think is needed for combustion to occur? Yes, oxygen is needed for combustion. So, how do we conduct an experiment to show that oxygen is needed for combustion? Let us do Experiment 1.6.

Experiment 1.6 Objective: To show that oxygen is needed for combustion. Procedure: You need to do this experiment in pairs. Get two glass jars of different sizes. Light two candles and put each in a jar. Mount the candle on a thick cardboard. Then seal the jar to ensure that the supply of oxygen is cut off. Observe the flame.
Result: As the flames consume the oxygen in the jars, the flames will go out. The candle flame in the bigger jar (A) will burn out last. Can you explain what made the flame burn out? The flame uses up oxygen as it burns and when enough has been used up, the flame goes out.
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SELF-CHECK 1.4
1. Define combustion. 2. List three conditions necessary for combustion to occur.
1.5 AIR POLLUTION

Let us look at Figures 1.7 and 1.8. What do both pictures have in common?
Figure 1.7: Burning forest
Figure 1.8: Burning building
The trees and buildings are on fire. We call this process combustion. Can you name the products of combustion? In the pictures, you can see smoke, dirt and damage to trees and buildings. In fact, smoke and dust cause pollution to the environment. When we talk about air pollution, the images conjured in our minds would be those of smog, acid rain, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other forms of outdoor air pollution. However, pollution also happens inside our homes and other buildings. Every year, the health of many people is affected by chemical substances found in the air within buildings. Let us learn more about air pollution. In this subtopic, we will discuss the definition of air pollution, its sources and effects. We will then discuss the importance of clean air and how to keep the air clean in order to control and prevent further air pollution. Let us start the topic with Activity 1.4.
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ACTIVITY 1.4
Let us find out how dirty or clean the air in your classroom is. You will need three sheets of white paper or cardboard and petroleum jelly. This is how you do it: Smear one side of two sheets of paper with petroleum jelly. Put the sheets next to each other, with the smeared side up, on a windowsill and clamp the sheets in place with the closed window. Take in one of the sheets at the end of one week and see how dirty it looks (compare it to a clean sheet of paper). What can you conclude about this?
What is air pollution? Do you know that our earth is the only planet we know that has air and water? That is why (as far as we know) only earth can cater to living creatures. Without air and water, the earth would be unable to sustain life. We have a diverse community of plants and animals and they have thrived on this planet for millions of years, sustained by the sun and supported by the soil, water and air. We breathe in air which supplies us with oxygen. Oxygen is essential for our body systems to function. Air consists of 99.9% nitrogen, oxygen, water vapour and inert gases. Our activities can release substances into the air. Some of these substances can cause problems for humans, plants and animals. One of the problems is air pollution. How does it occur?
1.5.1
Sources of Air Pollution
Now, let us find out what the sources of air pollution are. As we learnt before, air pollution occurs when the air contains pollutants. Air pollutants are substances that are released into the environment. These substances are harmful to us and other living things. There are seven sources of air pollution as described in Table 1.3.
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Table 1.3: Seven Sources of Air Pollution
Source
1. Natural Sources 2. Industrial Activities
Description
There are many natural sources of air pollution such as eruption of volcanoes, biological decay and forest fires caused by lightning strikes. Our economy is mainly based on manufacturing (especially electronics), chemical and rubber industries. In order to increase output, industries increase their normal production. This leads to higher emissions of organic and inorganic gases, chemicals and dust. Different industries emit different pollutants. For example, the chemical industry releases emissions that contain many nitrogen and sulphur compounds while refineries discharge sulphur dioxide and hydrocarbons. The metal working industry is partially responsible for the emissions of sulphur dioxide and large amounts of toxic dust. Unplanned and uncontrolled development of industrial premises or zones leads to noise pollution and vibration disturbance. The use of conventional piling methods and the sound of exhaust fans in factories are some of the common activities that generate a high sound level. Modern societies rely heavily on motorised transportation such as cars, trucks and railways. Automobiles rely mostly on the burning of fossil fuels. They not only cause emissions of smoke and dust but are also responsible for the increase in noise. In 2004, nearly 14 million vehicles were registered in Malaysia, almost double the number from a decade earlier. The number will increase in the next few years due to higher disposable incomes, rural-urban migration and the lack of an efficient public transport system. Most of the energy produced in conventional power plants is by burning fossil fuels like natural gas, oil and coal. The burning of fossil fuels will result in the emission of smoke and dust. Households contribute to air pollution mainly through the use of energy that is required to run machines and electrical appliances such as refrigerators. Refrigerators and air conditioners not only consume energy but also pollute the environment when their coolant fluids release CFCs into the atmosphere. Chemicals used in houses and gardens are also sources of pollution as well as toxic waste. Some countries practise open burning of older plantations as a method for re-planting. This results in large amounts of soot particles. These soot particles can be blown over long distances and are mainly responsible for the haze that often covers the sky above Malaysia. These fires can also destroy the rich habitat of flora and fauna.
3. Development Activities
4. Motor Vehicles
5. Power Generation
6. Everyday Routines
7. Open Burning
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Do you realise that even our homes contribute to air pollutants? Find out the causes of air pollution from our homes (Figure 1.9) and the outdoors (Figure 1.10).
Figure 1.9: Air pollutants inside and outside a house
Figure 1.10: Outdoor air pollutants
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1.5.2
Effects of Air Pollution
There are thousands of air pollutants. However, we are going to focus only on a few pollutants, including their sources and effects on our health. Let us refer to Table 1.4.
Table 1.4: Pollutants, Their Sources and Effects on Human Health Pollutant Particles - Air Particle Index (API) Source Internal combustion engines (e.g. cars and trucks) Industry (e.g. factories) Burning wood Cigarette smoke Bush fires Motor vehicles are the biggest contributors Other combustion processes Human Health Effect Long-term exposure is linked to health problems such as Lung cancer Heart disease Lung disease Asthma attacks Exposure to high levels of NO2 may lead to: Lung damage Respiratory disease Asthma and respiratory problems Increased mortality Breathing difficulties Bronchitis Acid rain occurs when sulphur dioxide dissolves in rainwater Dizziness and headache Can cause death if a large amount is inhaled Affects childrens learning and development of their nervous system Affects almost every organ in the body, whether it is inhaled or ingested. Young children are particularly susceptible Pollutes the environment Slows down photosynthesis Damages respiratory system Can cause cancer
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
Sulphur Dioxide
Burning of coal and petroleum in factories and power-generating stations
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Lead (Pb)
Burning of hydrocarbon Exhaust gases from motor vehicles Cigarette smoke Vehicle exhaust fumes Other atmospheric sources of lead include waste incineration and renovation of old houses (from leaded paint) Burning of waste and fuels by factories Forest fires Cigarette smoke Smoke from vehicles exhaust
Smoke Soot Dust
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Carbon Dioxide Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
Burning of rubbish and fuels Aerosol cans, refrigerators, air conditioners
Causes greenhouse effect (increase in temperature on earth) Depletion of the ozone layer Diseases related to ozone layer depletion (e.g. cataract, skin cancer)
ACTIVITY 1.5
Ask your students to explain the effects of the following pollutants on our health: Transportation Factories Agricultural activities
Present the findings in class.

Air pollution has consequences to the environment. There are three main consequences of air pollution to the environment as presented in Table 1.5.
Table 1.5: Three Main Consequences of Air Pollution to the Environment Consequence Description Acid rain happens when sulphur and nitrogen pollution from industrial smokestacks combine with moisture in the atmosphere (see Figure 1.11). The resulting rain is acidic which destroys natural ecosystems and buildings.
Acidrain
Greenhouseeffect
The planets temperature increases as heat energy from sunlight is trapped by the gaseous atmosphere. Excess carbon dioxide and water vapour increase this global warming effect. The ozone in the ozone layer is destroyed due to the presence of chlorine from manmade CFCs and other forces. The layer is thinning because the ozone is destroyed faster than it is regenerated by natural forces.
Thinningoftheozonelayer
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Now, let us look at Figure 1.11, which shows the cycle of acid rain.
Figure 1.11: Acid rain cycle Source: www.newint.org
How about the greenhouse effect and depletion of ozone layer? Let us refer to Figures 1.12 and 1.13.
Figure 1.12: Greenhouse effect Source: www.coolmob.org
Figure 1.13: Depletion of ozone layer Source: www.scienceclarified.com
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SELF-CHECK 1.5
What causes the thinning of the ozone layer? What effects does it have on us? List five things we use in our everyday life which contribute to the thinning of the ozone layer.
1.5.3
Step to Prevent Air Pollution
In order to prevent or control air pollution, we have to keep the air clean. Let us look at the steps to keep the air clean. After discussing how important the air is to us and learning the effects of air pollution, let us think of the ways to keep the air clean. Remember, everybody has the power to make a difference to the quality of the air and environment. All of us, whether we realise it or not, contribute to air pollution in one way or another. In order to improve the quality of the air we breathe in, we must be aware of the activities that can contribute to pollution and take action against it. We can take action personally, at home or at school, or by doing something with others in the community. Now, what actions can we take to keep the air clean? Let us refer to Table 1.6.
Table 1.6: Ways to Keep the Air Clean
Way
Make a difference on the road
Make a difference at home
Walk or ride your bike instead of getting a lift in a car. Where possible, use public transport instead of riding in your parents car. When running errands, combine trips so that you do not use your car for single purpose trips. Drive wisely and do not idle. Save petrol by switching off the engine even when you are stationary for a while. Use non-ozone depleting refrigerant for your cars air conditioning system. Use unleaded petrol to reduce the amount of lead particles in the air. Use household and garden chemicals wisely. Avoid using CFC-based products. Be sure to read labels for proper use and disposal of products. If you purchase a new air conditioning system or heat pump, purchase one that uses a non-ozone depleting refrigerant. Practise wise waste management. Recycle aluminium cans, glass bottles, plastics, cardboards and newspapers. This will
Suggestion
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Industrial sectors can make a difference
reduce waste and conserve natural resources. Buy products made of recycled content. Stop practising open burning. Take part in tree-planting activities. Practise cleaner production technology. Use energy-saving products. Carry proper servicing and maintenance on equipment and machinery used. Stop open burning. Practice Zero Burning Technique (agricultural sector). Reduce the use of pesticides that are non-environmental friendly (agricultural sector).
Lastly, let us look at the steps needed to control and prevent air pollution. Preventing and controlling air pollution require the efforts of people from all walks of life. Previously, we mentioned what we and also industrial sectors can do to keep the air clean. Now, we will discuss the steps required by the relevant authorities to control and prevent air pollution. The steps are: (a) Implementation of law: Malaysia has implemented the Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974. This Act was enacted to prevent, abate, control pollution and enhance the quality of the environment. (b) Inspection and enforcement visits. These are carried out to industrial premises to ensure that industrial sectors comply with the Environmental Quality Act 1974. (c) Conducting roadside inspections on motor vehicles. (d) Conducting aerial and ground surveillance on pollution sources. (e) Daily monitoring of air quality. (f) Conducting awareness programmes to educate public on the need to protect the environment. Do you know that there is a simple way to measure the air pollution level? The simple way is the Air Pollution Index (API). This index describes the air pollution levels to provide timely information about air pollution to the public. Table 1.7 shows the API status indicator used in Malaysia.
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Table 1.7: Malaysian API Status Indicator
API 050 51100 101200 201300 301500 Above500
Status Good Moderate Unhealthy Veryunhealthy Hazardous Emergency visiting
You can get more on the daily readings of the API by http://www.doe.gov.my/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=188& Itemid=370&lang=en
ACTIVITY 1.6
Let us conduct an activity to reduce air pollution in your school. Hold a class discussion on air pollution. Discuss the main sources of air pollution in the school area. Suggest possible ways and activities to reduce air pollution in your school. Carry out the activities suggested.
SELF-CHECK 1.6
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What is air pollution? Name five air pollutants. List the pollutants which affect the environment. Describe one pollutant and what it does to the environment. Name three pollutants from a factor which affects a persons health. Why must we keep our air clean? How do we know the air is clean? Name two substances which can cause acid rain. State the effects of acid rain to our health.
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1.6 VARIETY OF RESOURCES ON EARTH
The Carson Fall in Mount Kinabalu, Malaysia is an example of undisturbed natural earths resource. Waterfalls provide spring water for humans, animals and plants for survival and also a habitat for hydro organisms. The water current can be used to turn turbines for hydroelectric generation. Figure 1.14: The Carson Fall in Mount Kinabalu Source: http:/ www. Google.wikipedia.com
1.6.1
Different Resources on Earth
Who need resources? Why do we need resouces? What types of resources do we have? Human beings, animals and plants need food, water, air and shelter in order to survive. The earth has the resources needed to sustain life. The resources are air, water, soil, minerals, fossil fuels and living things.
1.6.2
Important of Earths Resources
The earth is rich in natural resources that we use daily. These resources are any valuable material of geologic origin that can be extracted from the earth. It is nearly impossible to cease consuming natural or geologic resources altogether. Here are just a few examples of things you commonly use, but probably do not think about: A pencil uses zinc and copper (to make the brass), petroleum for the eraser, iron (in the machinery to make the pencil), pigments, clay and graphite. The only renewable resource in your pencil is the wood! Your jeans, although they may be almost all cotton, are usually blended with petroleum-based synthetic fibres to cut down on shrinking. Eye glasses and windows are made of quartz sand and petroleum. Dental fillings are made of mercury and silver. Videotapes are made of vinyl, iron and chromium.
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Please refer to Table 1.8 to learn more about the impotance of earths resources. Table 1.8: The Importance of Earths Resources Types of Earth Resources
Air
The Importance of Earths Resources

Air is needed by all living things to survive. The atmosphere is a layer of air that envelops the earth. Air is a mixture of gases. Air contains gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are two very important gases that support life on earth. a. Oxygen i. Used for respiration by living things ii. Used in combustion of materials iii. Used in industries iv. Released during photosynthesis. b. Carbon dioxide i. Used by green plants to carry out photosynthesis ii. Used in fire extinguishers iii. Released during respiration and combustion Water covers a total of about three quarters of the earth. The sources of water are oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, rainfall and ground water. Importance of water a. To animals/humans i. It provides a medium for chemical process and body metabolism; ii. It is the main component of the blood; iii. It transports nutrients to all cells in the body; iv. It carries excretory products to the kidneys for excretion; and v. It helps to control the body temperature. b. To plants i. It helps to maintain the turgidity of plant cells; ii. It is used in photosynthesis; iii. Need for the germination of seeds; iv. Dissolves minerals slats in the ground for absorption by the roots of plants; v. Helps to support aquatic plants; and vi. Cools down the plants (transpiration).
Water
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Soil
Soil refers to the outer layer of the earth. Soil contains mineral matter, organic matter, air and water. The soil organic matter includes: Organic litter such as fallen leaves, twigs, fruit, animal dropping, etc. Humus formed from the composition of organic litter. Microorganisms living in the soil. Air and water are found in pore spaces between the soil particles. The presence of air and water in the soil makes it a natural habitat for various types of plants and animals. Importance of soil: Source of minerals and fossil fuels; Source of clay for making pottery; Source of sand for making glass and cement; Base for agricultural activities; and Foundation for construction of houses, buildings, roads and other structures. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Flora and fauna (plants and animals) are also natural resources that sustain life. Plants and animals are resources needed by human beings. We can obtain food, fuel, materials for making clothes and building materials from plants and animals. Green plants can make their own food by carrying out photosynthesis. Animals are not able to make their own food. Some animals such as giraffes and elephants feed on plants. Some animals such as tigers and snakes feed on other animals. Aquatic plants and animals are also important resources for sustaining life. Minerals are inorganic substances found naturally on land and in seas or oceans. Examples of minerals are feldspar, quartz, iron, zinc, aluminium, tin, silver and gold. Some minerals such as aluminium and iron are mined because they can be used as raw materials in various industries.
Living Things
Mineral
i. ii.
iii.
There are two types of earths resources renewable and non-renewable resources. Earths resources that can be replaced and reused by nature are termed renewable. Natural resources that cannot be replaced are termed non-renewable. Renewable resources are replaced through natural processes at a rate that is equal to or greater than the rate at which they are used, and depletion is usually not a worry. Some common examples include: Air (wind); Fresh water; Soil;
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Living organisms (trees); and Sunlight.
Non-renewable resources are exhaustible and are extracted faster than the rate at which they formed. Some common examples are: Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas); Diamonds and other precious gems and minerals; and Types of metals and ores.
1.6.3
Preservation and Conservation of Earths Resources
With the increased use of virtually all natural earths resources, there is concern that resources will be exhausted and that others will not be able to use them in the future. Can you imagine a world without clean water, clean air, sustainable land or living oceans? Our natural resources exist in a delicate balance and are vulnerable to environmental changes. That is why it is important that we all do our part to conserve, preserve and care for the earths resources and protect the environment that sustains us with food, fuel, shelter and medicine. Because of the severe impact that we impose on the land, air, and water, preservation and conservation has become increasingly important. Let us check the meaning of preservation and conservation.
Preservation is to keep and maintain what you have
Conservation is to spend or use sparingly
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ACTIVITY 1.7
Discuss in a group of four to find out the meaning of preservation and conservation in terms of natural earths resources. Please visit the following websites to get more information. http://www.ecoca.ro/meteo/tutorial/Sustainability/Older/Conservation_and_Pre servation.html http://feelfriendly.com/information-preservation-conservation.html
1.6.4
Recycling of Materials
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

Figure 1.15: Reduce, Reuse and Recycle The symbol and the phrase above are very common. Do you know its meaning? Reduce Reuse Recycle : Do not use a resource if there is an alternative (walking versus driving). : Use a resource again without changing it or reprocessing it; use glassware as opposed to paper plates and Styrofoam. : Reprocess a resource so that the materials can be used in another item. People can recycle just about anything from cardboard to old shoes!
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SELF-CHECK 1.7
Please observe the picture given. Identify the materials that can be recycled.
1.7 WASTE PRODUCTS

Wastes are substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law Source: http://wikipedia.google.com
1.7.1
Sources and Types of Waste Products

Waste Products Solid Waste Medical Waste Hazardous Waste
Figure 1.16: Three types of waste Source: Von ( 2004) There are various sources of waste such as domestic sources, commercial sources, industrial sources, clinic or biomedical sources, mineral sources, agricultural sources and nuclear sources. Table 1.9 shows a breakdown of common waste types and its sources.
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Table 1.9: Common Sources and Types of Waste Products

Source Residential Typical Waste Generators Single and multi-family dwellings Types of Solid Wastes Food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, leather, yard wastes, wood, glass, metals, ashes, special wastes (e.g. bulky items, consumer electronics, white goods, batteries, oil, tyres), and household hazardous wastes Housekeeping wastes, packaging, food wastes, construction and demolition materials, hazardous wastes, ashes, special wastes Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, special wastes, hazardous wastes Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, special wastes, hazardous wastes Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc
Industrial
Commercial Institutional Construction and Demolition Municipal Services
Light and heavy manufacturing fabrication, construction sites, power and chemical plants Stores, hotels, restaurants, markets, office buildings, etc Schools, hospitals, prisons, government centres New construction sites, road repair, renovation sites, demolition of buildings Street cleaning, landscaping, parks, beaches , other recreational areas, water and wastewater treatment plants Heavy and light manufacturing, refineries, chemical plants, power plants, mineral extraction and processing Crops, orchards, vineyards, dairies, feedlots, farms
Street sweepings, landscape and tree trimmings, general wastes from parks, beaches, and other recreational areas, sludge Industrial process wastes, scrap materials, off specification products, slag, tailings Spoiled food wastes, agricultural wastes, hazardous wastes (e.g. pesticides)
Process
Agriculture
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1.7.2
Pollution Caused by Waste Products
Do you think why all the fish in Figure 1.17 were dead? Figure1.17:Deadfishcausedbywaterpollution
Source: Image Google.com
Many things can cause water pollution but most water pollution is caused by waste products from humans. Types of waste products that can pollute our water are sewage drainage into our water cycle, oil from vehicles, oil spills, fertilisers from crops. Rubbish dumps also can run into our water system when it rains. Figure 1.18: Water Pollution Source: http://google.image.com
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SELF-CHECK 1.8
Observe Figure 1.18. Identify the types of waste products that cause water pollution.
Do You Know? Waste products (Figure 1.19) also can cause land pollution and air pollution. Land pollution is caused by an excessive amount of trash going into our landfills. When too much trash is in our landfills, it can cause water pollution over time by getting in our water cycle. Another form of land pollution is littering.
Figure 1.19: Solid waste products Source: http://google.image.com
1.7.3
Environmental Protection
Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual, organisational or governmental levels, for the benefit of both the natural environment and humans. Discussion concerning environmental protection often focuses on the role of government, legislation and law enforcement. Protecting the environment is a responsibility of all people.
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(a) i.
Government Organisations Involvement Environmental Quality Act, 1974 (Act 127) An Act relating to the prevention, abatement, control of pollution and enhancement of the environment: Part IV Prohibition and control of pollution Section 22: Restrictions on pollution of the atmosphere Section 23: Restrictions on noise pollution Section 24: Restrictions on pollution of the soil Section 25: Restrictions on pollution of inland waters Section 27: Prohibition of discharge of oil into Malaysian waters Section 29: Prohibition of discharge of wastes into Malaysian waters Section 34: Report on impact on environment resulting from prescribed activities Incorporate Department of Environment (DOE) within the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (MOSTE) In charge with environmental administration Incorporate an environmental policy aimed at integrating environmental concerns into development planning. For example: The Seventh Malaysian Plan (1996-2000) states that the objectives of Malaysias national environmental policies are to achieve a clean, safe and healthy living environment for current and future generation and to promote lifestyles and modes of production and consumption consistent with the principles of sustainable development. Non-governmental Organisations Involvement Dissemination of environmental information through the Environmental Management and Research Association of Malaysia (ENSEARCH)
ii.
iii.
(b)
(c)
Environmental Education in the School Syllabus Environmental education will make our citizens aware of the environmental problems and equip us with knowledge to overcome the problems.
SELF-CHECK 1.9 Find out the involvement of international agencies in Malaysias environmental protection.
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The air is actually a mixture of gases. These gases are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and inert gases. The inert gases in the air include argon, neon, helium, krypton, xenon, methane and xenon. Under properties of oxygen and carbon dioxide, we look into three matters, namely, the solubility in water, reactions with sodium hydroxide and the tests for oxygen and carbon dioxide. Oxygen plays an important role in our lives. We use oxygen for breathing, decomposition of organic wastes, supporting aquatic life in the form of oxygen dissolved by water and creation of energy in living cells. Air pollution affects our health and the environment. Air pollution occurs whentheaircontainsgases,dust,fumesorodourinharmfulamounts.
Our natural resources include air, water, soil, minerals, fossil fuels, plants and animals. Each of these resources is important to us in their own ways. Conservation is the sustainable use of our natural resources. Preservation is keeping natural resources in their current state, untouched by humans. Recycle is the process of reprocess a resource so that the materials can be usedinanotheritem. Waste are substances or objects, which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law. It can be divided into three, solid waste, medical waste and hazardous waste. Environmentalprotectioncanbedonebythegovernment,nongovernmental organisations, international agencies and national citizens through introducingenvironmentaleducationintheschoolsyllabus.
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Air Air Pollution Index (API) Carbon dioxide Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) Combustion Conservation Environment External respiration Global warming Greenhouse effect Conoley, C., & Hills, P. (2002). Collins advance science chemistry (2nd ed.). UK: Collins Educational. Environmental Quality Act 127. (1974). Retrieved from https://www.elaw.org/system/files/MalaysiaEQA1974_0.pdf Gallagher, R. M. (1997). Complete chemistry. UK: Oxford University Press. Milner, B., Martin, J., & Mills, J. (2002). Core chemistry. UK: Cambridge University Press. Nivaldo, J. T. (2000). Chemistry in focus (2nd ed.). USA: Thomson. South Carolina Geological Survey. (2005). Earths natural resources and human impacts. Retrieved from ftp://ftpdata.dnr.sc.gov/geology/Education Von, L. L. (2004). Case study on the management of waste materials in Malaysia. Forum Geokol, 15(2), 7. Zumdahl, S. S. (2004). Introductory chemistry: A foundation (5th ed.). New York: Houghton Mifflin. Internal respiration Land pollution Natural resources Oxygen Preservation Products Recycle Respiration
Waste product
Water pollution
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TOPIC 2: METALS
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Topic2 Metals
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Bytheendofthistopic,youshouldbeableto: 1. Describethephysicalpropertiesofmetals; 2. Differentiatethestructuresofmetalsandalloys; 3. Describethechemicalreactionsofmetals; 4. Identifytheorderofreactivityofmetals; 5. Describethemethodofextractionofironandaluminium;and 6. Discusstheusesofmetals.
INTRODUCTION
Figure 2.1: Gold and copper coins Source: editmentor.wordpress.com
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TOPIC 2 METALS
Have you ever seen coins such as the ones in Figure 2.1? Gold and copper were the first metals discovered in the earth, since 6,000BC. Gold and copper coins have been used since ancient civilisation. Gold articles were found extensively in antiquity mainly as jewellery such as bracelets and rings. The symbol for gold is Au from the latin aurum meaning shining dawn. The use of copper in antiquity was of more significance than gold as the first tools, implements and weapons were made from copper. The symbol for copper is Cu and comes from the latin cuprum meaning from the island of Cyprus. Currently, there are 86 known metals. Scientists have categorised metals into three groups alkali metals, alkali earth metals and transition elements. You can explore the names and symbols of all known metals in the Periodic Table of the Elements.
SELF-CHECK 2.1 1. 2. 3. Name three metals in a group of alkali metals. Name two metals in a group of alkali earth metals. Name two common metals in transition elements.
2.1
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
Metals consist of positive ions embedded in moving clouds of electrons (Figure 2.2). The negatively charged electrons attract all the positive metal ions and bond them together with strong electrostatic forces of attraction as a single unit called metallic bond.
Figure 2.2: Metals consist of positive ions surrounded by a cloud of electrons
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TOPIC 2 METALS
2.1.1
Structures of Metals and Alloys
Pure metals have the following properties; They usually have high melting and boiling points. This is due to the strong attraction between the positive metal ions and the mobile clouds of electrons. They conduct electricity due to the mobile electrons (electrons cloud) within the metal structure. When a metal is connected in a circuit, the electrons move towards the positive terminal. They are malleable and ductile. If a force is applied to a metal, rows of ions can slide over one another. They reposition themselves and the strong bonds re-form as shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: The positions of the positive ions in a metal before and after a force has been applied [Source:http://www.chemis try.org/materi_kimia/struktur_atom_dan_ikatan/jenis_struktur_atom/s truktur_logam/] They have high densities, as the atoms are arranged in order and closely packed together as can be seen in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Arrangement of ions in a metal [Source: http://martinmm.wiki.manheimcentral.org/84]
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TOPIC 2 METALS
Different metals show different types of packing and in doing so they produce the arrangement of atoms shown in Figure 2.5. Figure 2.5: Relating different structures to the density of metal [Source: http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=metals_crystal_structure] Alloys are a mixture of; Two or more metals (for example, brass is an alloy of zinc and copper); or A metal and non-metal (for example, steel is an alloy of iron and carbon). Figure 2.6 shows the alloy structure. The blue circles represent atoms of metal A and the white circles are atoms of metal B which is added to make the alloy. These different atoms give the alloy different physical properties from that of the pure metal. Atom of metal A Atom of metal B Figure2.6:Structureofanalloy [Source:http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/surfaces/scc/scat6_4.htm]
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TOPIC 2 METALS
Alloys are formed by mixing the molten substances thoroughly. But why make alloys? The reasons why alloys are made are: (a) To increase the strength and hardness of a pure metal. The presence of the atoms of other elements disrupts the orderly arrangement of the pure metal. The layers of metal atoms are prevented from sliding over one another easily. This makes alloys stronger and harder than pure metals. (b) To increase the resistance to corrosion of a pure metal. Alloying can prevent metals from corrosion. This is because alloying helps to prevent the formation of oxide layer on the surface of the metal (We will discuss the reaction of metals in subtopic 2.2). (c) To improve the appearance of a pure metal. Alloying helps to keep the metal maintain the glossy nature of the surface as it prevents the formation of the metal oxide. Table 2.1 shows some of the more common alloys with their composition. Table 2.1: Composition of common alloys [Source: Ryan (2001)] Alloy Composition Brass 65% copper, 35% zinc Bronze 90% copper, 10% tin Cupro-nickel 30% copper, 70% nickel Duralumin 95% aluminium, 4% copper,1% magnesium, manganese and iron Magnalium 70% aluminium, 30% magnesium Pewter 30% lead, 70% tin, a small amount of antimony Solder 70% lead, 30% tin
2.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

The metals in ores are chemically bonded to other elements. So how can we extract the metals? To answer this, we must understand the Reactivity Series of metals. In the Reactivity Series, the most reactive metals are at the top. The less reactive ones are at the bottom. We can start putting the metals in order by looking at their actions with heat, water and dilute hydrochloric acid.
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2.2.1 Chemical Reaction of Metals with Heat

Conduct Experiments 2.1 and 2.2 to judge the reactivity by putting the metals into competition with each other. In these two experiments, the metals will fight each other to win their prize which is oxygen. The more reactive metal will win the fight.
Experiment 2.1 1. Mix a spatula of iron fillings and copper oxide in a test tube. Heat the mixture strongly Is there a reaction? Look for a red glow spreading through the mixture. When the tube has cooled, empty it into a dish. Can you see any brown copper metal left? [Source: Ryan (2001)]
2.
Copper starts off with the oxygen in copper oxide. However, iron is more reactive, so it takes the oxygen away from copper. We say that iron has displaced (kicked out) the copper. Copper oxide + iron CuO(s) iron oxide + + copper Cu(s)
+ Fe(s) CuO(s)
This is a displacement reaction. It shows us that iron is more reactive than copper.
SELF CHECK 2.2

In Experiment 2.1, what do you expect will happen if we change: copper oxide with iron; and iron with copper? Will there be any reaction? Why?
There actually will not be a reaction between iron oxide and copper because copper is less reactive than iron.
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You can now try some other displacement reactions as in Experiment 2.2. Experiment 2.2 Try heating the mixtures of metals and oxide shown in the table: Look for any signs of reaction. Tick () in the Reaction Table if there is a reaction. (Be careful when looking for signs of reaction. Zinc oxide turns yellow when you heat it by
itself. It turns white again when it cools down). Write word equations for the reactions you have ticked)
Metal/ Metal oxide Zinc Iron Copper Magnesium
Zinc oxide
Iron oxide
Copper oxide
Reaction Table
2.2.2 Chemical Reaction of Metals with Water

You have already seen how the action of heat with metals in the displacement reaction. Now, you can arrange the order of the reactivity of metals iron, zinc, copper and magnesium: i. Magnesium ii. Zinc iii. Iron iv. Copper We can also judge reactivity by observing the metals reaction with water. Let us look at the reaction of lithium, sodium and potassium with water.
Experiment 2.3 1. 2. Put water in three different glass basins. Drop small pieces of Lithium in basin 1 Sodium in basin 2 Potassium in basin 3 Collect the gas given off as shown; Test the gas with a lighted splint Test the solution formed with red litmus paper. Is the solution left acidic or alkaline? [Source: Ryan (2001)]
3. 4.
From Experiment 2.3, you can observe that lithium moves slowly on the surface of the water, while sodium melts to become a small sphere, move rapidly and randomly on
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TOPIC 2 METALS
the water surface with a hissing sound as it reacts. Potassium gets so hot that it lights the hydrogen gas that water gives off. It burns with a lilac flame, move very rapidly and randomly on the water surface with a hissing and popping sound. The colourless solution formed turns red litmus paper to blue.
When red litmus paper turns to blue, the solution formed is an alkaline!
The chemical equation for the reaction of lithium with water is as follows: Lithium + 2Li(s) + Water 2H2O (l) Lithium hydroxide 2LiOH (aq) + + Hydrogen H2 (g)
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Write the word and symbol equations for sodium and potassium reacting to water.
In the case of magnesium, this metal normally reacts slowly with water. But we can speed up the reaction by heating up the water to make steam as in Experiment 2.4.
Experiment 2.4 1. Heat the magnesium strongly. Every now and again, switch the flame briefly to the ceramic wool to make a steam. As the reaction starts, the gas given off can be lit at the end of the tube. Can you name the gas?
2.
[Source: Ryan (2001)]
The magnesium reacts strongly with the steam. It leaves white magnesium oxide in the test tube. Hydrogen gas is given off.
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TOPIC 2 METALS
Magnesium + Mg (s)
Steam
Magnesium oxide MgO(s)
+ +
Hydrogen H2 (g)
+ H2O (g)
The oxygen atom in H2O has swapped partner! It start off with hydrogen, but ends up with magnesium. Table 2.2 gives the different observations when metals react with water and steam.
Table 2.2: Reaction of metals with water and steam T Reaction with Water Reaction with Steam a Metals Fizz, giving off hydrogen gas and Explode b Potassium leaving an alkaline (hydroxide) Sodium l solution. Lithium e Calcium React, giving off hydrogen gas and 2 Magnesium Very slow reaction. forming the metal oxide. (Aluminium is protected by a layer Aluminium . of aluminium oxide on its surface). Zinc 2 Iron
2.2.3 Chemical Reaction of Metals with Diluted Hydrochloric Acid

Another simple way to judge the reactivity of metals is to compare the reaction with diluted acid. Metals will react quicker with diluted acid compared to water especially the metals below calcium in Table 2.2. Conduct Experiment 2.5 to compare the reactivity of metals when react with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Experiment 2.5 1. 2. Clean the metals with sand-paper. Set up the boiling tube as shown: Can you see bubbles? (If you see no bubbles, you can warm the tube gently in a beaker of hot water) Record your results in a table. (Do your results agree with the order in Table 2.3 ?)
3.
[Source: Ryan (2001)]
Notice that copper does not react with hydrochloric acid. However, the other metals tested do react. For example, magnesium:
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TOPIC 2 METALS
Magnesium Mg (s)
+ +
Hydrochloric acid Magnesium chloride 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq)
+ +
Hydrogen H2 (g)
Table 2.3: Reaction of metals with dilute hydrochloric acid Metals Reaction with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid Calcium Magnesium Aluminium Zinc Iron Tin Lead Copper
Fizz, giving off hydrogen gas. (Aluminium is protected by a tough layer of oxide on its surface)
Gives off hydrogen very slowly . (The acid needs to be warmed up) No reaction.
SELF CHECK 2.4

Write word equations for the reactions of calcium, aluminium, zinc, iron, tin and lead with dilute hydrochloric acid.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Discuss why we never add potassium, sodium or lithium to acid.
2.2.1 Order of Reactivity of Metals

Now, we can form the Reactivity Series of metals according to the reactivity of metals based on the metals reaction to heat, reaction to water and reaction to diluted hydrochloric acid (Figure 2.7).
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K Na Li Ca Mg Al
Potassium Sodium Lithium Calcium Magnesium Aluminium Zinc Iron Tin Lead Copper Silver Gold Platinum
Most reactive
Zn Fe Sn Pb Cu Ag Au Pt
Least reactive
Figure 2.7: Reactivity series of metals
ACTIVITY 2.2
Figure shown is a message from the Lonely Hearts section of the Zoo of the World. Can you come up with your own mnemonic sentence to help you remember the Reactivity Series?
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2.3
EXTRACTION OF IRON AND ALUMINIUM
In the earlier sub-topic, we learned about the Reactivity Series. We will now look at how to get metals from their ores. This includes iron, which is the most widely used of all metals. Figures 2.8 and 2.9 show iron ore and the mining of iron ore.
2.3.1
Extraction of Iron
Figure 2.8: Iron ore, haematite [Source: http://www.e-rocks.com/Products.aspx?action=showproduct&id=107003]
Figure 2.9: Mining of iron ore in Karnataka [Source: http://khanija.kar.ncode.in/SitePages/EAuctionData.aspx]
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Carbon is important in the extraction of iron. Carbon is a non-metal, but we can put it into our Reactivity Series of metals. It is placed in between aluminium and zinc. This means that carbon can displace any metal below aluminium in the Reactivity Series (Figure 2.10).
K Na Li Ca Mg Al Potassium Sodium Lithium Calcium Magnesium Aluminium
Carbon cannot be used to extract the more reactive metals
CARBON
Zn Fe Sn Zinc Iron Tin
These metals can be Pb Lead extracted using carbon Cu Copper Ag Silver Au Gold Pt Platinum Figure2.10:ThepositionofcarbonintheReactivitySeries We get carbon from coal. Coal is cheap and there is plenty of it at present. We use coke (a cheap form of carbon which is made from coal) as one of the raw materials besides iron ore (mainly haematite- iron(III) oxide) and limestone (to get rid of sandy waste) in the process of extracting iron. We use blast furnace to get the iron from its ore. Figure 2.11 shows the diagram of blast furnace used to extract iron. Reactions in the blast furnace The coke (carbon) reacts with oxygen in the hot air to make carbon oxide. C(s) + O2(g) CO2 (g) This carbon dioxide reacts with more hot coke to produce carbon monoxide gas. CO2 (g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
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TOPIC 2 METALS
The carbon monoxide then reacts with iron oxide to get iron. Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2 Fe(l) (s) + 3CO2 (g) At the high temperature (up to 1900C) in the furnace, the iron is in molten form (liquid). So, it sinks to the bottom of the furnace. The iron then will run off into mould. The molten slag floats to the top of the iron. The slag is tapped off, cooled and used for making roads.
Figure 2.11: The blast furnace [Source: http://images.yourdictionary.com/blastfurnace]
2.3.2
Extraction of Aluminium
Figure 2.12: Aluminium ore, bauxite [Source: http://www.greener industry.org.uk/pages/aluminium/aluminium_4PMsummary.htm]
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As shown in the Reactivity Series (refer Figure 2.10), the position of aluminium is before carbon. This means aluminium is more reactive than carbon, so carbon cannot be used to extract aluminium. So, how do we extract aluminium from its ore, bauxite, which contains aluminium oxide, Al2O3?
Reactive metals can only be extracted from their ores by electrolysis!
2.3.3 Extraction of Aluminium Electrolysis of Aluminium Oxide

Figure 2.13 shows the electrolytic cell used for the extraction of aluminium.
Figure 2.13: Extraction of aluminium [Source: http://www.meritnation.com/askanswer/question/explainthe processofextractionofaluminiun/metalsandnonmetals/2230314] Aluminium oxide is mixed with cryolite, Na3AlF6, to lower the melting pointofaluminiumoxide(2045C)toabout900C. Blocksofcarbonactastheanodewhilethecarbonliningofthecellactsas thecathode. At the cathode, the aluminium ions are discharged to form aluminium metal. Al3+(l)+3eAl(l) Liquid aluminium is denser than the electrolyte and will be collected at thebottomofthecell. Attheanode,theoxideionsaredischargedtoformoxygengas. 2O2(l)O2(g)+4e
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Theoverallchemicalreactionis: 2Al2O3(l)4Al(l)+3O2(g) The oxygen liberated at the anode will react with the carbon electrode toproducecarbondioxidegas. C(s)+O2(g)CO2(g) Consequently, the anode is corroded slowly and must be replaced fromtimetotime.
2.4 THE USES OF METALS

Steel is used more than any other metal. It is important in the building industry. It is used for girders and for the rods inside reinforced concrete. Steel tubes, called scaffold, are used when buildings are made or repaired. Steel is made mainly from iron. It has a small amount of carbon in it. The amount of carbon affects its properties as can be seen in Table 2.4 Table 2.4: Types of Steel
Type of Steel Mild steel Medium steel High-carbon steel Amount of Carbon 0.2% 0.3% to 0.6% 0.6% to 1.5 % Hardness Can be easily shaped Hard Very hard Uses Car bodies, wires, pipe, bicycles Girders, springs Drills, hammers, other tools
Unfortunately, iron and steel rust. Is there a way to prevent this? You have learned about alloy. How to make steel alloy? If chromium and nickel are added to steel, you will get stainless steel, a steel which does not rust! However,stainlesssteel isexpensive.Ithasmainlybeen used formakingsmall items,suchasknivesandspoons. ACTIVITY 2.3 Name20itemsthataremadeofstainlesssteel.
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Another metal that has many useful properties is aluminium. It conducts heat and electricity well. It has low density for a metal. It does not corrode. Platinum is used in catalytic converters, fitted to car exhausts. It cuts down the amount of pollution from cars. A radioactive isotope of cobalt is used to treat patients with cancer. Figure 2.14 shows some uses of common metals around the home.
Figure 2.14: Some uses of metals at home [Source: Ryan (2001)]
ACTIVITY 2.4

Look at the compund of your school. Name the metals and the uses of metals at your school.
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Metal consists of atoms which are arranged very closely packed in an orderlymanner. The atoms in metal bond with strong electrostatic force called metallic bond. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. They are shiny, malleable (can be hammered into shapes) and ductile (can be drawn out intowires).Mostmetalsarehard,denseandhavehighmeltingpoints. Thepropertiesofmetalscanbeimprovedwithalloying. Alloyisamixtureoftwoormoremetalsorametalandanonmetal. Generally,alloyingproducesametallicsubstancewhichhasmoreuseful propertiesthantheoriginalpuremetalitwasmadefrom. TheReactivitySerieslistsmetalsinorderofreactivity. WecanusetheReactivitySeriestomakepredictionsaboutreactions. A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its compound. CarbonisplacedbetweenaluminiumandzincintheReactivitySeries. Extraction of metal from its ore depends on its place in the Reactivity Series.Themorereactiveametal,theharderitistoextract. The metals placed above carbon in the Reactivity Series can be extracted by electrolysis (potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium and aluminium). The metals placed below carbon in the Reactivity Series can be extracted byusingcarbonasanoxidisingagent(zinc,iron,tinandlead). Metalshaveawiderangeofuses.Metalsareusedinbuildingindustries, householdproducts,medicine,agriculture,etc.
Blastfurnace Carbon Dilutedhydrochloricacid Displacementreaction Electrolysis Heat Metal Metallicbond Reactivityseries Stainlesssteel Steel Water
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Earl, B., & Wilford, D. (2009). IGCSE chemistry. United Kingdom: Hodder Education. Eng, N. H., & Lim, Y. C. (2007). Focus Super Chemistry. Bangi: Penerbitan Pelangi. Farndon,J.(2003).Theelements:Aluminium.Malaysia:FederalPublications. Ryan,L.(2001).Chemistryforyou.UnitedKingdom:StanleyThornes. Sparrow,G.(2003).Theelements:Iron.Malaysia:FederalPublications.
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TOPIC 3: ELECTROLYSIS TOPIC 4: OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
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TOPIC3 : MATERIAL WORLD TOPIC 4: OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Readings Rose Marie Gallgher (1997). Complete Chemistry, Oxford Universiti Press, UK. Ralph A. Burns (2003). Fundamentals of Chemistry, Prentice Hall, Ney Jersey Bryan Milner, Jean Martin, John Mills (2002). Core Chemistry, Cambridge Universiti Press J. G. R. Briggs (2003). Chemistry Insight, Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd. Singapore J.G. R. Briggs (2003). Science in Focus Chemistryfor GCE O Level, Pearson Education Asia Pte.Ltd. Singapore. Bahagian Pendidikan Guru, KementerianPendidikan Malaysia. (1995) BukuSumber Pengajaran Pembelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah, Jilid 3:Strategi Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Sains. Projek PIER Bahagian Pendidikan Guru serta dan Bahagian Perancangan dan Penyelidikan Dasar Pendidikan, Kuala Lumpur. Whitten, K.W., Davis, R.E.,Peck,M.L and Stanley, GG. (2008). Chemistry (Ninth Edition).2010 Brooks/Cole. Keywords oxidation reduction oxygen ozone nonmetal oxides metal oxides
Learning Outcomes At the end of this Topic, the learner will be able to; 1. Define oxidation and reduction. 2. Explain the meaning of redox and giving examples.
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3. Demonstrate the ability to write balanced formula and the ability to identify oxidizing agents and reducing from given oxidation-reduction reactions. 4. Ability to differentiate oxygen and ozone. 5. Demonstrate the ability to compare and contrite the properties of oxygen and hydrogen. 6. Describing with examples the reactions Group 1A and Group 2A with oxygen. 7. Describing what happens to the oxides of Group 1A and Group 2A when it dissolve in water. 8. Ability to summarize the reactions of O2 with nonmetals ,reactions of nonmetal oxides with water and the reactions of metal oxides with nonmetal oxides. Study Questions Task 1 : Read the definition of oxidation and reduction on Page 225 (highlighted in yellow). In your own words, describe oxidation and reduction. Task 2 : It is said that oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously and are referred to as oxidation-reduction reactions or redox. Read 6-5 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions : Introduction (pg 225). In your own words explain what redox mean and give examples in your explanation. Task 3 : Read Example 6-4 Redox Reactions. After going through and understanding the section, do the following (a) write balanced formula unit equations for the following redox reactions: (i) nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia (ii) aluminum reacts with sulfuric acid to produce aluminum sulfate and hydrogen (iii) zinc sulfide reacts with oxygen to form zinc oxide and sulfur dioxide (iv) carbon reacts with nitric acid to produce nitrogen dioxide, carbon dioxide and water
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(b) identify the oxidizing agents and reducing agents in the above oxidation-reduction reactions. Task 4 : Read 5-9 Oxygen and the oxides (pg 198).Can you differentiate between oxygen and ozone? Task 5 : Read 5-8 Hydrogen and hydrides (pg 194) and 5-9 Oxygen and oxides (pg 198). In your own words, compare and contrast the properties of oxygen with those of hydrogen. Task 6 : Read Reactions of O2 with metals on page 198-199. Describe in your own words and with examples, what happens when Group 1A and Group 2A react with oxygen. Task 7 : Refer to Page 200, Reactions of Metal Oxides with water. Describe what happens to the oxides of Group 1A and Group 2A when it dissolve in water. Task 8 : With reference to page 201-203, write a summary of the following reactions: (v) Reactions of O2 with nonmetals (vi) Reactions of nonmetal oxides with water (vii) Reactions of metal oxides with nonmetal oxides.
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Topic
3
LEARNING
1. 2. 3. 4.
Material World III
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: Explain to students the classes of food and its importance; Conduct a suitable experiment to identify the area of the tongue for different tastes; Debate about rusty objects; and Conduct suitable experiment to determine the conditions for iron to become rusty.
INTRODUCTION
This topic is to teach students about food. As an introduction, you should explain the importance of food to us. Food is very important to all living beings: humans, animals and plants. They need food for energy. The energy will be used for growth, development, repair damaged cells and tissues, reproduction, and maintain general health. In humans and animals, energy is also used for movement and activity for their everyday life. For instance, the body cells that are destroyed need to be repaired. The process of which living organisms obtains food for growing and repairing body cells is called nutrition. Nutrition is obtained from food. Food provide nutrients. Nutrients are chemical substances needed in order for us to live and stay healthy. Hence, the energy is obtained from nutrition in foods utilised to carry out our everyday activities.
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TOPIC 3 MATERIAL WORLD III
3.1
3.1.1
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Classes of Food
To teach the classes of food, you can use the explanation strategy. Firstly, the teacher should explain the seven classes of food. The basic nutrients we get from foods are categorised into seven major classes or categories based on their properties. They are: Carbohydrates Proteins Fats Vitamins Minerals Fibres Water
Then the teacher can continue the explanation with the functions for every classes of food. Human and animal bodies need all types of foods to carry out different functions. The correct proportions of food we consume contain all sources of food. This is called diet. Diet is the kinds of food we consume and drink regularly.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Testing for the presence of carbohydrate. The presence of carbohydrate in our food can be tested in the lab. Using tapioca flour, potato, rice, bread and other samples of food requested by the science teacher, students may conduct the experiment using iodine solution. Divide your classroom into several groups for this experiment. Discuss your results.
As mentioned earlier, good diet means we eat food and water at the correct proportions. A balanced diet should contain about 60% carbohydrates, 20% proteins and 20% fats coming from food groups. The food will supply nutrients, energy necessary to sustain the body, for growth and repair and maintain health. The functions of these food are: (a) (b) (c) Carbohydrates are to supply energy. Proteins are to provide materials for body growth and repair. Fats are to supply energy and store excess food.
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(d) (e) (f) (g)
Vitamins are to provide maintenance and healthy body. Mineral salts are for healthy teeth, bones, muscles and other parts of the body. Fibres are to help intestines to function properly. Water is to process all chemicals in the body and transport substances in the blood.
Lastly, you should explain the importance of the right proportion of the food consumed everyday. We should eat the right types and amount of food daily to get all the energy needed. This is called a balanced diet. In order to do this, the relative amounts of different kinds of food eaten by a person has to be considered. The type of foods consumed can be illustrated in the form of a Food Pyramid as shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Food Pyramid Source: www.lifeclinic.com/foods/nutrition/foodpyramid.asp
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ACTIVITY 3.2
Balanced diet Balanced diets provide all essential nutrients in the correct amount and proportion of food. It should contain all the seven classes of food. Adults, adolescents and children need diet with different proportion. Divide your classroom into seven groups to represent each class of food. In your assigned group, discuss the factors that determine a persons balanced diet. List all factors and present the findings to the class.
3.1.2
Taste of Foods
To teach this lesson, you can use the experiment strategy. Before we do the experiment, the teacher should explain about the taste of foods. We eat all kinds of food. Food have different tastes. Food can be categorised into different tastes: sweet, sour, bitter and salty. Other kinds of tastes are the combinations of these four major tastes. The taste of food can be detected only by a sensory organ in our mouth called the tongue. The tongue is the sensory organ that has sensitive cells on the surface. These cells are called taste buds which contain many taste receptors. These receptors detect the different type of tastes of our foods. However, the taste of foods can only be detected at different areas on the tongue (Figure 3.2)
Figure 3.2: Area of the tongue responding to different tastes Source: http://library.thinkquest.org/3750/taste/taste.html
After explaining the different areas on the tongue that can detect different tastes, you can use the following experiment to give your students the experience of different types of taste.
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ACTIVITY 3.3
Taste areas of the tongue This is a lab activity. Work in pairs of two. Blindfold your partner. Pour little amount of solutions of different tastes: salty (salt solution); sweet (sugar solution); sour (lime juice); and bitter (coffee). Ask your partner to rinse his tongue with distilled water. Using a straw, place a drop of salt solution onto the tip of his tongue. Ask him to identify the taste without pulling his/her tongue. Record your results using a table whether your partner is right (/) or wrong (x). Repeat the steps on four other areas (tastes) of his tongue but make sure that he rinses the tongue using the distilled water before each solution is repeated.
3.1.3
Acids and Alkalis
Food are grouped based on their tastes. They are sweet, sour, bitter and salty. Foods that are sour belong to the acid group. The word acid is from the Latin word acidus which means sour. Many sour fruits, especially those which are not ripe, contain acid. All acids are not of the same strength; some are strong and some are weak. Other food or fruits that are bitter fall in the alkali group. There are also strong and weak alkalis (see Figure 3.3).
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Figure 3.3: Acidic and alkaline foods and fruits Source: http://buywaterfilter.my
Using a specific procedure in the lab, you can use a litmus or pH paper to test the presence of acid or alkali in the substances you select. Most of the time, materials containing acid will turn the blue litmus or pH paper to red colour. On the other hand, alkali will turn the red litmus or pH paper to blue. (Figure 3.4). Can you list at least two substances in your everyday life in both groups of acid and alkali?
Figure 3.4: pH scale ranges from 1 to 14 to indicate the strength of an acid or alkali Source: dtc.prima.edu/~biology/.../lesson2d.htm
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ACTIVITY 3.4
Identification of substances: acidic or alkaline You can ask your students to bring anything from home like fruit (lemon, lime, mango, guava, papaya, banana, etc.) carbonated drink, toothpaste, detergent, soap, shampoo, hair conditioner, milk, vinegar, distilled water or others by your science teacher. In the laboratory, you will be conducting an experiment to identify those substances whether they are acid or alkali. Use the litmus or pH paper to indicate the presence of acid and alkali. Source: dtc.prima.edu/~biology/.../lesson2d.htm
3.1.4
Household Products
You can also explain further the use of acid and alkali for cleaning purposes. Different objects in the house will require different types of cleaning products; hence, we need to use the products that have specific functions. The household products can be categorised into two groups: acidic or alkaline. Most of the household products like alkaline are sodium hydroxide (for making soap and detergent); ammonia (household cleaner, drainage opener, sink opener), lime (to raise the pH value of acidic soil for healthy growth of plants); magnesium hydroxide (used in antacid to ease stomachache due to excessive acid); toothpaste; baking soda solution; bleach; and many more. The other group of household products like nitric acid (to make fertiliser and dye); citric acid and tartaric acid (to make fruit salt); acetic acid (to make synthetic fibre); boric acid (an eyewash); benzoic acid (to preserve food); carbonic acid (in carbonated drinks); lemon juice (for drinks); vinegar; and sulfuric acid (liquid from car battery); are some example of uses of acids. I believe, you can find and name more of the household products surrounding you from the departmental store during your shopping, as compared to browsing through the Internet! Then you can use this example to explain or discuss with your students.
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ACTIVITY 3.5
Browse through the Internet. Find out on how to make: 1. 2. Soap (using alkali) Salt (using alkali and acid)
Write your report and present them to the class according to groups.
3.2
RUSTING
3.2.1 Investigate Material that can Rust Up

Start this lesson by asking student these questions; when you walk at the children playground, can you trace which objects can become rusty and which ones cannot? Can you differentiate the properties of the objects that can rust and which one cannot? (Figure 3.5)
Figure 3.5: Playground Source: http://boston.about.com/od/walkingtours/ss/bcWalkingTour_6.htm
Objects that are made from iron and steel can become rusty. These objects have a reddish-brown stuff formed on their surface when rusty. The mass of the objects will increase when the rust formed on the surface. This process of rust formation is known as rusting. However, not all objects can become rusty. Objects made from clay, wood, fibre,
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plastic and glass are the few examples of non-rusty objects. Find and list more examples about rusty and non-rusty objects. To make the teaching process more interesting, you can ask students to do the activity below:
ACTIVITY 3.6
Should we replace all rusty objects with non-rusty objects? Form your own group and make your stand whether you are for or against this motion.
3.2.2
Why do Objects Rust?
Before this, we have learned that objects made of iron and steel can become rusty. For example, a nail, can become rusty. When you compare a nail in your house and the nail outside the house, why is the nail outside the house often rusty? Can you explain this phenomenon? Is it possible for us to infer why that one nail has become rusty, but others still look gray and shiny? Why do objects like nails rust? To understand this behaviour, we need to learn some chemical reactions which underlies the process of rusting. Perhaps you have never heard of oxidation reactions. Yet, this type of reaction has many important applications in our everyday life. When you see a rusty nail, you are actually observing a process of oxidation. Historically, the term oxidation was used for reactions of the elements with oxygen to form oxides. All metals exhibit a tendency to be oxidised, some more easily than others. Metals used in building materials, such as iron, eventually oxidise, which causes deterioration of the metal. Known as corrosion, this process results in rust and other corrosion on cars, bridges, ships and underground pipes.
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Figure 3.6: An abandoned rusty car

Source: http://www.nsls.bnl.gov/about/everyday/corrosion.html
3.2.3
Factors Needed for Iron to Rust
Now we know that iron can become rusty through the process of oxidation. What is the meaning of oxidation? To understand this, we should identify the determining factors needed for iron to rust. Then ask your students to do the experiment below:
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ACTIVITY 3.7
Experiment 1: Rusting Students will conduct experiment to determine what conditions are necessary for iron to change into the iron oxide compound. Materials: Test tubes (4) Stopper Test tube rack 100ml graduated cylinder 250ml cylinder Few pieces of nails Salt Pencil
Procedure: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Students work in groups of four. Students hypothesise which nail will rust. Students will be given data table. Label the test tubes W, X, Y, and Z. Measure 50ml of vegetable oil and pour into a 100ml beaker. Measure 50ml of water and pour into a second 100ml beaker. Measure 50ml of water and pour into third 100ml beaker. Add salt until no more salt will dissolve. Place one piece of nail into each of the three 100ml beakers. Drop the fourth nail into the test tube W. Put a stopper on the test tube and place in the test tube rack. Use forceps to remove the nail from the oil and place into the bottom of test tube X. Place in the rack. Repeat the process for the nail from both water and salt solutions and place into test tubes Y and Z. Students work in groups of four.
9. 10. 11.
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12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
Students hypothesise which nail will rust. Students will be given data table. Label the test tubes W, X, Y, and Z. Measure 50ml of vegetable oil and pour into a 100ml beaker. Measure 50ml of water and pour into a second 100 ml beaker. Measure 50ml of water and pour into third 100ml beaker. Add salt until no more salt will dissolve. Place one piece of nail into each of the three 100ml beakers. Drop the fourth nail into the test tube W. Put a stopper on the test tube and place in the test tube rack. Use forceps to remove the nail from the oil and place into the bottom of test tube X. Place in the rack. Repeat the process for the nail from both water and salt solutions and place into test tubes Y and Z. Measure 100ml of water into the 250ml beaker. Tape the four test tubes together and invert them into the beaker and support them. Record your observations in the data table everyday for three days.
19. 20. 21. 22.
Data and observation

Test tube W X Y Day one The nail still looks gray and shiny The nail still looks gray and shiny A reddish-brown stuff appears on the surface of the nail More reddish-brown stuff appears on the surface of the nail compared to Y Day two The nail still looks gray and shiny The nail still looks gray and shiny A reddish-brown stuff appears on the surface of the nail More reddish-brown stuff appears on the surface of the nail compared to Y Day three The nail still looks gray and shiny The nail still looks gray and shiny A reddish-brown stuff appears on the surface of the nail More reddish-brown stuff appears on the surface of the nail compared to Y
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Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. In which test tubes did the nail change into the compound iron oxide? Why didn't the nails rust in the other test tubes? What factor increased the rate of the reaction? Why? What was the purpose of test tube W? What is necessary for the formation of the compound iron oxide?
Answers: 1. 2. In test tubes Y and Z Either oxygen or water was not in contact with the nail. In test tube W, the lack of water prevented the iron from oxidising. In test tube X, the vegetable oil protected the nail from rusting Salt increased the rate of chemical change. The salt solution cleaned the surface of the nail Control Iron, oxygen and water
3. 4. 5.
Here are some tips that you can give to your students when they are doing a science project or experiment. Tips To do science project systematically, you may follow the following steps. First, you must realise the purpose of doing this science project (Are you testing different substance that are able to prevent rust from forming? Or, to determine which rust remover was more efficient in removing rust from iron?). Secondly, you should determine the hypothesis of this experiment. You can create your hypothesis creatively, but I suggest you to consider substance that you believe to be the most effective in preventing the act of rust.
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Thirdly, you should design your experiment in order to test your hypothesis. You should recognise which variable is constant, how you can manipulate certain variable and observe or measure the effect of this manipulated variable on certain independent variable. You may discuss with your friends about the variable which is to be held constant for this experiment However, it is suggested that different kind of rust inhibitor as the manipulated variable. Rust inhibitor is defined as a substance to prevent the act of rust from occurring. Paints are used on cars, bridges and many other items that are usually exposed to damp air. In car radiators, anti-freeze is used since is has a high boiling point, allowing the car to run at a high temperature without boiling away the coolant and contains chemicals that can inhibit waters tendency to rust. Tinplate is used for manufacturing cans and protects the steel from rusting and corrosion. Waxes are used in manufacturing as rust preventatives. Well, now we have already determined which element act as manipulated variable. How about the dependent or responding variable? Can you find any material around your house to be used as the responding variable? Maybe you can use a nail, since it is cheap and easy to obtain. After you have collected all the relevant materials, the fourth step you should do is to conduct the experiment. The rust inhibitors which act as manipulated variable in this experiment are the paint, the paraffin wax and the car polish. Therefore, we can decide that there are three experimental groups in this study and one control group. Following are the detail of each group.
Group Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 Control Characteristic A nail coated with paraffin wax A nail coated with paint A nail coated with car polish Does not have any rust inhibitor applied on it
Let all the nails dry overnight. After you have let the nails dry, sprinkle them with tap water on the morning, afternoon and evening. Do this for a week. After a week, can you discover which nail has a lot of rust and which nail doesnt? After you have the result, what can you conclude? At the end of this lesson, you can ask students to make conclusion. What can they conclude from this experiment? Let us read more to relate with the findings. Three things are required for iron to turn into iron oxide. These things are water, oxygen and iron itself. When a drop of water strikes an iron object, two things begin to occur almost instantaneously. First, the water, a good electrolyte, combines with carbon dioxide in the air to form a weak carbonic acid, an even better electrolyte. As the acid is formed and the iron dissolved, some of the water will begin to break down into its component, that is hydrogen and oxygen. The free oxygen and dissolved iron bond into iron oxide, in the
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process of freeing the electrons. The electrons liberated from the anode portion of the iron flow to the cathode, which may be a piece of a metal less electrically reactive than iron, or another point on the piece of iron itself. The chemical compounds found in liquids like acid rain and seawater, make them better electrolytes than pure water. This allows their presence to speed up the process of rusting on iron and other forms of corrosion on other metals. The type of metal also plays a big role in the rate at which corrosion occurs. For example, chromium corrodes much slower than iron. Other valuable metals like sterling silver, platinum and gold are hardly corroded at all. The environment also plays a role in corrosion. Metals corrode faster in hot humid climates and slower in cold dry ones. Another way to understand how the process of rusting happens is through several chemical equations. The process of rusting requires an anode and cathode in different places on the surface of a piece of iron. In one area of the iron (Fe) surface, called the anode region, the oxidation half reaction takes places. Anode (oxidation): or Fe(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2e2Fe(s) 2Fe2+(aq) + 4e-
The electrons move through the iron metal from anode to an area called the cathode region where oxygen (O2) dissolved in water is reduced to water (H2O). Cathode (reduction): O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- 2H2O(l) By combining the half reactions that occur in the anode and cathode regions, we can write the overall oxidation-reduction process. 2Fe(s) + O2(g) + 4H+(aq) 2Fe2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) The formation of rust occurs as Fe2+ ions move out of the anode region and come in contract with dissolved oxygen (O2). The Fe2+ oxidises to give Fe3+, which reacts with oxygen to form of rust. 4Fe2+(aq) + O2(g) + 4H2O(l) 2Fe2O3 + 8H+(aq) We can write the formation of rust starting with solid Fe reacting with O2 as follows. There is no H+ in the overall equation because H+ is produced in equal quantities. Corrosion of iron 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3 Rust
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3.2.4
Protection Against Rust
Rusty objects look unattractive and old. They become brittle and corrode slowly. Basically, we can prevent rusting by preventing the iron objects from coming into contact with air and water. This can be done by coating the objects with non-rusting material like paint, oil, grease or any non-rusting materials. Iron objects also can be galvanised to prevent the iron from rusting. Other than that, we can also remove rust by using electrolysis (see Figure 3.7). In doing this, you need a plastic bucket, battery charger, baking soda and electrode. It can be done by providing a flow of electrical current and the rust will move with the electrical current. To get the current flow, fill your plastic bucket with water. Add about a tablespoon of baking soda per gallon to the water. Once the current is started, adding more soda will not make the process go faster. Put the object into the water with the NEGATIVE lead on it. Now, put in your electrode which could be a nail, screw, or any piece of metal. Stainless steel works the best. Then, attach the POSITIVE lead to the electrode. Now switch ON the battery charger and observe the rust going away.
Figure 3.7: The process of electrolysis Source: http://www.thepontiactransampage.com/rust.html
3.2.5
The Benefits of Protection against Rust
The problem associated with rusting can be associated with utilities, transportation and infrastructure. Therefore, it is important to prevent metals around us, especially iron, from rusting. An old iron object need not be replaced if we can prevent it from rusting. Therefore, it will save cost. Iron objects which are not rusty look shiny and new compared to iron objects which have become rusty. Look at Figure 3.8. It shows a photograph of a badly corroded truck after many years of marine atmospheric exposure.
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Figure 3.8: A badly corroded truck after many years of marine atmospheric exposure Source: http://www.electrochem.org/dl/interface/spr/spr06/spr06_p24-26.pdf
The teacher also can give students a group work assignment and science project as activity below so that they can understand better.
ACTIVITY 3.8
There are so many mega structures in Malaysia. Yet, our country has a climate that is humid and hot. Based on this circumstance, it is possible that rusting is one of the problems which are faced by us in Malaysia when maintaining those mega structures. Can you find information to show an example about how to maintain one of the mega structures in Malaysia which is associated with rusting? Do some presentation in front of the class to report about your work.
ACTIVITY 3.9
Conduct a science project to investigate the most effective way to protect iron object against rust. Do some demonstrations to compare several methods which are used to prevent materials from rusting.
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Food can be categorised into seven classes: carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, fats, minerals, fibres and water. Food have different tastes. They are sour, sweet, bitter and salty. Food are also classified into two groups. They are acid and alkali. Acid changes the blue litmus paper to red. While, alkali turns the red litmus paper to blue. Household products are also divided by the characteristics of being acidic and alkaline. Materials can be divided into rusty and non-rusty objects. Rusting process is due to the presence of water, oxygen and iron. This process is called oxidation. Rust can be prevented by certain methods like painting, galvanising and electrolysis of the metals. There are benefits through the prevention against rust. Some metals can stay longer and have a good looking appearence because of the prevention from rusting.
Acid Alkali Bitter Corrosion Iron Oxidation
Oxygen Rust Salty Sour Sweet Water
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Burns, R. A. (1992). Fundamentals of chemistry (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hazen, R. M. , & Trefil, J. (1997). The physical sciences: an integrated approach. New York, NY: John Wiley & Son, Inc. Kotz, J. C., Treichel, P. M. & Weaver, G.C. (2006) Chemistry and chemical reactivity (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. Milner, B., Martin, J., & Mills, J. (2002). Core chemistry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Timberlake, K. C. Education Co. (2005). Basic chemistry. San Francisco, CA: Pearson
Abandoned rusty car (n.d). http://www.nsls.bnl.gov/about/everyday/ corrosion.html Retrieved July 6, 2007. Area of tongue (n.d). http://greenfield.fortunecity.com/rattler/46/upali2.htm Retrieved July 7, 2007. Badly corroded truck. (n.d). http://www.electrochem.org/dl/interface/spr/ spr06/spr06_p24-26.pdf Retrieved July 6, 2007. Food Pyramid. (n.d). www.lifeclinic.com/foods/nutrition/foodpyramid.asp Retrieved July 7, 2007. Household products. (n.d). http://images.search.yahoo.com/search/images/ householdproducts Retrieved July 7, 2007. pH scale. (n.d). dtc.prima.edu/~biology/.../lesson2d.htm Retrieved July 7, 2007 The process of electrolysis (n.d). http://www.thepontiactransampage. com/rust.html Retrieved July 6, 2007.
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Rao, C. N. R.. Understanding Chemistry. : World Scientific Publishing Co., . p 238 http://site.ebrary.com/id/10422534?ppg=238 Copyright World Scientific Publishing Co.. . All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
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TOPIC 5: SPEED OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
"
" " " " " " " " " "
"
Topic 5

SpeedOf
Chemical Reactions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Define the speed of chemical reaction; 2. Calculate the speed of a chemical reaction; 3. Distinguish the effects of particle size, concentration, pressure, temperature and catalysts on the speed of chemical reaction; and 4. Evaluate the effect of activation energy on the speed of a reaction.
INTRODUCTION
If there is a running competition between a rabbit and a tortoise, which animal will win? Surely the answer will be the rabbit (if the rabbit does not fall asleep during the competition, that is). Rabbits run faster than tortoises. The tortoise will get to thefinish line eventually, but will probably reach there muchlater.This means that the rabbit runs ata greater speed than the tortoise. In everyday life, if you put granulated sugar and fine sugar in different glasses of water with the same volume and temperature, which sugar will dissolvefirst? Yes! fine sugar will dissolvefirst. It is because fine sugar has a larger surface area that comes in contact with water.
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T TOPIC5 SPEE ED OF CHEMIC CAL REACTIONS
Whencoo okingmeat,it tisbettertouse u apressure ecookerrathe erthanusingan ordinary pot. Ever wo ondered why? ? Why do vegetables that are kept in the t refrigerato or take longe er to go rott ten? Do you realise that these commo on, everydayoccurrencesareactuallyth heresultofch hemicalreact tions?
A ACTIVITY 5.1 1
Wh hich metal disso olves faster in an n acid? Find out through this acti ivity! Put t magnesium powder p in a test tube contain ning hydrochlor ric acid. Repea at the exp periment by repl lacing the magnesium powder with w a magnesium m strip. An nswer the follow wing questions: Which form of o magnesium (t the powder or th he strip) will dissolve faster? a bubble relea ased? Did you see any e what type of gas was released? ? Can you state
5.1 DEFINI ITIONOF O SPEED DOFRE EACTION N

The speed d of reaction n for a given chemical rea action is the measure of the t changein nconcentratio onofthereact tantsorthech hangeinconc centrationofthe t products per unit time e (Odufalu, Chacha, C Mud dda, Iskandar r, n.d.). It is the t hichthereacta antsofachem micalreaction nformthepro oducts. rateatwh
5.1.1 Chemical C Reaction R
What are e chemical re eactions? In previous top pics, we hav ve learnt abo out physical changes. c Phy ysical changes s are related to t the change e of the state of matter. Fo or example, water w turns in nto ice when the temperatu ure reaches 0C or becom mes gasses if f the temperature is hig gher than 100C. No ne ew substance e is formed. However, in n chemical changes, c ther re will be ne ew substance esformed. ppens when you put ma agnet to a mixture m of sul lphur and ir ron What hap powder?
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TOPIC 5
SPEED OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS R
Figur re5.2:Mixtureofsulphurand dironpowder r
[Source e:http://halya angyuhao.blo ogspot.com/p/ /term2labex xperimentsla ab field dand.html] Iron pow wder will be attracted to the magnet, so we can separate s the iron i powder from the sulp phur. But, do o you think the t same thin ng will happe en if tthemixture? ? youheat A 5.2 ACTIVITY Mix sulphur and a iron powde er. Then, heat the mixture. Put th he magnet near the substance e after the mixture is heated. What will happen? The mixture is not attracted to th he magnet anymore because
ction has occured d in which iron an nd sulphur a chemical reac have now becom me iron sulphide.
Thechem micalequation nforthisreac ctionis:, )Ironsul lphide(s) Iron(s)+Sulphur(s)
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TOPIC5 SPEED OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
5.1.2 NatureofChemicalReactants
In order for a reaction to occur, there must be a collision between the reactants at the reactive site of the molecule with correct orientation and it has to achieve activation energy. This will lead to effective collision and chemicalreactionwilloccur.
Figure5.3:Particlesshowingtheeffectiveandineffectivecollision [Source:http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/principlesofgeneral chemistryv1.0m/s1807thecollisionmodelofchemica.html]
Particles might be atoms, molecules or ions. Before we can get a chemical reaction, particles must crash together. They must collide. This is called the collisiontheory.
Figure5.4:Collisionbetweenparticles [Source:http://minhaji.net/classes/3107]
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TOPIC 5
SPEED OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
5.1.3 SpeedofChemicalReaction
Theareaofchemistryconcernedwiththespeedorratesatwhichachemical reaction occurs is called chemical kinetics. The word kinetic suggests motion.Here,kineticsreferstothespeedofareaction,orthereactionspeed, whichisthechangeoftheconcentrationofreactantorproductwithtime.
Speed of chemical reaction is the speed at which reactants are converted into the products in a chemical reaction.
Letuslookatthegeneralequation: ReactantsProducts This equation tells us that, during the course of a reaction, reactant molecules are consumed while product molecules are formed. Two obvious changeswilloccur,namely: i. Thedecreaseinthequantityofareactantwithtime;and ii. Theincreaseinthequantityofaproductwithtime.
Asaresult,wecanfollowtheprogressofareactionbymonitoring: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Either the decrease in concentration of the reactants or the increaseinconcentrationoftheproducts; Decrease in the mass of reactant or increase in the mass of product; Increaseinthevolumeofgasreleased; Formationofprecipitateasaproduct;or ChangeinpH,temperatureorelectricalconductivity.
Forreactionsthatoccurrapidly,thespeedofreactionishigh.Conversely,for a reaction that occurs slowly,the speed of reaction is low. The time taken for afastreactionisshort,whereasthetimetakenforaslowreactionislong.
Howdowemeasurethespeedofchemicalreaction?
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5.2
MEAS SURING GTHESP PEEDOF F CHEM MICALREACTIO R ON
Toseehowthespeedof o achemical lreactionisac ctuallymeasu ured,letusta ake alookatthe t followingexample: Experime ent5.1(TheRe eactionbetwee enMarbleChip psandHydroc chloricAcid) ebasinandburettewithwater.Inverttheburette b intothe ebasinandma ark 1. Fillthe theme eniscusat50cm m(Figure5.4). 2. Weigh ht6gofmedium mmarblechips s(inexcess)an ndputthechip psintotheconic cal flask. 3. Measu ure 50cm of 0.1 1 mol dm hydrochloric acid d using the me easuring cylind der andpo ouritintotheconical c flask. 4. Immed diately, cover the t conical flas sk with a rubber stopper and d shake the flas sk. Startth hestopwatchat a thesametim me. d the volume of gas collect ted in the bur rette every 30 seconds for 360 3 5. Record ds. second he graph of th he volume of carbon c dioxide e released aga ainst time on the t 6. Plot th a asinExper riment5.1 sameaxis 7. Calcul late the averag ge rate of react tion, the rate of o reaction at 50 5 secondsand in therat teofreactionin nthesecondminutes m forthisexperiment. Figure 5.5: Water W displaceme ent method to co ollect carbon dio oxide gas S SELF-CHECK K 5.1
CTI IVITY5.3
Describe one oth her method that can be used to colle ect the gas ratedfromEx xperiment5.1 1 liber
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The chemical equation for the reaction between marble chip (calcium carbonate,CaCO3)andhydrochloricacidis: CaCO3(s)+HCl(aq)CaCl2(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(l) Figure 5.6 shows the volume of carbon dioxide gas released measured at certainintervalsplottedagainsttime.
VolumeofCO2gas/cm3
Time/min
Figure5.6:Thevolumeofcarbondioxidegasliberatedagainsttime How fast areaction progresses over an interval of time is the average speed ofreaction.Itiscalculatedasfollows:
Averagespeed=Thechangeintheamountofreactantorproduct Thetimetakenforthechangetohappen
FromthegraphinFigure5.6,wecancalculatetheaveragespeedofchemical reactionbetweenmarblechipandhydrochloricacid.
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Averagespeedofreaction=Thetotalvolumeofcarbondioxidegasreleased Timetakenforthetotalcarbondioxidegasrelease =94.00cm3 4.5min =20.90cm3min1
Canyoucalculatethespeedofreactionatanygiventime? Theexactspeedofreactionatanygiventimeis calledtheinstantaneousspeedofreaction. Letustakealookatthenextexample: Based on the graph of volume of carbon dioxide gas liberated against time (Figure5.6),youcanalso: a. Calculatetheaveragerateofreactioninthefirstoneminute; Volume of CO2 gas/ cm3 Time/min Figure5.7:Theaveragerateofreactioninthefirstoneminute
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Theaveragerateofreactioninthefirstoneminute =TotalvolumeofCO2collectedinthefirst1minute Timetaken =54.00cm3 1min =54.00cm3min1 b. Calculatetheaveragerateofreactionfrom1minuteto2minutes;and 3 Volume of CO2 gas/ cm Time/min Figure5.8:Theaveragerateofreactionfrom1minuteto2minute Theaveragerateofreactionfrom1minuteto2minutes =TotalvolumeofCO2collectedfrom1minuteto2minutes Timetaken =(77.0054.00)cm3 (21)min =23.00cm3 1min =23.00cm3min1

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ACTIVITY 5.3 From the graph in Figure 5.8, calculate: The average speed of reaction in 3 minutes. The average speed of reaction from 3 minutes to 4 minutes. The average speed of reaction from 2 minutes to 4.5 minutes. c. Calculate the average speed of reaction atthe 2 minutespoint by drawingatangentatthecurvepoint. Tangentline Volume of CO2 gas/ cm3 Time/min Figure5.9:Theaveragespeedofreactioncalculatedbydrawingatangentline atthecurvepoint The speed of reaction at the 2nd minute = The gradient of the tangent of the graphatthesecondminute Thespeedofreactionatthe2ndminute =100.0050.00cm3 3.30.4min =50.00cm3 2.9min =17.24cm3min1

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A ACTIVITY 5.4 Fro omthegraphinFigure5.9, ,calculate; ntaneousspeedofreactionat1minute, Theinstan Theinstan ntaneousspeedofreactionat3minutes, Theinstan ntaneousspeedofreactionat4minutes. Atwhichtimeis sthereactianthefastest?At A 1,2,3or4minutes? m S SELF-CHECK K 5.2 Wh hen magnesiu um (Mg) react ts with dilute ed acid, we can c observe an a incr rease of volum me inhydrogen gas (H2) and a the decre ease in mass of Mg.Which obser rvable change e would you u measure to determine th he rate eofreaction?Explainwhy y.
o understand d how the spe eed of a chem mical Another example we can look at to m is the reaction n of molecula ar bromine with w reaction is actually measured cid. formicac Afterwe ehaveseenho owthespeedofreactionismeasuredvia aExperiment5.1, wewillnow n learntowrite w speedexpressions e us singtheexperimentaldata a. In aqueous solution ns, molecular r bromine (B Br2) reacts with w formic acid a H)asfollows: : (HCOOH Br(aq)+HCOOH H (aq)2Br(aq)+2H+(aq)+CO C (g) ar bromine has a distin nctivered bro own colour. As the react tion Molecula progress ses, the conce entration of Br B steadily decreases. d Thi is change can n be monitore ed easily by measuring the t molecular r fading of bromines b col lour with a sp pectrometer. Note that tim me zero is the e time just aft ter the mixing g of thereact tants. rage rate of th he reaction ca an be defined d as the chang ge in the reactant The aver concentr rationoveracertain c timein nterval.Thatis,
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Average A rate=[Br]final[B Br]initial tfinaltin nitial = [Br] t Where [Br] = [Br]final [Br]in nitial and t = tfinal tiniti ial. Because the t ation of Br de ecreases duri ing the time interval, i [Br r] is a negati ive concentra quantity. But the speed d of thereacti ion is a positi ive quantity, so s a minus si ign isneededinthespeedexpressionto omaketheratepositive.
SEL LF-CHECK 5. .3
Thevolume v ofO2gas g produceddue d tothedeco ompositionofH2O2isrecorded d asfollows: Time e(min) 0 2 4 6 8 10 3 Volu ume(cm ) 0 60 78 82 84 4 84 i. D Draw agraphof o thevolumeof o theO2gasagainsttime. ii. C Calculate the average a rate of reaction and the t rate of reac ction at the thir rd m minute.
5.3
FACTO ORSAFF FECTING GTHESPEED S OF O AREA ACTION
Some che emical reactions are fast; others are slow w. Sometimes s chemists wa ant tospeedup u theslowones o andslow wdownthefas stones. Thereareseveralfacto orsthataffectthespeedofareaction:
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Part ticlesizeofth hereactants; Con ncentrationof fthereactants s; Pres ssureofgaseo ousreactants; ; Tem mperature;and Cata alysts.
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If you want to produce as much of a product as possible with the shortest amount of timeviaa chemical reaction, you must consider the kinetics of the reaction.
5.3.1 EffectofParticleSizeofChemicalReactants
Reaction depends on collisions. The more surface area on which collisions canoccur,thefasterthereaction. You can hold a burning match to a large chunk of coal and nothing will happen. But if you take that same piece of coal, grind it up very, very fine, throw it up into the air, and strike a match, youll get an explosion because oftheincreasedsurfaceareaofthecoal. We find that small pieces of solids, especially powders, react faster than larger pieces. It is like frying two pans of chips! One has the potato cut into small,thinchips.Theotherpanhasbigger,thickerchips(Figure5.10).Which chips do you think will be cooked first?Which chips have the larger surface area? Surfaceareaisameasureofhowmuchsurfaceisexposed.Soforthesame massofpotato,smallchipshavealargersurfaceareathanbigchips.
Figure5.10:Smallchipswithlargersurfacearea
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Let us carry out Experiment 5.2 to see how particle size can affect the speed ofchemicalreaction. Experiment5.2 1. Repeat Experiment 5.1 but replace medium marble chips with smallmarblechips. 2. The mass of small marble chips, the volume and concentration of hydrochloricacidusedarethesame. 3. Plot the graph of the volume of carbon dioxide released against timeonthegraphpaperasinExperiment5.1. 4. Calculatetheaveragespeedofreactionandintherateofreaction inthesecondminuteforthisexperiment. 5. Repeat Experiment 5.1 once again but at this time replace mediummarblechipswithlargemarblechips.

Now, can you explain how the particle size of chemical reactants can affect the speed of reaction?Observe Figure 5.11 to help you with your explanation. SELF-CHECK 5.4
From the figure given, Which size of marble chips has the largest surface area? What would the graph look like if we use the same mass of powdered calcium carbonate? Explain why.
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(b) Figure5.11:(a)Biggersizedreactant;(b)Smallersizedreactant (a)
The smaller the size of reactant, the larger is the surface area exposed. This translatestoanincreasetothespeedofchemicalreaction. ACTIVITY 5.4 Pour800mlofwaterintwodifferentpots.Put1kgofwholechicken without cutting it into the first pot and in another pot put another 1kg of chiken that had been cut in eight.Which pot of chicken will bedonefirst?Explainwhy.
5.3.2EffectofConcentrationofChemicalReactants
Increasingthenumberofcollisionswillspeedupthereactionrate.Themore reactant molecules there are colliding, the faster the reaction will be. As the concentration becomes higher, the numberof molecules perunit volume also increases (Figure 5.12). For example, a wood splint burns moderately in the air(20percentoxygen),butitburnsmuchfasterinpureoxygen.
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(a)
(b)
Figure5.12:(a)Lowconcentration;(b)Highconcentrationofreactant
In most simple cases, increasing the concentration of the reactants increases thespeedofreaction.However,ifthereactioniscomplexandhasacomplex mechanism (series of steps in the reaction), this may not be the case. Determining the concentration effect on the speed of reaction can give you clues as to which reactant is involved in the rate, thus determining the step ofthemechanism. You can do this by testingthe reaction withseveral different concentrations andobservingtheeffectonthespeedofreactionasinExperiment5.3.
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Experiment5.3 1. Usingapencil,markanXonapieceofwhitepaper,asfollows:
3. 4. 2. Usingthe50cmmeasuringcylinder,measure50cmof0.2moldm sodium thiosulphate solution and pour it into a conical flask. Place theflaskontheXmarkonthewhitepaper. Measure 5cm of 1 mol dm sulphuric acid with a 10cm measuring cylinder. Immediately, pour the sulphuric acid into the conical flask containing 50cm of sodium thiosulphate solution and shake the flask.Atthesametime,startthestopwatch. 5. Observe the yellow precipitate of sulphur at the top part of the conical flask. Record the time when the X mark on the white paperisnolongervisible. Repeat the experiment using 50cm of the 0.4 mol dm, 0.6mol dm, 0.8 mol dm and 1.0 mol dmsodium thiosulphate solution.The volume and concentration of the sulphuric acid used arethesame. 7. Plottwographs: a) Graph of concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution against time. b) Graph of the concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution against1Time Calculate the average speed of reaction for all the experiment. What canberepresentedby1Time?
6. 8.
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Sodiumth hiosulphatesolutionreacts swithdilutesulphuricacidataverylo ow speedtoform f ayellow wprecipitateof o sulphur,S(Figure5.8).The T chemical equationfor f thereactio onis: Na2S2O3(aq)+H2SO4(aq)Na N 2SO4(aq)+S(s)+SO2(g g)+H2O(l)
Figur re5.13:Theyel llowprecipitateofsulphur [Source:
http://ww ww.sciencequi iz.net/lcchem mistry/rates/m matching/conc/ /rate_conc.htm m] Thegraph hobtainedfro omExperimen nt5.3shouldbeshownasfollows: a) Gr raphofconce entrationofso odiumthiosul lphatesolutio onagainsttim me
Time until l cross can no long ger be seen (s) Concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution (mol/dm3)
Figure5.1 14:Graphofconcentration c nofsodiumth hiosulphateso olutionagainst time
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b) Graphofconcentrationofsodiumthiosulphatesolutionagainsttime
Concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution (mol/dm3)
-1 Time (s )
Figure5.15:Graphofconcentrationofsodiumthiosulphatesolutionagainst time From Experiment 5.3, the time taken for the formation of a fixed quantity of sulphur to cover the mark X until it disappears from sight can be used to measurethespeedofreaction. Speedofreactionisdirectlyproportionalto: 1 timetakenforthemarkXtodisappearfromsight

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5.3.3 EffectofPressureofGaseousReactants
The pressure of gaseous reactants has basically the same effect as concentration. The higher the reactant pressure, the higher the reaction speed.Thisisduetotheincreasednumberofcollisions(Figure5.16).
Figure5.16:(a)Lowpressure;(b)Highpressure
5.3.4 EffectofTemperature
Increasing the temperature causes molecules to move faster, so there is an increased chance of them colliding with each other and reacting. But increasing the temperature also increases the average kinetic energy of the molecules. Figure 5.17shows an example of how increasing the temperature affects the kineticenergyofthereactantsandincreasesthereactionspeed.
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Figure5.17:Theeffectoftemperatureonthekineticenergyofreactants
Atanygiventemperature,notallofthemoleculesaremovingwiththesame kinetic energy. A small number of molecules are moving very slow (low kinetic energy), while a few are moving very fast (high kinetic energy). A vast majority of the molecules are somewhere in between these two extremes. In fact, temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules. As you can see in Figure 5.17, increasing the temperature increases the average kinetic energy of the reactants, essentially shifting the curvetotherighttowardshigherkineticenergies. But also notice the minimum amount of kinetic energy needed by the reactants to provide the activation energy (the energy required to get a reaction going) during collision. The reactants have to collide at the reactive site, but they also have to transfer enough energy to break the bonds so that new bonds can be formed. If the reactants do not have enough energy, a reactionwillnotoccurevenifthereactantsdocollideatthereactivesite. Notice that at the lower temperature, very few of the reactant molecules have the minimum amount of kinetic energy needed to provide the activation energy. At the higher temperature, many more molecules possess
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the minimum amount of kinetic energy needed, which means a lot more collisionswillbeenergeticenoughtoleadtoreaction. Increasing the temperature not only increases the number of collisions but also increases the number of collisions that are effective that transfer enoughenergytocauseareactiontotakeplace(Figure5.18).
Figure5.18:EffectoftemperatureonthereactionbetweenparticleAandparticleB
ACTIVITY 5.5
Design and carry out an experiment to study the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction. The various temperatures that are suggested for this experiment are 30C, 35C, 40C, 45C and 50C. The materials and apparatus supplied are as shown in the following: Materials: 1 mol dm sulphuric acid, H2SO4, 0.2 mol dm sodium thiosulphatesolution,Na2S2O4,whitepaper. Apparatus: 100cm conical flask, 50cm measuring cylinders, stopwatch,Bunsenburner,wiregauze,tripodstand,thermometer.
Calculatetherateofreactionatthethirdminute.
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5.3.5 EffectofCatalysts s
Catalysts s are substan nces that inc crease the re eaction speed d without be eing changed d at the end of o the reactio on themselves. They incre ease the react tion speedby yloweringthe eactivationenergyforthe ereaction. Figure 5.19 5 represent ts the minim mum amount of kinetic en nergy needed d to provide the activatio on energy fo or the reactio on with catal lyst. This me eans e molecules will w then hav ve the minim mum energy needed, n thus the thatmore reactionwillbefaster r.
Figure5.19:Energy E profilediagram d showstheactivation nenergy
Catalysts slowertheac ctivationener rgyofareacti ionintwowa ays:

i. ii.
Providingasu P urfaceandori ientation;and d P Providing an alternative mechanism m (se eries of steps s for the react tion to ogothrough) )withalower ractivationenergy.
We obse ervedin study ying the deco omposition of f hydrogen peroxide p that the reaction speed depen nds on the concentration of o iodine ions s,I ,eventhoug gh it t appear in th he overall eq quation. We noted n there th hat iodine ion n, I does not actsasacatalystforth hatreaction.
A catalyst is a sub bstance that increa ases the speed of a chemical reactio on without being consumed. c
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The catalyst may react to form an intermediate, but it is regenerated in a subsequent step of the reaction. In the laboratory preparation of molecular oxygen, a sample of potassium chlorate is heated, as shown in Figure 5.19, andthereactionisnotedasfollows: 2KCIO(s)2KCI(s)+3O(g) However, this thermal decomposition will occurvery slowly in the absence of a catalyst. The rate of decomposition can be increased dramatically by adding a small amount of the catalyst manganese (MnO), a powdery black substance.AlloftheMnOcanberecoveredattheendofthereaction,justas alloftheiodineions,I,remainfollowingHOdecomposition. Regardlessofitsnature,acatalystspeedsupareactionbyprovidingasetof elementary steps with a more favourable kinetics than those that exist in its absence. The smaller the activation energy, E, the greater the rate. In many cases, a catalyst increases the rate by lowering the activation energy for the reaction.
LetuscarryoutExperiment5.4tostudytheeffectofcatalystonthespeedof reaction.

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Experiment5.4 1. Fill the basin and small measuring cylinder with water. Invert the measuring cylinder into the basin that is filled with water (Figure 5.20). 2. Measure 50cm of20volume of hydrogen peroxide solutionusing ameasuringcylinderandpouritintotheconicalflask. 3. Put a weighing bottle containing a half spatulamanganese (IV) oxidepowderintothehydrogenperoxidesolution. 4. Immediately cover the conical flask with the rubber stopper and shaketheflaskslowly.Startthestopwatchatthesametime. 5. Record the volume of oxygen released every 30 seconds for 300 seconds(5minutes). 6. Repeat the experiment by adding a spatula of manganese (IV) oxidepowder. 7. The volume and concentration of the hydrogen peroxide solution usedarethesame. 8. Then, plot two graphs of the volume of gas against time with differentamountofcatalyst,onthesamegraphpaper. 9. Calculate the average rate of reaction for each experiment. Does theamountofcatalystincreasetherateofreaction? Figure5.20:SetupoftheapparatusforExperiment5.4
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The graph obtained from Experiment 5.4 should be as shown in the following:
Figure5.21:Theeffectofcatalystonthespeedofreactionofhydrogenperoxide solution
SELF-CHECK 5.5 European regulations state that all new cars have to be fitted with catalytic convertersaspartoftheirexhaustsystem.
UsingtheInternetand/orotherresources, explain how catalytic converters work.In your explanation, state the name of catalystused.
ACTIVITY 5.6 Thefollowingtwosetsofexperimentsarecarriedout: Set I 1g of granulated zinc is added to 30cm3 of 0.5 mol/dm3 hydrochloricacid Set II 1g of granulated zinc is added to 30cm3 of 0.5 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid and 2cm3 of 1 mol/dm3 copper(II) sulphate solution. Explain why the initial rate of set II is higher than that of set I using thecollisiontheory.
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5.4
THEEFFECTOFACTIVATION ENERGYONTHESPEEDOFA REACTION
Allmoleculespossessacertainminimumamountofenergy.Theenergycan be in the form of kinetic energy and/or potential energy. When molecules collide, the kinetic energy of the molecules can be used to stretch, bend and ultimatelybreakthebonds,leadingtochemicalreactions. If molecules are moving too slowly with little kinetic energy, or collided withanimproperorientation,theywillnotreactandsimplybounceoffeach other.However,ifthemoleculesaremovingatafastenoughvelocitywitha proper collision orientation, such as the kinetic energy upon collision is greater than the minimum energy barrier, then a reaction will occur. The minimum energy barrier thatmustbe met for a chemical reaction to happen is called the activation energy, Ea.It can be represented by trying to push a stonetotheothersideasshowninFigure5.22.

Figure5.23:ThemanistryingtopushthestonefrompointAtopointB [Source:http://sites.tenafly.k12.nj.us/~shilfstein/demo_notes.htm]
The reaction pathway can be observed in Figure 5.23. In order to get the product to react, the reactant has to overcome the activation energy, or a new product cannot be achieved if it does not have the same amount of energy.
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Ea
Ea
Figure5.2 24:Reactionwi ithhigheractiv vationenergy(a) ( andloweractivation a energ gy (b)
The activa ation energy, Ea is also kn nown as a tran nsition state (Figure ( 5.24). In achemica alreaction,th hetransitionstateisdefinedasthehighestenergysta ate of the sys stem. If the molecules m in the t reactants collide with enough kine etic energy an nd this energ gy is higher than t the trans sition state energy, then the t reactionwill w happenan ndproductswill w form. In other words, the higher h the activation a ene ergy, the har rder it is for r a t occur and d vice versa. However, if f a catalyst is added to the t reaction to reaction, the t activation n energy is lo owered becau use of the low wered transiti ion state. The e lower the activation en nergy, the hig gher the spe eed of chemical reaction.
Activa ationenergy,Ea,istheenergy ybarrierthatmust m beove ercomebythecollidingparti iclesofthereac ctants sotha atthereactioncan c occur!
SELF-CHEC CK 5.5
1. 2.
Activation n energy can be b decreased by adding a catalyst. Why y do weneedto oovercomethe t activation nenergy? Whatisth hetransitionstate? s
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The e speed of chemical c rea action can al lso be stated d as the rate e of rea action.Itisameasurement m tofhowfastareaction a take esplace. bservable cha anges of reac ctants and pr roducts can be measured d to Ob calculatethespe eedofreaction. e average spe eed of reactio on is the spee ed of reaction over an inter rval The oftime. t e instantaneo ous speed of reaction is th he speed of re eaction ata gi iven The tim me. ctorsthataffe ectthespeedof o reactionare: Fac
i. ii. iii. iv. v.
Particle siz ze of the reac ctants the sm maller the siz ze of particle the largerthetotalsurfacearea. a ationofthereactantsasth heconcentrati ionincreases, ,the Concentra numberof fparticleperunit u volumeincreases. i Pressure of gaseous reactantshig gher pressur re increases the eaction. speedofre Temperatu urehigherte emperaturewill w increaseth hekineticene ergy ofparticleandincreasethespeedofreaction. s upthereactionwith houtundergoi ingchange. Catalystsspeed
tivation energy mustbe ov vercome for the chemical reaction to take t Act pla ace.
onenergy Activatio Catalyst Collision n Concentr ration Effect neousspeedof o reaction Instantan
Partic clessize Press sure Produ uct React tant Speed dofreaction Trans sitionstate

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Atkins,P.W.(1994).Phy ysicalchemistr ry.Oxford:OxfordUnivers sityPress. Chang,R. .(1989).Chem mistry.NewYork: Y McGraw wHill. U HodderEducation. E Earl,B.,&Wilford,D.(2009).IGCSEchemistry.UK: Eng, N. H.,& H Lim, Y. Y C. (2007). Focus super chemistry. Ba angi: Penerbit tan Pela angi. Moore,J.T T.Chemistryfo ordummies.Riv verStHobok ken,NJ:Wiley y. ). Reaction ra ate. Odufalu, F., Chacha, P., Mudda, G. & Iskandar A. (n.d.) Retrieved dfrom http://che emwiki.ucdav vis.edu/Physic cal_Chemistry y/Kinetics/Re eaction_Rates/R eaction_R Rate
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TOPIC 6: HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS I TOPIC 7: HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS II
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TOPIC 6: HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS I TOPIC 7: HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS II

Readings Rose Marie Gallgher (1997). Complete Chemistry, Oxford Universiti Press, UK. Ralph A. Burns (2003). Fundamentals of Chemistry, Prentice Hall, Ney Jersey Bryan Milner, Jean Martin, John Mills (2002). Core Chemistry, Cambridge Universiti Press J. G. R. Briggs (2003). Chemistry Insight, Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd. Singapore J.G. R. Briggs (2003). Science in Focus Chemistryfor GCE O Level, Pearson Education Asia Pte.Ltd. Singapore. Bahagian Pendidikan Guru, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (1995) Buku Sumber Pengajaran Pembelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah, Jilid 3: Strategi Pengajarandan Pembelajaran Sains. Projek PIER Bahagian Pendidikan Guru sertadan Bahagian Perancangan dan Penyelidikan Dasar Pendidikan, Kuala Lumpur Whitten, K.W., Davis, R.E.,Peck,M.L and Stanley, GG. (2008). Chemistry (Ninth Edition).2010 Brooks/Cole. Keywords . . . . . . . . alcohols and phenols primary, secondary and tertiary polymerization polymers condensation reaction condensation polymerizations nylon carboxylic acids
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Learning Outcomes At the end of this Topic, the learner will be able to; 1. Ability to differentiate between alcohols and phenols. 2. Ability to differentiate between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols. Illustrate by writing names and formulas for three alcohols of each type. 3. Explain the trends in boiling points and solubilities of alcohols in water. 4. Describe the physical properties of alcohol. 5. Describe some uses of alcohol. 6. Describe polymerization, write equations for three polymerization reactions, explain two classes of polymers and naming three polymers commonly found in the classroom and give their uses or functions. 7. Give an example of a condensation reaction. Name the essential feature of monomers used in the condensation polymerizations. 8. Define nylon? Describe in your own words how nylon is prepared. 9. Define carboxylic acids. Write structural formals for five carboxylic acids. 10. Define esters. Write structural formulas for four esters. Study Questions Task 1 : Read section 27-9 Alcohols and phenols and answer questions 1 3 (a) What do you understand about alcohols and phenols? (b) How do they differ? (c ) Why are alcohols and phenols be viewed as derivatives of hydrocarbons? Task 2 : Can you differentiate between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols? Illustrate by writing names and formulas for three alcohols of each type. Task 3 : Refer to Table 27-8. Explain the trends in boiling points and solubilities of alcohols in water.
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Task 4 : Describe the physical properties of alcohol. Refer to Page 998-999. Task 5 : Describe some uses of alcohol. Refer to Page 999 for the information. Task 6 : Refer to page 1020-1024 for questions 6 - 8. In your own words, (i) describe polymerization. (ii) write equations for three polymerization reactions. (iii) explain two classes of polymers. (iv) Name three polymers commonly found in the classroom and give their uses or functions. Task 7 : Give an example of a condensation reaction. Name the essential feature of monomers used in the condensation polymerizations. Task 8 : What is nylon? Describe in your own words how nylon is prepared. Task 9 : Refer to section 27-13 Carboxylic acids for questions 9 - 10. Define carboxylic acids. Write structural formals for five carboxylic acids. Task 10 : Define esters. Write structural formulas for four esters.
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TOPIC 8: NATURAL MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED OR MANMADE MATERIALS
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Topic

Natural Materials and Manufactured or Man-made Materials
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Bytheendofthistopic,youshouldbeableto: 1. Definematerial; 2. Describeeachtypeofmaterials; 3. Explainthepropertiesofmaterials; 4. Statetheimportanceofmaterials; 5. Comparenaturalmaterialsandmanufacturedmaterials; 6. Describehowtopreserveournaturalmaterials; 7. Describecompositematerials;and 8. Discuss the materials in industry in the context of soap, natural and syntheticrubber,naturalandsyntheticfibreandplastics.
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TOPIC 8 NATURAL MATERIALS & MANUFACTURED OR MAN-MADE MATERIALS 71
INTRODUCTION
Materialsarethethingsthatyoucanobserveallaroundyou.Fromfallingrain to plants and human beings, from window curtains to floor mats and from computers to printing materials, these are all materials. The air that you breatheinandoutisalsoamaterial. Materialsareveryusefultohumanbeingsfortheirsurvival.Theynotonlyuse naturalmaterialsbutalsocreatenewmaterialsinordertofulfiltheirneeds.
8.1
DEFINITION, PROPERTIES AND IMPORTANCE OF MATERIALS
A cloud is seen as a bulk of moving object in the air. When it is very heavy, it starts to drop tiny droplets of water. When the sun shines on the water droplets,itturnstovapour.Haveyoueverthoughtoftheprocessesthatoccur inthisevent? This event is just one in a thousand of events that involve materials. Materials are the things all around you. Materials have mass and occupy space. Gases, woods,plastics,foods,animalsandwaterareallexamplesofmaterials. According to the ancient Greek, there should be four things to make up a substance.Thesefourthingsareearth,fire,airandwater.TheGreeksbelieved that these four things mix together in different amounts to make different materials.
8.1.1 Definition of Materials

Whatismaterial?Materialisdefinedasfollows. Material is made up of thousands of small particles, not visible to the nakedeye, called atoms. The composition of atoms inthe material makes it differentfromoneanother.
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72 TOPIC 8 NATURAL MATERIALS & MANUFACTURED OR MAN-MADE MATERIALS
Based on these compositions of atom, material can be divided into three categories:element,compoundandmixture. (i) Element An element is the simplest substance of a material. It cannot be broken down or separated by chemical or physical methods into any simpler components. An element is made up of only one type of atom. Some elements have atoms of the same types, which are combined to form molecules.Thereare112typesofelements,inwhich92oftheseelements occurnaturallyintheearthand20arecreatedbyscientists. Elements can be grouped into metals and nonmetals. Gold, zinc, iron, aluminium, oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen are examples of elements. Figure 8.1 shows the atom of an element with its nucleus at the centre andelectronsmovingaroundthenucleus.
Figure8.1:Theatomofanelement
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(b) CombinedElements Therearetwotypesofcombinedelementscompoundsandmixtures. (i) Compound Two or more elements can be combined together chemically to form a new material called a compound. A molecule is the smallest particle in a compound. Water is an example of a compound. A water molecule is made up of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms,whicharecombinedchemically(seeFigure8.2).
Oxygen atom
Hydrogen atoms
Figure8.2:Watermolecule
ACTIVITY 8.1
Look outside your laboratory. Identify the objects and list down the objects. They are made of different types of materials. Most of the materials are made from a combination of elements. Some are made of only one type of element. Can you guess which objects are made of only one element? Can you name the element in each case? Write downyourfindings. Table8.1showsseveraltypesofcompoundsanditselements.
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Carbon dioxide
Table8.1:SeveralTypesofCompounds
Compound Sodium chloride Benzene Ammonia Water Elements One carbon atom, two oxygen atoms One sodium atom, one chloride atom Six carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms One nitrogen atom, three hydrogen atom One oxygen atom, two hydrogen atoms
The components of a compound cannot be separated by physical methods such as crushing or by magnetic force. Components of a compound can be separated by chemical methods. For example, pure water can be broken down into its elements that are oxygen and hydrogen by using electrolysis. Compounds can be prepared by a chemical reaction. Heat energy is released or absorbed when a compound is formed. This will form a new substance that is different from its early substances. The characteristics of a combination of elements which are combined by specific ratios are different from each of the origin element.
ACTIVITY 8.2 ACTIVITY 8.2

Have you ever burnt a magnesium ribbon? Magnesium and oxygencanbecombinedtomakeacompound.Holdasmallpiece of magnesium ribbon by using a tong and move it slowly into a flame. Observe the appearance of magnesium and oxygen before andafteritwasburnt.Identifytheendproductoftheexperiment. (ii) Mixtures Materialthatismadeupofacombinationoftwoormoresubstances that are combined physically is called a mixture. This means that the mixture can be separated by physical methods such as filtration, evaporation, distillation, chromatography, extraction, precipitation, magnetic forces, sieving and heating or evaporation processes. By theseseparationmethods,thechemicalstructureofthecomponentis notchangedbecausethesubstanceinamixturedoesnotunite.
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Therearetwotypesofmixturehomogenousandheterogeneous.A homogenous mixture is formed when its substances are mixed evenly and the identity of each substance cannot be identified easily. A heterogeneous mixture is formed when its substance can be identified easily. When sugar is put in a glass of hot drink, it becomes a homogenous mixture. A mixture of sulphur with iron fillings and air are examples of a heterogeneous mixture (see Table 8.2).
Table8.2:SeveralTypesofMixtures Mixture Air Soil Seawater Chocolate cake Blood Components Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, inert gases,microorganismsandwatervapour Water,clay,loam,sand,humus,gravel Sodium chloride, water, magnesium, plumbum, oxygen Flour,water,oil,egg,chocolatepowder Blood cells, hormones, minerals, water, plasma, oxygen
During the formation of a mixture, heat energy is not absorbed or released. There is also no combination of elements in a specific ratio andeachcomponentretainsitsoriginalproperty.Thecomponentsof amixturecanbeeasilyidentified.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. Whatisamaterial? 2. Nameafewexamplesofmaterials.
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ACTIVITY 8.3
Do you know how to separate gases in the air? What are the proceduresthatshouldbetakentoturnitintoliquid?Discusswith yourcoursemates.
(c) Making New Materials Some materials around us are natural while others are man-made. Wool from sheep and wood from trees are natural materials. All these materials are made from elements. Scientists sometimes combine elements in new ways. This is a way to make useful man-made materials. Synthetic materials are an example of man-made materials. SELF-CHECK 8.2 Statethetypesofcombiningelements.
8.1.2 Properties of Materials

What are the physical properties of materials? Matter is the general word for all materials. Therefore, specific matter such as wood, stone and paper are called material. We know that materials can be divided into two types natural materials and synthetic materials. Natural materials are made from organic material like paper or inorganic material like sand and lava. Humans cannot create natural materials. However, scientists have managed to make syntheticmaterials.Plasticsandceramicsaretwotypesofsyntheticmaterials. Each material has its unique physical properties, which means different materials have different properties. Some of the important physical properties of materials are elasticity, shine, buoyancy, water absorbency, electrical conductivity, heat conductivity and magnetism. Other physical properties of materials are hardness, toughness and brittleness, strength, flexibility, solubilityandwaterproof.
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Scientists distinguish material properties according to their interesting contextualfactors.Amongthesepropertiesare: (a) Mechanicalpropertieslikeelasticity;
(b) Thermodynamicpropertieslikespecificheatcapacityandmeltingpoint; (c) Electromagnetic properties like specific magnetic susceptibility and specificelectricconductivity;
(d) Chemical properties like the capacity for oxidation or the solubility in a certainliquid; (e) Biological or biochemical properties like LD50, antibiotic or anaesthetic effect; (f) Ecological properties like ozone depletion potential, greenhouse effect factor;and
(g) Mixed material properties (two or more interesting factors are combined) like photochemical, thermoelectrical, thermoelectro chemical. Letusnowtakealookatthetypesofmaterialproperties. (a) Elasticity Whatiselasticity? Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape and sizeafterbeingbent,twisted,stretchedandsqueezed. Materials that are able to return to their old shape when force is no longer applied are called elastic materials. However, materials which retaintheirnewshapeswhenforceisnolongerappliedarecalledplastic materials or nonelastic materials. Some materials such as rubber bands, balloons and gloves are elastic materials but some materials such as plastic, wood and belt are nonelastic materials. To determine whether materials are elastic or nonelastic, you may need to carry out some activity.
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Scientists spend a lot of their time investigating the properties of materials mainly to find out how they behave in a variety of situations. The most important property is how a particular material responds to forces. When an elastic material is pulled, it stretches and increases in length. However, the increase in length will stop when it reaches a point where the material no longer returns to its original shape. This pull is also known as the elastic limit of the material. If the pull still increases, thematerialmaybreakdown(pleaserefertoFigure8.3).
Figure8.3:Effectofforceonmaterials (i) ElasticChange When enough force is applied to an object, it deforms. However, when the force is removed, the material will often return to its originalshape. PlasticChange When a larger force is applied, a material may continue to deform. However,whentheforceisremoved,itwillstayinthisnewshape.
(ii)
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(iii) Break If enough force is applied to a material, it will become brittle and eventuallybreakorfracture.
Somematerialsthatexhibitelasticbehaviourare: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) SELF-CHECK 8.3 1. Statetheimportanceofphysicalpropertiesofmaterials. 2. Giveanexampleofamaterialforeachphysicalproperty. (b) Shiny Whenitcomestomaterialproperties,whatdoesshinymean? Some materials are shiny and some are not. Shiny materials can reflectthelightsuchassometypesofmetalsandglasses. Shineisimportantinmakingjewelleryandaccessories.Inrelationtothis shiny property of materials, some materials allow light to pass through them but some do not. Materials such as glass and plastic allow light to pass through them. On the other hand, materials such as wood and metal do not allow light to pass through them. According to the ability of materials to allow light to pass through them, materials can also be Rubber: Large deformation if warm, then fracture or small deformationandfractureifcold; Metals:Smalldeformation,thenpermanentlydeform; Ceramics:Smalldeformation,thenfracture; Electronicmaterials:Smalldeformation,thenfractureordeform; Glass:Smalldeformation,thenfracture. Humanskin:Largedeformations. Polymers:Temperaturedependent. Liquidsunderuniformhydrostaticpressure.
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divided into three types. There are transparent materials, translucent materials and opaque materials. Figure 8.4 shows objects made of transparent,translucentandopaquematerials.
Figure8.4:Objectsmadeoftransparent,translucentandopaque materials Transparentmaterials If the materials allow most of the light to pass through them, it is known as transparent materials. Examples of this type are glass, plain plastic, air, water, aquariums, some doors and walls of buildings made from clear glass. We can clearly see objects behind thesematerials. Translucentmaterials If the materials allow some of the light to pass through them, it is known as translucent materials. Objects behind a translucent material cannot be seen clearly. It will appear blurred. Examples of these materials are tissue paper, wrapping plastic, some window panes,bulbs,foodcontainersandsunglasses. Opaquematerials Opaque materials are materials which cannot allow any light to pass through them. We cannot see anything behind opaque materials. Metals, woods, rubber, bricks, roofs, walls, bags, hats and paper boxesareexamplesofthesematerials.
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(c)
Buoyancy How do we define buoyancy? Let us take a look at the following definition. Buoyancyistheabilityofmaterialstofloatinliquid. Why do some things float? Dense objects sink and light objects float. Therefore, buoyancy is also related to density. Density is mass per unit of volume. Floatingisrelatedtothevolumeofliquiddisplacedbyanobject.Theliquidis pushedasidewhenanobjectisplacedinit.Therefore,ourbodydisplacesthe water. When an object floats in water, only a part of it displaces the water. Theotherpartoftheobjectremainsabovethewater.Theobjectsfloataftera definite amount of water is displaced. According to Archimedes, the ancient Greekphysicist,whenthemassofthedisplacedliquidisequaltothemassof the objects, the objects will float. Plastic, wood and rubber are examples of floatingmaterials.Figure8.5showsfloatingmaterialsandliquidsofdifferent densities.
Figure8.5:Floatingmaterialsandliquidsofdifferentdensities
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(d) WaterAbsorbency Materials which can absorb water are known as absorbent materials and materials which cannot absorb water are known as nonabsorbent materials.Thematerialsthatareabletoabsorbwaterbecomecompletely wet. Examples of absorbent materials are wood, paper and cotton cloth. Raincoats, umbrellas, plastic and hats are examples of nonabsorbent materials. ACTIVITY 8.4 Your friends child is asking you about absorbent materials. How do you explain to your friends child to test absorbent and non-absorbent materials? Discuss in pairs. (e) ElectricalConductivity
ACTIVITY 8.4
A material that allows electricity to pass through it is a material that conductselectricity.Almostalltypesofmetalsuchaszinc,copper,brass andgoldarematerialsthatconductelectricity.Nonmetalssuchasglass, wood, plastic, cotton wool and leather are materials that do not conduct electricity. Electrical conductivity is a measure of the ease with which an electricalcurrentcanmoveinamaterial.Itmaybeinferredbylookingat their resistivity, which refers to its ability to resist the passage of an electricalcurrent.Figure8.6showsthetestofelectricalconduction.
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Figure8.6:Testofelectricalconduction
ACTIVITY 8.5
How do you test for electrical conduction? Arrange equipment to find out which materials are electrical conductors and which are electrical insulators. Figure 8.6 will help you do the test. Place the material between the battery and the bulb to be tested. See what happens to the lightbulb. Test several types of samples such as pencil, flower, soil, waterandspoon. Table8.3summarisestheelectricalresistivityofsomecommonmaterials. Table8.3:ElectricalResistivityofSomeCommonMaterials
Materials Copper Aluminium Iron Steel Pyrexglass Concrete Nylon Rubber Softwood ElectricalResistivity(108ohms/m) 1.67 2.65 9.71 12.0 105 0.1 1016
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(f)
HeatConductivity Whatisheatconductivity? A material that allows heat to pass through it easily is a material that conductsheat.
Metals can conduct heat while nonmetals cannot conduct heat. Each material conducts heat in its own special way. A good conductor would beusedinradiatorswhereasapoorconductorwouldbeusedtoinsulate extremeheat. Scientists have a way of measuring the value of how well heat is conducted.Ifthevalueofamaterialislarger,itisabetterheatconductor compared to materials with small values. Table 8.4 shows the values of heat conduction of some materials. A piece of copper with a heat conduction value of about 8000 is a better heat conductor than foamed plastic with a heat conduction value of about 1 because copper ranks higherthanplastic.
Table8.4:ValuesofHeatConductionofSomeMaterials Materials Copper Aluminium Brass Steel Pyrexglass Concrete Solidplastic Rubber FoamedPlastic ValuesofHeatConduction(Relative) 8000 4000 2500 1100 24 2 6 2 1
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(g) Magnetism Magnetism is the property of materials to attract iron, for example, iron oxide, cobalt, nickel and certain types of alloy. Actually, it is quite difficult to explain the definition of magnetism; however, it is much easier to explain what magnets do. Some of the characteristics of magnetismareasfollows. (i) (ii) Magneticmaterialscanbeattractedbymagnets; Attractionmayhappenfromadistance;
(iii) Everymagnethastwopoles:northandsouthpoles; (iv) Differentpoleswillbeattractedbutsimilarpoleswillberepelled; (v) Theregionaroundamagnetisknownasamagneticfield;
(vi) Bringing iron into close contact with a magnet will produce a temporarymagnet; (vii) Bringing steel into close contact with a magnet will produce a permanentmagnet;and (viii) Magnetismisreducedbyheatingorhammeringamagnet. (h) OtherPropertiesofMaterials Other properties of materials are hardness, toughness and brittleness, strength, flexibility, solubility and waterproof. Table 8.5 summarises theseproperties. Table8.5:OtherPropertiesofMaterials Properties Hardness Explanation The shape of a hard material is difficult to change. It will dent or scratch a softer material. It can also withstand impactwithoutchanging.
Toughness Resistance to breaking by cracking. It is the opposite of and brittle. It may be dented by the impact but it is difficult to brittleness break. Strength The material is difficult to break by applying force.
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Materials may have tensile strength and compressive strength. Tensile strength means resistance to stretching such as squeezing and pulling on the rope. It depends on its crosssectional area. Compressive strength means resistance to pressure, meaning it is hard to break by crushing. Flexibility Solubility The material, which is easy to bend without breaking, has bothtensilestrengthandcompressivestrength. The solubility is the concentration of solute in a saturated solution. It is stated as the mass in grams of the solute that willsaturate100gramsofsolventatacertaintemperature.
Waterproof Resistancetoliquids.Repelswater.
ACTIVITY 8.6
Go on the Internet and find out more on materials and their uses based on their properties. Discuss your findings with you coursemates.
8.1.3 Importance of Materials

Materials play a pivotal role in our life, particularly in the areas of living environment,health,communication,consumergoodsandtransport.Pressing environmental concerns force us to use materials more efficiently. It will help in the long run if we develop new energy generation technologies, more energy efficient devices, and easily recyclable, less toxic materials. As far as consumer goods are concerned, we need to emphasise not only on the material products but also on the way they are handled such as packaging, fasterproductionandhigherqualitygoods. In health, materials are important to help us overcome disease and provide worldwide medical care. In transport, we need durable, highperformance materials that make travelling faster, safer and more comfortable. In
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communication, the development of new electronic inventions is very important and requires optical and magnetic materials. Without development ofmaterialsinallareas,wemayfacemanydifficulties. (a) ImportanceofPhysicalPropertiesofMaterials Knowledge about the properties of materials is very important, especially in choosing suitable materials to make various objects. Sometimes these objects need more than one type of physical property. For thousands of years, people only used natural properties of natural materials. However, scientists have now developed many new materials, influencing its propertiesintheprocess. (b) UseofPropertiesofMaterialsinEverydayLife Humans have exploited physical properties of materials for their own use in everyday life. We use materials that conduct electricity to produce conductors and insulators. We use materials that allow light to pass through them to produce transparent, translucent and opaque objects. Table 8.6 shows other uses of properties of materials in producing some everydayobjects.
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Table8.6:OtherUsesofPropertiesofMaterialsinProducingSomeEveryday Objects Property Strength Malleability Thermal conductivity Electrical conductivity Hardness Strength Heatresistance Abrasion resistance Thermal insulation Transparency Flexibility Electrical insulation Thermal insulation Lightness strength Lightness strength Flexibility, insulation and and Wood Plastics Glass Ceramics Metals Electricalcables Drillbits,hammerheads Brick,concrete Ovenware Crockery Loft,cavitywallinsulation Windows Mouldeditems Sheathingofelectricalcables Saucepanhandles Construction,windowframes Construction, frames, furniture Fabrics doors, window Materials Uses Structuralcomponents E.g.,rolledsteeljoints Waterpipes Radiators,saucepans,ovens
Curtains,clothing,furnishing
Adapted from: Farrow, S. (1996). The really useful science book: A frameworkofknowledgeforprimaryteachers.London:FalmerPress.
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8.2
NATURAL MATERIALS
All living things and nonliving things are sources of materials. Materials that are originated from nature such as living organisms, plants and animals are classified as biotic or biological derived natural material. Materials originated from soil, petroleum or metals are classified as abiotic or nonbiological naturalmaterials.Weneedthesematerialstosupportourdailyneeds. Naturalmaterialsaremadenaturallyafteralongperiodoftime.Forexample, a rubber tree may take many years to become mature and ready for cutting down to make furniture, papers and insulators. Chemistry has enabled us to synthesise new materials, which have desired properties, thus making them evenbetterthannaturalmaterialsinashorterperiodoftime. (a) IdentifyingNaturalMaterials Materials that are classified as natural materials originated from soil, rocks,water,plants,animalsorminerals.Airisamixtureofgases,which make up the earths atmosphere and has an abundance of components. PartsoftheirusescanbeseeninTable8.7. Table8.7:GasesandTheirUses Gas Nitrogen Oxygen Carbondioxide Neon Argon Helium Krypton Xenon %Present inAir 78.0 21.0 0.04 Trace Trace Trace Trace Trace Uses Nitratesinsoil,useinammoniaproduction. Respiration,oxidation,medicalapplication Photosynthesis,dryice Lighting Domesticlightbulb Airships Hightemperaturelightbulb Hightemperaturelightbulb
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Water is a colourless, odourless liquid, which is originally derived from theearthsatmosphere.Itisrecycled fromtheatmospheretothecrustof the earth. It is important because it supports life on the planet, as almost all the significant reactions at cellular level depend on the aqueous solutions. Wood,metal,leather,cotton,rubber andsilkarematerialsthataremade of natural materials. These materials are considered valuable in their relativelyunmodified(natural)form. (b) ObjectsfromNaturalMaterials Materials from natural materials vary in their use. Table 8.8 shows naturalmaterialsandtheiruses. Table8.8:NaturalMaterialsandTheirUses NaturalMaterial Rubber Wood Paraffinwaxandstearicacid Carbonblackandwateroroil Vegetablefibre Vegetablewaxes,oilandsap Animalfibre Animalproduct (c) Uses Latex Timber Candles Ink Woodpulp Carnaubawax,linseedoil Wool,alpaca Leather,tallow,lard
SourceofRawMaterials Raw materials are materials that are extracted from the earth. Processed rawmaterialsarecalledsemifinishedmaterials.Whenitistransferred intoanewcycleofproduction,theendproductisreadyforuse. The earth is the main source of raw materials. Biotic materials and non biotic materials are the types of sources of raw materials. Wood, straw, humus, spider silk, and bone are examples of biotic materials. Biotic materials are usually biodegradable, renewable and processing has minimal impact on the environment. Somehow, in certain cases,
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processing produces carbon emission. Polylactic acid, cornstarch and bioplastic are examples of nonbiodegradable biotic materials. Non biotic materials are materials that do not originate from plants and animals. Water, soil, coal, crude oil, natural gas, rocks and air are examplesofnonbioticrawmaterials. Anotherexampleiscotton.Cottonisproducedfromamaturedflowerof a cotton tree. It is harvested by plucking from a matured cotton tree flower. The fluffy white material is then brought to the factory and processedtoproducecottonthread.
SELF-CHECK 8.3
1. Whatisanaturalmaterial? 2. Statesomeobjectsthataremadefromnaturalmaterials. 3. Giveasmanyexamples asyoucanofrawmaterialsthatcanbefound inyoursurroundings.
8.3
MANUFACTURED MATERIALS
Manufactured materials are made from a mixture of natural materials through chemical processes. These materials are also called manmade materials. These materials are processed in factories with a combination of a fewdifferenttypesofmaterialsorfromonetypeofnaturalmaterial. (a) IdentifyingManufacturedMaterials Basic manufacturing processes frequently used in the production of manufactured materials are relatively simple, often involving irreversible chemical reactions. These reactions are important in order to provide further raw materials for more complicated secondary processes. The physical process of raw materials would include the refining of metals from ores, the firing of ceramic from clays and the making of glassfromsandandminerals.
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The sawing of timber, the production of paper from wood pulp and the production of latex from rubber are examples of basic manufacturing processes that involve biological raw materials. Secondary industries involve the production of plastics (including synthetic fibres such as nylon and terylene) from crude oil derivatives, detergents, paint and perfumefromcoal,andothers. Manufactured materials usually have better properties compared to the naturalmaterialsfromwhichtheycomefrom.Theyareusuallydesigned forspecificneeds,liketyresaremadeoflatexandsulphur.Metals,glass, ceramics, plastics (including rubber), paper and fabrics are examples of manufacturedmaterials.
ACTIVITY 8.7
Search the Internet for manufactured materials. Find out the propertiesofmanufacturedmaterials. (b) ObjectsfromManufacturedMaterials Table 8.9 lists a few examples of objects from manufactured materials andtheiruses.Youcanlistyourownexamplesthatareusedinourdaily life. Table8.9:ObjectsfromManufacturedMaterials Manufactured Material Synthetic Polymer Uses
Synthetic rubber
Styrenebutadiene Tyres,shoesoles rubber(SBR) Neoprenerubber Butylrubber Stainlesssteel Waterpipes,handgloves Tyres,shoesoles,hoses Cookingutensil, Medals, Cookingutensil
Metals
Bronze Duralumin
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Glass
Pyrex Crystal Brick
Laboratory utensil
apparatus,
cooking
Cookingutensil Building Building Decoration Cloth Electrical insulators, music records, pipes,bottles Synthetictextile,string,parachutes Plasticbags,foodcontainers,pails Packaging materials, heat insulators, toys Plates,cups Glue,electricalinsulators
Ceramic
Tiles Pottery
Fabric
Nylon Polyvinylchloride Nylon
Plastic
Polythene Polystyrene Melamine Epoxyglue
SELF-CHECK 8.4
1. Explainwhatmanufacturedmaterialsare. 2. State the processes that are applied to produce manufactured materials. 3. Giveexamplesofobjectsfrommanufacturedmaterials.
ACTIVITY 8.8
You are given a sample of two materials. One is a natural material and the other one is a manufactured material. In your group, plan an investigation to compare the materials by choosingasuitablecharacteristic.Makeaprediction.Thenplana fairtest.
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8.4
PRESERVATION OF NATURAL MATERIALS
Aboutacenturyago,almosttheentirecountrywascoveredwithforests.Wild cutting of forests during the early settlement caused vast areas of bared land. This phenomenon of cutting down plants for timber and development continuestoday. Preservation refers to the effort to maintain natural resources in their original state or in good condition. Generally, preservation is related to conservation. Conservation refers to the sustainable use and management of natural materialstopreventloss,wastageordamage. The importance of preservation is to ensure a continuous supply of natural resources, reduce environmental pollution, maintain balance in nature, prevent extinction of living organisms, prevent loss of habitats and keep the environmentcleanandconduciveforhealthyliving. Preservation should be practised. Some of the actions that should be taken to preservenaturalmaterialsare: (a) PreventingForestFires Forest fires are wildly destructive. Plants and wildlife are killed. Forest fires are caused by lightning (natural cause) and peoples carelessness (accidentalcause). (b) ImprovementCutting Unwanted trees in a forest are removed from the stand. Crooked, aged anddiseasedtreesaswellastreesoflessdesirablespeciesarecut.Inthis way, space is provided for the growth of healthy, more valuable trees. Thispracticeincreaseslumberyieldandimprovesitsquality. (c) EnforcementofLawsandRegulation This action is taken to protect endangered species and to prevent them from becoming extinct. Examples of protected endangered species are the Malayan tiger, Sumatran rhinoceros, leatherback turtle, orang utan (seeFigure8.7)anddeer.
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Figure8.7:Thegovernmenttodayhasenforcedlawsandregulationtoprotect theorangutanandtheirhabitat
SELF-CHECK 8.5
Whatactionsshouldwetaketopreserveournaturalmaterials?
ACTIVITY 8.9
1. Whatnaturalresourcesaredestroyedbyforestfire? 2. In a group, discuss what action should be taken to prevent forest fire.
8.5
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Composite materials are those that combine the properties of two or more constituents in order to get the exact properties needed for a particular job. The examples of material usually used are metals, alloys, glass, ceramics, plastics and polymers. A composite material has properties that are superior tothoseoftheoriginalcomponents. There are many examples of composites in nature. A tree can grow to great heights and support heavy branches because it is a composite of flexible
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cellulose fibres in a lignin matrix (see Figure 8.8). Seashells and limestone are both made of calcium carbonate, but seashells are much harder because they are composites of crystalline calcium carbonate with embedded polypeptide fibres. Figure8.8:Thecombinationofcellulosefibresandligninmakethecellwall strong Thecompositeindustrywaslaunchedintheearly1960swiththedevelopment of fibreglass or glassreinforced plastic. It is made by embedding short fibres ofglassinamatrixofplastic.Theglassfibresgivetheplasticextrastrengthso that it does not break when it is bent or moulded into shape. The finished producthasthelightnessofplasticaswellasthestrengthandflexibilityofthe glass fibres. They have found in many marine, housing, construction, sports and industrial applications. Figure 8.9 shows the use of glassreinforced plasticinmakingthebodyoftheboat. Figure8.9:Theglassreinforcedplasticusedtomakeboats
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Anothercompositematerialwhichisusuallyusedfortheconstructionoflarge structures like highrise buildings, bridges and oil platforms are reinforced concrete (see Figure 8.10). Concrete is a composite material that consists of a mixture of stones, chips and sand bound together by cement. It is strong but brittle and weak in tensile strength. To overcome this weakness, the concrete can be reinforced with steel wire netting or steel rod, which results to a very tough material with high tensile strength. Reinforced concrete is relatively cheapandcanbemouldedintoanyshape. Figure8.10:Thereinforcedconcretewithsteelwirenettingandsteelrods Thestrongestnewcompositearetheadvancedcomposites,inwhichfibresare alignedorinterwovenbeforebeingsetwithintheresin.Advancedcomposites have extraordinary strength in the direction of the aligned fibres and are relatively weak in the perpendicular direction. Weakness in one direction can be overcome by laminating layers together at different angles, as in plywood, afamiliarcomposite.Strengthinalldirectionscanbeachievedbyweavingthe fibres into a threedimensional network. Besides strength, advanced composites are also known for their lightness, which make them ideal for car parts, sporting goods and artificial limbs. Advanced composites tend to be expensive, however because much of their production is still done by hand. Aeroplane parts, and even whole aeroplane, are now being fabricated out of lightweightadvancedcompositesinordertosavefuel.In1986,thefirstplane
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built with all advanced composites material is Voyager, which can fly aroundtheworldwithoutrefuelling(seeFigure8.11). Figure8.11:ThealladvancedcompositeVoyageraeroplane 1. 2. 3. ACTIVITY 8.10 some examples found in nature other What is a composite and what are than given in the text? Where are you most likely to find composites in the marketplace today? Why are composites an ideal material for aircraft?
8.6
MATERIALS IN INDUSTRY
Letusnowlearnonthematerialsinindustry.
8.6.1 Soap
Millions of tonnes of soaps are manufactured worldwide every year (see Figure 8.12). Soap is manufactured by heating natural fats and oils of either plants or animals with a strong alkali. These fats and oils, called triglycerides, are complicated ester molecules. Pioneers prepared their soap by boiling animalfatwithanalkalinesolutionobtainedfromtheashesofhardwood.The resulting lye soap could be salted out by adding sodium choride, because soapislesssolubleinasaltsolutionthaninwater.
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Figure8.12:Soapismanufacturedbyheatingnaturalfatsandoilwithastrong alkali Nowadays, fat is boiled with aqueous sodium hydroxide to form soap. The esters are broken down in the presence of waterhydrolysed. This type of reaction is called saponification. The equation given below is that for the saponificationofglycerylstearate(afat)(seeFigure8.13). glyceryl stearate + sodium hydroxide sodium stearate + glycerol (soap) Figure8.13:Saponificationreaction
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100TOPIC 8 NATURAL MATERIALS & MANUFACTURED OR MAN-MADE MATERIALS
The cleaning properties of the soap depend on its structure and bonding. Sodium stearate consists of a long hydrocarbon chain which is hydrophobic (waterhating)attachedtoanionicheadwhichishydrophilic(water loving) (seeFigure8.14). Figure8.14:Simplifieddiagramofasoapmolecule Covalent compounds are generally insoluble in water but they are more soluble in organic solvents. Ionic compounds are generally water soluble but tend to be insoluble in organic solvents. When soap is put into water which has a greasy dish (or a greasy cloth) in it, the hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain on each soap molecule become attracted to the grease and become embedded init(Figure8.15). with agitation Figure8.15:Howsoapswork
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On the other hand, the hydrophilic ionic head group is not attracted to the grease/dirt/oilbutisstronglyattractedtothewatermolecules.Whenthewater is stirred, the grease/dirt/oil is slowly released and is completely surrounded by the soap molecules. The soap is able to remove the grease/dirt/oil because ofthecombinationofthecovalentandionicbondspresent.
8.6.2 Natural and Synthetic Rubber

In the 1930s, more than 90 per cent of the natural rubber used in the United States came from Malaysia. In the days after Pearl Harbour was attacked in December 1941 and the United States entered World War II, Japan had captured Malaysia. As a result, the United Stated faced its first natural resource crisis. The military implications were devastating because without rubber for tyres, military aeroplanes and jeepswere useless. Petroleumbased synthetic rubber had been developed in 1930 by DuPont chemist Wallace Carothers but was not widely used because it was much more expensive than natural rubber. With the ongoing war, however, cost was no longer an issue. Synthetic rubber factories were constructed across the nation, and within a fewyears,theannualproductionofsyntheticrubberrosefrom2,000tonnesto about800,000tonnes. Naturalrubberisapolymerwithitsmonomerunit,isoprene(seeFigure8.16). During polymerisation, thousands of isoprene units will join together to form poly(isoprene)ornaturalrubber(seeFigure8.17).
Figure8.16:Isopreneunit

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Figure8.17:Polyisoprene(naturalrubber)
Natural rubber commonly has highly elasticity but is unstable to heat and oxidation. When it is warmed above 50C, it softens and becomes sticky and will decompose if weheatittoatemperatureabove200C.Thepresenceofdoublebondsinthepolymer chainmakesitsusceptibletooxidationandbreaksupthepolymerchains. Vulcanisation is a manufacturing process discovered by Charles Goodyear in 1939 to convertnaturalrubberintoatoughusefulproduct.Inthisprocess,about1%to3%by weightofsulphurisaddedtorawrubberandthemixtureiscarefullyheated.Sulphur atoms form crosslinks between adjacent chains of rubber polymer at the carbon carbondoublebonds(seeFigure8.18).
Figure8.18:Vulcanisedrubbershowingdisulfidecrosslinks Synthetic rubber is any type of artificial elastomer mainly synthesised from petroleum by products. An elastomer is a material with the mechanical (or material) property that it can undergo much more elastic deformation under stress than most materials and still return to its previous size without permanent deformation. Synthetic rubber, like natural rubber, has uses in the automotive industry for door and window profiles, hoses (see Figure 8.19),
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belts, matting, flooring and dampeners (antivibration mounts). Table 8.10 showsthedifferencesbetweensyntheticrubberandnaturalrubber. Table8.10:ComparisonofPropertiesbetweenManufacturedMaterials (SyntheticRubber)andNaturalMaterials(NaturalRubber) SyntheticRubber Synthetic Abletowithstand hightemperature Verypermeableto gasandwater Doesnotreactto acidandalkali Properties Typeofpolymer Hightemperatureeffect NaturalRubber Natural Decomposesand becomeliquid
Permeabilitytogasand Notpermeabletogas water andwater Abilitytowithstand actionsofacidand alkali Abilitytoabsorb pressure,vibrationand sound Vulcanisation Reacttoacidand alkali
Lowability Canbevulcanised
Highability Easilyvulcanised
Figure8.19:Productfromsyntheticrubber
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8.6.3 Natural and Synthetic Fibres

Natural fibres can be defined as substances produced by plants and animals that can be spun into filament, thread or rope and in a next step be woven, knitted, matted or bound. The oldest fibres used by mankind are cotton (5,000BC)andsilk(2,700BC),butevenjuteandcoirhavebeencultivatedsince antiquity. The main reasons for the popularity of biocomposites or natural fibre composites are the availability and consistent quality of a wide range of fibres, and their environmental friendliness. Moreover, new production processes,suchasinjectedmouldedcomponents,makeitpossibletousethese materialsforindustrialproducts. Additional key advantages of natural fibres are their high strength and stiffness per weight along with benefits such as acoustic isolation, safety management, rapid production and potentially low cost. The most viable structural fibres typically derive from specifically grown textile plants and fruit trees. There are two categories of natural fibres, vegetable fibres and animalfibres.Vegetablefibresaresubdividedintobastfibres(flax,hemp,jute and kenaf) leaf fibres (sisal, pineapples and henequen), grass fibres (bamboo and miscanthus), straw fibres (corn and wheat), seed fibres (cotton and capok), wood fibres (pinewood) and fruit fibres (coconut), whereas animal fibres are silk, avian, hair and wool (see Figure 8.20). Figure 8.21 shows kenaf plantswhichisfromthebastfibrescategory. Figure8.20:Twocategoriesofnaturalfibres
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Figure8.21:Kenafplantsisasourceofnaturalfibre Synthetic fibres are made from synthesised polymers or small molecules. The compounds that are used to make these fibres come from raw materials such as petroleum based chemicals or petrochemicals. These materials are polymerise into a long, linear chemical that bond two adjacent carbon atoms. Different chemical compounds will be used to produce different types of fibres. Although there are several different synthetic fibres, they generally have the same common properties. Synthetic fibres are commonly very heat sensitive,resistanttomostchemicals,insect,fungiandrot.Ithaslowmoisture absorbency, flame resistant, low melting temperature. Synthetic fibres are also very easy to wash and maintain and the main thing is that it is often less expensivethannaturalfibres. The first synthetic fibre known as nylon was discovered in 1931. Its novel use asamaterialforwomensstockingovershadowedmorepracticaluses,suchas a replacement for the silk in parachutes and other military uses. Other common synthetic fibres are modacrylic, olefin, acrylic, polyester and carbon fibre. Specialty synthetic fibres include vinyon, saran, spandex, vinolon, aramids, modal, sulfar, orlon, zylon, vecran, derclon and rayon. Figure 8.22 showstwoexamplesofsyntheticfibres.
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\ Figure8.22:Nylonandpolyester ACTIVITY 8.11 1. Compareandcontrastnaturalfibresandsyntheticfibres. 2. Find out the uses of all common natural and synthetic fibre giveninthetext
8.6.4 Plastics
With a record of wartime successes, plastics were readily embraced in the postwar years. In the 1950s, Dacron polyester was introduced as a substitute for wool. The 1950s was also the decade during which the entrepreneur Earl Tupper created a line of polyethylene food containers known as Tupperware (seeFigure8.23).
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Figure8.23:Tupperware,polyethylenefoodcontainer
A plastic material is any material of a wide range of synthetic or semi synthetic organic solids that are mouldable. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass, but they often contain other substances known asadditives. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals,butmanyarepartiallynatural.Theamountofadditivesrange from zero percentage for polymers used to wrap foods to more than 50% for certain electronic applications. Example of additive is fillers which function to improve performance and/or reduce production costs. Stabilising additives includefireretardantstolowertheflammabilityofthematerial. Plastics are usually classified by their chemical structure of the polymers backbone and side chains. Some important groups of these classifications are the acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes and halogenated plastics. Other type of classification is based on the chemical reaction toward heat. Examples are thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers. Thermoplastics are the plastics that do not undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and can be moulded again and again. This type of plastics includes polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene and polyvinylchloride. Thermosetting polymers can melt and take shape once. After they have solidified, they stay solid because in the thermosetting process, a chemical reaction occurs that is irreversible. An example is the vulcanised rubber. Otherclassificationsarebasedonqualitiesthatarerelevantformanufacturing andalsoonthephysicalproperties.
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By the 1960s, a decade of environmental awakening, many people began to recognise the negative attribution of plastics. Being cheap, disposable, and nonbiodegradable, plastic readily accumulated as litter and as landfill. With petroleumsoreadilyavailableandinexpensive,however,andwithagrowing population of plasticdependent baby boomers, little stood in the way of an everexpanding array of plastic consumer products. By 1977, environmental concernsstartedtogrow,andin1980splasticsrecyclingprogrammesbeganto appear. Researches to produce biodegradable plastics have been done progressively.Anexampleistheuseofstarchpowdermixedwithplasticsasa filler to allow it to degrade more easily, but it still does not lead to complete breakdown of the plastic. Some researchers have actually genetically engineeredbacteriathatsynthesiseacompletelybiodegradableplastic. SELF CHECK 8.6 Search from the Internet or other resource on research/products of biodegradableplasticsthathas beendoneinMalaysia.
Physical properties of materials include elasticity, shininess, buoyancy, waterabsorbency,electricalconductivityandheatconductivity. Other physical properties of materials include hardness, toughness and brittleness,strength,flexibilityandsolubility. Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape and size afterbeingbent,twisted,stretchedandsqueezed.Materialsthatareableto return to their old shape when force is no longer applied are called elastic materials. Somematerialsareshinyandsomearenot. Materials can also be divided into three types according to its ability to allow light to pass through it. These are transparent materials, translucent materialsandopaquematerials. Buoyancyistheabilityofmaterialstofloatinliquid.
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Materials which can absorb water are known as absorbent materials and materials which cannot absorb water are known as nonabsorbent materials. A material that allows electricity to pass through it is a material that conductselectricity. A material that allows heat to pass through it easily is a material that conductsheat. Magnetism is the property of materials to attract iron, for example, iron oxide,cobalt,nickelandcertaintypesofalloy. Knowledge about the properties of materials is very important, especially inchoosingsuitablematerialstomakevariousobjects. Thepropertiesofmaterialshavemanyusefulapplicationsinourdailylife. Materialsaremadeofthousandsofsmallparticlescalledatoms. Materials can be divided into three categories according to their componentsofatom:element,compoundandmixture. Materials can be classified into two types according to their use: natural materialsandmanmadematerialsormanufacturedmaterials. Natural materials originate from soil, rocks, water, plant, animal or minerals. Manufactured materials are made from a mixture of natural materials throughchemicalprocesses. Manufacturedmaterialsaredesignedaccordingtotheneedsofthemarket. Preservation refers to the effort to maintain natural resources in their originalstateoringoodcondition. Conservation refers to the sustainable use and management of natural materialstopreventloss,wastageordamage. Composite materials are the materials which combine the properties of twosubstancesinordertogettheexactpropertiesrequiredforaparticular job.
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Saponificationistheprocessofmakingsoapbyheatingnaturalfatsandoil withastrongalkali. Polymerisation is the process of isoprene units join together to form poly(isoprene)ornaturalrubber. Synthetic rubber is any type of artificial elastomer mainly synthesised frompetroleumbyproductswithbetterqualitythannaturalrubber. Natural fibres is substances produced by plants and animals that can be spun into filament, thread or rope and in a next step be woven, knitted, matted or bound, while synthetic fibre are made from synthesised polymersorsmallmolecules. A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic solids that are mouldable. All plastics are polymers but not all polymersareplastics.
Abiotic Biotic Component Compositematerials Conservation Element Fibre Manufacturedmaterial Material Mixture Naturalmaterial Plastics Preservation Rawmaterial Rubber Soap Synthetic
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Alias Abdullah, Faujan Ahmad, & Nur Huda Faujan. (2007). Total ProUPSR: ScienceYear4,5and6.PetalingJaya:Sasbadi. Earl,B.,&Wilford,D.(2009).IGCSEchemistry.UK:HodderEducation. Eng,N.H.,&Lim.,Y.C.(2007).Focussuperchemistry.Bangi:PenerbitanPelangi. Farrow, S. (1996). The really useful science book: A framework of knowledge for primaryteacher.London:FalmerPress. Heimler, C. H., & Neal, C. D. (1979). Principles of science (4th ed.). Ohio: CharlesE.MerrillPublishingCo. Joesten, M., & Hogg, J. (2011). Chem in your world (Student ed.). USA: Brooks ColeCengageLearning Johnson,K.,Admson,S.,&Williams,G.(2000).Spotlightscience7.Cheltenham: NelsonThornes. Knapp, B. (1996). Science in our world: Materials. London: Regency Publishing Group. Ramsden, E. (2001). Key science: Chemistry (3rd ed.). Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. Siti Sarah Shahrel. (2007). UPSR bilingual science: Year 4. Shah Alam: Arah Pendidikan. Suchocki,J.(2007).Conceptualchemistry(3rded.).NewJersey:Pearson.
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TOPIC 8: NATURAL MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED OR MAN MADE MATERIALS

TOPIC 1: THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

Source: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

PERCENTAGE OF GASES IN THE AIR

Figure 1.1: Composition of our atmosphere

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

percentage of oxygen in the air.

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

1.3 PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

Reaction with Sodium Hydroxide

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

Tests for Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

ACTIVITY 1.1 SELF- CHECK 1.2

Look at the diagram.

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

Figure 1.2: Two stages of respiration

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

Now, let us look at the definition of external respiration.

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

SELF-CHECK 6.1 SELF-CHECK 1.3

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

What is combustion? Let us look at what combustion stands for.

Combustion is the process of burning.

Source: World Book Illustration

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

1.5 AIR POLLUTION

Figure 1.7: Burning forest

Figure 1.8: Burning building

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

Sources of Air Pollution

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

Table 1.3: Seven Sources of Air Pollution

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

Figure 1.9: Air pollutants inside and outside a house

Figure 1.10: Outdoor air pollutants

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

Effects of Air Pollution

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

Burning of coal and petroleum in factories and power-generating stations

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Smoke Soot Dust

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

Carbon Dioxide Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)

Burning of rubbish and fuels Aerosol cans, refrigerators, air conditioners

Present the findings in class.

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

Figure 1.11: Acid rain cycle Source: www.newint.org

Figure 1.13: Depletion of ozone layer Source: www.scienceclarified.com

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

Step to Prevent Air Pollution

Make a difference at home

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

Industrial sectors can make a difference

TOPIC 1 THE AIR AND RESOURCES AROUND US

Table 1.7: Malaysian API Status Indicator