US-China Education Review 2013 4A

US-China Education Review
A
Volume 3, Number 4, April 2013 (Serial Number 23)
Da vid Publishing
David Publishing Company www.davidpublishing.com
Publication Information: US-China Education Review A (Earlier title: Journal of US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly in hard copy (ISSN 2161-623X) by David Publishing Company located at 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA. Aims and Scope: US-China Education Review A, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of education-practice researches on Higher Education, Higher Educational Management, Educational Psychology, Teacher Education, Curriculum and Teaching, Educational Technology, Educational Economics and Management, Educational Theory and Principle, Educational Policy and Administration, Sociology of Education, Educational Methodology, Comparative Education, Vocational and Technical Education, Special Education, Educational Philosophy, Elementary Education, Science Education, Lifelong Learning, Adult Education, Distance Education, Preschool Education, Primary Education, Secondary Education, Art Education, Rural Education, Environmental Education, Health Education, History of Education, Education and Culture, Education Law, Educational Evaluation and Assessment, Physical Education, Educational Consulting, Educational Training, Moral Education, Family Education, as well as other issues. Editorial Board Members: Professor Alexandro Escudero Professor Ghazi M. Ghaith Professor Gner Tural Professor Michael Eskay
Professor Cameron Scott White Professor Gil-Garcia, Ana Professor Lihshing Leigh Wang Professor Peter Hills
Professor Diane Schwartz Professor Gordana Jovanovic Dolecek Professor Mercedes Ruiz Lozano
Manuscripts and correspondence are invited for publication. You can submit your papers via Web submission, or E-mail to teacher@davidpublishing.com or teacher@davidpublishing.org. Submission guidelines and Web submission system are available at http://www.davidpublishing.com. Editorial Office: 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: teacher@davidpublishing.com, teacher@davidpublishing.org, edu1658@yahoo.com Copyright2013 by David Publishing Company and individual contributors. All rights reserved. David Publishing Company holds the exclusive copyright of all the contents of this journal. In accordance with the international convention, no part of this journal may be reproduced or transmitted by any media or publishing organs (including various Websites) without the written permission of the copyright holder. Otherwise, any conduct would be considered as the violation of the copyright. The contents of this journal are available for any citation. However, all the citations should be clearly indicated with the title of this journal, serial number and the name of the author. Abstracted/Indexed in: Database of EBSCO, Massachusetts, USA Chinese Database of CEPS, Airiti Inc. & OCLC Chinese Scientific Journals Database, VIP Corporation, Chongqing, P.R.C. Ulrichs Periodicals Directory ASSIA Database and LLBA Database of ProQuest Excellent papers in ERIC Norwegian Social Science Data Service (NSD), Norway Universe Digital Library Sdn Bhd (UDLSB), Malaysia Summon Serials Solutions Subscription Information: Price (per year): Print $600 Online $480 Print and Online $800 David Publishing Company 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: order@davidpublishing.org
DA VID PUBLISHING
David Publishing Company www.davidpublishing.com
US-China Education Review

A
Volume 3, Number 4, April 2013 (Serial Number 23)
Contents
Educational Technology
Extended TAM Model: Impacts of Convenience on Acceptance and Use of Moodle Hsiao-hui Hsu, Yu-ying Chang Some Aspects of Computer-Supported Teaching When Teaching Bachelors Stefan Svetsky, Oliver Moravcik, Peter Schreiber, Jana Stefankova The Perception of a Broadcasting Voice Emma Rodero The Place of ICT (Information and Communication Technology) in the Administration of Secondary Schools in South Eastern States of Nigeria Angie Oboegbulem, Rita N. Ugwu The Design and Development of a Web-Based E-learning Platform for the Understanding and Acquisition of Various Entrepreneurial Skills in SMEs and Industry Ayodele Ogunleye, Tunde Owolabi, Sunday Adeyemo 225 219 211
231
239
Curriculum and Teaching

Designing Appropriate Curriculum for Special Education in Urban School in Nigeria: Implication for Administrators Michael Eskay, Angie Oboegbulem Engineering Design vs. Artistic Design: Some Educational Consequences Wolfgang Ernst Eder 259
252
US-China Education Review A, ISSN 2161-623X April 2013, Vol. 3, No. 4, 211-218
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Extended TAM Model: Impacts of Convenience on Acceptance and Use of Moodle

Hsiao-hui Hsu
Lunghwa University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan, Taiwan
Yu-ying Chang
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan
The increasing online access to courses, programs, and information has shifted the control and responsibility of learning process from instructors to learners. Learners perceptions of and attitudes toward e-learning constitute a critical factor to the success of such system. The purpose of this study is to take TAM (technology acceptance model) as a foundation and include perceived convenience as a new external factor in predicting students perceptions about the acceptance and use of Moodle, an open source e-learning system. A total of 47 college students and 35 senior high school students participated in this research. The results indicated that perceived convenience had a direct effect on perceived usefulness. Perceived ease of use, perceived convenience, and perceived usefulness had significantly positive impacts on attitude toward using Moodle. Continuance intention to use Moodle was directly influenced by attitude toward using Moodle. Several practical implications of the present study are offered at the end of paper. Keywords: e-learning, perceived convenience, TAM (technology acceptance model)
Introduction
The rapid development of information technologies has been acknowledged as bringing about a significant change in education institutions. Internet-based e-learning (electronic learning) as an alternative education form has both created an innovative learning environment and provided learners with an exceptional opportunity to interact with others. With e-learning systems, online delivery of instruction and supply of electronic resources of knowledge can be performed without limitation of time and space. Snchez and Hueros (2010) indicated that e-learning environments helped pedagogical systems cross spatial and temporal barriers, fostered meaningful learning, and provided flexibility and convenience. Yoon and Kim (2007) further suggested that perceived convenience would be considered as a key determinant of the users acceptance and use of IT (information technology). Individual acceptance and use of IT have been considered as the two key factors to the success of e-learning systems (Dasgupta, Granger, & Mcgarry, 2002). Results of several studies (Lin & Lu, 2002; H. Lou, W. Luo, & Strong, 2000; Moon & Kim, 2001; Venkatesh, 2001) have empirically verified the TAM
Acknowledgements: This study is partially sponsored by the NSC (National Science Council) of Taiwan under Grant NSC 101-2410-H-262-001. The authors would like to thank all the students who participated in and contributed to this study. Hsiao-hui Hsu, Ph.D., associate professor, Department of Applied Foreign Languages, Lunghwa University of Science and Technology. Yu-ying Chang, Ph.D., assistant professor, Department of Business Management, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology.
212
IMPACTS OF CONVENIENCE ON ACCEPTANCE AND USE OF MOODLE
(technology acceptance model) proposed by Davis (1989) as a powerful and valuable instrument in predicting individual acceptance and use intentions of online learning technology. In this study, the research model which draws on TAM and integrates the external variable, perceived convenience, is to predict learners acceptance behavior and use intentions of an e-learning system, Moodle.
Theoretical Background
TAM Based on the TRA (theory of reasoned action) (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), Davis (1989) proposed the TAM. TAM was developed specifically for investigating the impact of technology on users behavior. The model proposes that both perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of the technology are the two key factors that influence the individuals attitude toward using the technology. Perceived usefulness means that the user believes that the use of technology will improve his/her performance, while perceived ease of use refers to the belief that using the technology will not take too much effort (Davis, 1989). Perceived ease of use of a system is considered to influence perceived usefulness of technology. Both perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness have effects on the use of technology. A number of studies have used the TAM model to test users acceptance of IT, for example, in e-mail (Gefen & Straub, 1997; Szajna, 1996), e-collaboration (Dasgupta et al., 2002), Websites (Koufaris, 2002; Lin & Lu, 2002; Van der Heijden, 2003), online shopping intentions (Van der Heijden, Verhagen, & Creemers, 2003), etc.. With the development of ICT (information communication technology), TAM has been applied in numerous studies to examine learners acceptance of e-learning systems (Y. C. Chen, Lin, C. Y. Chen, & Yeh, 2007; Liaw, Huang, & Chen, 2007; Ngai, Poon, & Chan, 2007; Ong & Lai, 2006; Ong, Lai, & Wang, 2004; Snchez & Hueros, 2010; umak, Heriko, Punik, & Polani, 2011; Van Raaij & Schepers, 2008), online learning community (Liu, Chen, Sun, Wible, & Kuo, 2010), the wireless LAN (local area network) (Yoon & Kim, 2007), PDAs (personal digital assistant) (Chang, Yan, & Tseng, 2012), and blended learning (Tselios, Daskalakis, & Papadopoulou, 2011). The results of these studies indicated that TAM could efficiently predict and explain users acceptance of IT. Though perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are the key determinants for an individual to accept and use IT, other external variables can also affect users acceptance of IT (Moon & Kim, 2001). Hence, several researchers have recognized that other external factors might play crucial roles in strengthening the TAM model (Legris, Ingham, & Collerette, 2003; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). In the studies of computer self-efficacy, the results showed a positive causal relationship between computer self-efficacy, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use (Venkatesh & Davis, 1996; Venkatesh, 2001; Y. S. Wang, Wu, & H. Y. Wang, 2009). Results of other studies on perceived convenience (Yoon & Kim, 2007), critical mass effect (Lou et al., 2000), usage (Selim, 2003), technical support (Ngai, Poon, & Chan, 2007), and perceived playfulness (Moon & Kim, 2001; Roca & Gagn, 2008) also demonstrated that there exists a significant relationship among these external variables, ease of use, and usefulness. The Concept of Perceived Convenience In terms of user evaluation of service experiences, the term convenience refers to an individuals preference for convenient product and services. Time and effort saving are the two key factors that determine whether a product or service is convenient (Berry, Seiders, & Grewel, 2002). Brown (1989; 1990) proposed
213
five dimensions of convenience: time, place, acquisition, use, and execution. On the basis of Browns (1989; 1990) work, Yoon and Kim (2007) excluded two dimensions, namely, the acquisition and use, in their study to examine convenience of the wireless LAN. The reason is that acquisition is not definitely related to intention to use technology, and the use dimension is similar to ease of use in TAM. Therefore, they defined three dimensions of convenience: time, place, and execution. In Cheolho and Sanghoons (2007) study, they used four variables: perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, behavioral intention, and perceived convenience, to investigate a ubiquitous wireless LAN environment. The results indicated that perceived ease of use had a positive impact on perceived convenience. In a discussion-oriented online course study, Poole (2000) found out that students participated in online discussions at time and place most convenient to them. Another study done by Murphy and Collins (1997) found similar results. The results of To, Liao, and Lins (2007) study revealed that convenience affected consumers shopping intention. Gupta and Kim (2006) found that convenience had a positive impact on online shopping intention as well. A recent study on investigating English learning through PDAs done by Chang et al. (2012) showed significantly positive effects of perceived ease of use on perceived convenience, perceived convenience on perceived usefulness, and perceived convenience on attitude toward using PDAs. On the basis of studies of Chang et al. (2012) and Yoon and Kim (2007), we define three dimensions of perceived convenience, namely, place, time, and execution, in the present study.
Research Model and Hypotheses

Perceived convenience is one of the advantages identified in online learning. Therefore, perceived convenience would be considered as a salient determinant of the individuals acceptance and use of IT. In the present study, perceived convenience was employed for extending the model of TAM. The research model and hypotheses, as shown in Figure 1, were proposed to explain how exogenous variables affect users acceptance process in TAM. A path analysis is applied to explore the empirical strength or the relationship in the proposed model.
Perceived usefulness (Pu)
Perceived convenience (Pc)
Attitude toward using Moodle
Continuance intention
Perceived ease of use (Peu) Figure 1. Research model.
Chang et al. (2012) and Yoon and Kim (2007) found that perceived ease of use had a positive influence on users perception of convenience in their studies. This leads to the hypothesis: H1: Perceived ease of use positively affects perceived convenience of using Moodle.
214
IMPACTS OF CONVENIENCE ON ACCEPTANCE AND USE OF MOODLE In TAM, two variables: Perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness affect the attitude and behavioral
intention of users. Perceived ease of use positively affects perceived usefulness; perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use positively affect attitude toward using; perceived usefulness and attitude toward using positively affect intention to use. The causal relationship that exists between these variables has been confirmed by a number of studies (Chang et al., 2012; Davis, 1989; Kuo & Yen, 2009; Moon & Kim, 2001; Venkatesh & Davis, 1996). Studies done by Ong, Lai, and Wang (2004) and Yoon and Kim (2007) found perceived ease of use had a positive impact on intention to use. Thus, we propose the following hypotheses: H2: Perceived convenience positively affects perceived usefulness; H3: Perceived ease of use positively affects perceived usefulness; H4: Perceived ease of use positively affects attitude toward using Moodle; H5: Perceived usefulness positively affects attitude toward using Moodle; H6: Perceived convenience positively affects attitude toward using Moodle; H7: Perceived ease of use positively affects continuance intention to use Moodle; H8: Perceived usefulness positively affects continuance intention to use Moodle; H9: Attitude toward using Moodle positively affects continuance intention to use Moodle.
Methodology
Data Collection The data collection for this study was conducted at a technological university and a vocational high school in Taiwan. In total, 82 usable questionnaires (47 from technological university and 35 from vocational high English majors) were used for analyses. Instrument The questionnaire, using a 5-point Likert-style scale ranging from (1) Strongly disagree to (5) Strongly agree, was employed to collect data for constructs of the research model. For the measurement of the latent variables in the model, multiple items from the previous studies were modified for the present study. The measurements of perceived convenience were adapted from Yoon and Kim (2007). And the measurements of perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitude toward using, and continuance intention to use were adapted from Davis (1989).
Results
Measurement Scales of the Constructs and Items The reliability analysis was conducted in order to ensure the internal consistency of the items used for each variable. Nunnally and Bernstein (1994) recommended that Cronbachs alpha is reliable if its values is at least 0.7. The value of Cronbachs alpha for the five constructs in this study is above 0.8. Hence, the results demonstrate the questionnaire is a reliable measurement instrument. Modeling Testing Results The linear regression analysis was used to validate the research model by examining the path coefficients. T-tests were applied to assess the significance of these path coefficients. Figure 2 illustrates the standardized path coefficients and coefficients of determination (R2) for each dependent construct. The results showed that the impact of perceived ease of use on perceived convenience ( = 0.575, p <
215
0.001) and the impact of perceived convenience on perceived usefulness ( = 0.638, p < 0.001) were significant, but perceived ease of use had no significant effect on perceived usefulness ( = 0.152, p > 0.05). H1 and H3 were supported but H2 was not supported. Three constructs, perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and perceived convenience, positively affected attitude toward using Moodle ( = 0.393, p < 0.001; = 0.254, p < 0.05; = 0.31, p < 0.01). Thus, H4, H5, and H6 were supported. Paths that affect continuance intention to use Moodle included perceived ease of use ( = 0.147, p > 0.05), perceived usefulness ( = 0.162, p > 0.05), and attitude toward using Moodle ( = 0.462, p < 0.01). H9 was supported, but H7 and H8 were not supported.
Perceived 0.638*** Perceived convenience (Pc) R = 0.33
2
0.162
usefulness (Pu) R2 = 0.54 0.152 0.31** 0.254* Attitude toward using Moodle R2 = 0.67 0.462** Continuance intention R2 = 0.48
0.575*** Perceived ease of use (Peu)
0.393***
0.147
*
p < 0.05
**
p < 0.01
***
p<0.001
Figure 2. Results of the research model.
Discussion and Conclusions

The goal of this research, which is based on the TAM model, was to add perceived convenience to the model and explore the willingness of users to adopt the use of Moodle. The results revealed the positive direct effect of perceived ease of use on perceived convenience, which is aligned with outcomes from previous studies (Chang et al., 2012; Yoon & Kim, 2007). In line with their studies, the model confirms that perceived convenience has a direct effect on perceived usefulness, meaning that the more convenient the learner feels the Moodle system is, the more useful one perceives it to be. H3 postulated that the direct effect of perceived ease of use on perceived usefulness is insignificant, which is opposed to several studies (Chang et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2010; Liu, Liao, & Pratt, 2009; Tselios et al., 2011; umak et al., 2011; Van Raaij & Schepers, 2008). A plausible reason for the lack of support for H3 is that the learners in the present study may not see ease of use as a critical factor that will help them improve their learning in the process of using Moodle. Consistent with previous studies (Chang et al., 2012; Masrom, 2007; Ong et al., 2004; Saad, Nebebe, & Tan, 2007; umak et al., 2011; Tselios et al., 2011), H4, H5, and H6 referring to the relationship between perceived ease of use and attitude (H4), perceived usefulness and attitude (H5), and perceived convenience and attitude (H6) showed significantly positive results. H7 and H8 referred to the impact of perceived ease of use on continuance intention to use Moodle (H7)
216
and perceived usefulness on continuance intention to use Moodle (H8). Both perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness had no significant effects on continuance intention to use Moodle. This result is not consistent with the hypothesis of TAM, but it echoes the findings of Liao, Tsou, & Huang (2007) and Kuo and Yen (2009). One of the possible reasons of this inconsistency can probably be attributed to the low frequency of use of Moodle by the learners. The other possible reason would be due to the fact that users are mandatorily required to use Moodle by their instructors. The current study contributes to the validation of the extended TAM model by introducing and confirming the influence of perceived convenience as an external variable on the users attitude and continuance intention to use Moodle. The results of the study reveal that perceived convenience, perceived ease of use, and perceived usefulness are three important determinants of attitude toward using Moodle, whereas perceived ease of use is the most significant determinant that directly affects attitude. The findings also illustrate users continuance intentions for using Moodle are neither a result of users perceptions about how easy it is to use the system, nor perceptions about how useful the system will help users in their learning process. The current study is not without limitations. First, the use of Moodle is mandatory during the course, which may influence users perceptions of how useful the system is in helping them in their learning. Follow-up studies should examine users Moodle using frequency and behavior outside the classroom, users self-efficacy, users Moodle pre-using experiences and the motivational factors that influence learners participation in online learning; and Second, participants in this study are college and high school students, but we did not analyze their demographic data. Future studies including categories of gender, age, and the length of using online learning system should be conducted to obtain a deeper understanding of the factors that influence attitude and continuance intention toward using Moodle.
References
Berry, L. L., Seiders, K., & Grewal, D. (2002). Understanding service convenience. Journal of Marketing Research, 66, 1-17. Brown, L. G. (1989). The strategic and tactical implications of convenience in consumer product marketing. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 6, 13-19. Brown, L. G. (1990). Convenience in services marketing. Journal of Services Marketing, 4, 53-59. Chang, C. C., Yan, C. F., & Tseng, J. S. (2012). Perceived convenience in an extended technology acceptance model: Mobile technology and English learning for college students. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 28, 809-826. Chen, Y. C., Lin, Y. C., Chen, C. Y., & Yeh, R. C. (2007). Predicting college student use of e-learning systems: An attempt to extend technology acceptance model. Proceeding of Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems (pp. 172-183), Hong Kong. Cheolho, Y., & Sanghoon, K. (2007). Convenience and TAM in a ubiquitous computing environment: The case of wireless LAN. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 6, 102-112. Dasgupta, S., Granger, M., & Mcgarry, N. (2002). User acceptance of e-collaboration technology: An extension of the technology acceptance model. Group Decision and Negotiation, 11, 87-100. Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13, 319-339. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Beliefs, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. M. A.: Addison-Wesley. Gefen, D., & Straub, D. (1997). Gender differences in perception and adoption of e-mail: An extension to the technology acceptance model. MIS Quarterly, 21, 389-400. Gupta, S., & Kim, H. W. (2006). The moderating effect of transaction experience on value-driven internet shopping. Proceeding of European Conference on Information Systems (pp. 807-818), Sweden.
217
Koufaris, M. (2002). Applying the technology acceptance model and flow theory to online consumer behavior. Information Systems Research, 13, 205-223. Kuo, Y. F., & Yen, S. N. (2009). Towards an understanding of the behavioral intention to use 3G mobile value-added services. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 103-110. Legris, P., Ingham, J., & Collerette, P. (2003). Why do people use information technology? A critical review of the technology acceptance model. Information and Management, 40, 191-204. Liao, C. H., Tsou, C. W., & Huang, M. F. (2007). Factors influencing the usage of 3G mobile services in Taiwan. Online Information Review, 31, 759-774. Liaw, S. S., Huang, H. M., & Chen, G. D. (2007). Surveying instructor and learner attitudes toward e-learning. Computers and Education, 49, 1066-1080. Lin, J. C. C., & Lu, H. (2002). Towards an understanding of behavioral intention to use a Website. International Journal of Information Management, 20, 197-208. Liu, I. F., Chen, M. C., Sun, Y. S., Wible, D., & Kuo, C. A. (2010). Extending the TAM model to explore the factors that affect intention to use an online learning community. Computers and Education, 54, 600-610. Liu, S. H., Liao, H. L., & Pratt, J. A. (2009). Impact of media richness and flow on e-learning technology acceptance. Computers and Education, 52, 599-607. Lou, H., Luo, W., & Strong, D. (2000). Perceived critical mass effect on groupware acceptance. European Journal of Information Systems, 9, 91-102. Masroom, M. (2007). Technology acceptance model and e-learning. Proceedings of The 12th International Conference on Education (pp. 1-10), Brunei Darussalam. Moon, J. W., & Kim, Y. G. (2001). Extending the TAM for a world-wide-Web context. Information and Management, 38, 217-230. Murphy, K. L., & Collins, M. P. (1997). Communication conventions in instructional electronic chats. First Monday, 2(11). Ngai, E. W. T., Poon, J. K. L., & Chan, Y. H. C. (2007). Empirical examination of the adoption of WebCT using TAM. Computers and Education, 48, 250-267. Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York, N. Y.: McGraw-Hill. Ong, C. S., & Lai, J. Y. (2006). Gender differences in perceptions and relationships among dominants of e-learning acceptance. Computers in Human Behavior, 22, 816-829. Ong, C. S., Lai, J. Y., & Wang, Y. S. (2004). Factors affecting engineers acceptance of asynchronous e-learning systems in high-tech companies. Information and Management, 41, 795-804. Poole, D. M. (2000). Student participation in a discussion-oriented online course: A case study. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 33, 162-177. Roca, J. C., & Gagn, M. (2008). Understanding e-learning continuance intention in the workplace: A self-determination theory perspective. Computers in Human Behavior, 24, 1585-1604. Saad, R. G., Nebebe, F., & Tan, W. (2007). Viability of the technology acceptance model in multimedia learning environments: A comparative study. Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge and Learning Objects, 3, 175-184. Snchez, R. A., & Hueros, A. D. (2010). Motivational factors that influence the acceptance of Moodle using TAM. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1632-1640. Selim, H. M. (2003). An empirical investigation of student acceptance of course Websites. Computers and Education, 40, 343-360. umak, B., Heriko, M., Punik, M., & Polani, G. (2011). Factors affecting acceptance and use of Moodle: An empirical study based on TAM. Informatica, 35, 91-100. Szajna, B. (1996). Empirical evaluation of the revised technology acceptance model. Management Science, 42, 85-92. To, P. L., Liao, C., & Lin, T. H. (2007). Shopping motivations on Internet: A study based on utilitarian and hedonic value. Technovation, 27, 774-787. Tselios, N., Daskalakis, S., & Papadopoulou, M. (2011). Assessing the acceptance of a blended learning university course. Educational Technology and Society, 14, 224-235. Van der Heijden, H. (2003). Factors influencing the usage of Websites: The case of a generic portal in the Netherlands. Information and Management, 40, 541-549.
218
Van der Heijden, H., Verhagen, T., & Creemers, M. (2003). Understanding online purchase intentions: Contributions from technology and trust perspectives. European Journal of Information Systems, 12, 41-48. Van Raaij, E. M., & Schepers, J. J. L. (2008). The acceptance and use of a virtual learning environment in China. Computers and Education, 50, 838-852. Venkatesh, V. (2001). Determinants of perceived ease of use: Integrating control, intrinsic motivation, and emotion into the technology acceptance model. Information Systems Research, 11, 342-365. Venkatesh, V., & Davis, F. D. (1996). A model of the antecedents of perceived ease of use: Development and test. Decision Sciences, 27, 451-481. Venkatesh, V., & Davis, F. D. (2000). A theoretical extension of the technology acceptance model: Four longitudinal field studies. Management Science, 46, 186-204. Wang, Y. S., Wu, M. C., & Wang, H. Y. (2009). Investigating the determinants and age and gender differences in the acceptance of mobile learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40, 92-118. Yoon, C., & Kim, S. (2007). Convenience and TAM in a ubiquitous computing environment: The case of wireless LAN. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 6, 102-112.
D
Bachelors
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Some Aspects of Computer-Supported Teaching When Teaching
Stefan Svetsky, Oliver Moravcik, Peter Schreiber, Jana Stefankova

Slovak University of Technology, Trnava, Slovakia
The state of the art of TEL (technology-enhanced learning) is characterised by a technological-driven approach. Learning management systems or learning courses for management systems are mentioned as frequently used basic tools for this purpose. However, these Internet technologies are not suitable for the personalized support of teachers on client desktop computers. In this paper, an education-driven approach is briefly explained. The driving force is the sustained development of the in-house e-learning software, which allows bulk handling of unstructured information and knowledge in computer support of nonstructural teaching activities for teaching bachelors. The similar multipurpose pre-programmed environment or the paradigm of batch knowledge processing is not yet described in the literature. Some examples of personalized computer support of teaching are also mentioned. Keywords: computer-assisted learning, e-learning, TEL (technology-enhanced learning), engineering education
Introduction
Within a period of five years of empirical research on TEL (technology-enhanced learning) implementation in teaching at the Faculty of Materials Science and Technology of the Slovak University of Technology, a pre-programmed environment for batch knowledge processing, was developed. This includes a personalized virtual learning environment and a set of Web-pages for various engineering courses of study. This was tested and directly applied in the teaching of bachelor students. The field of TEL is part of the calls put forward by the European Unions 7th Framework Programme in the area of ICT (information and communication technologies), where the research priority is focused on How information and communication technologies can be used to support learning and teaching (TeLearn-European Research on Technology-Enhanced Learning, n. d.). At the beginning, there was an idea to equip research and development staff (knowledge workers) with informatics tools for personalised working with huge amount of information, e.g., for self-e-learning (Svetsky, 2007; Svetsky, Moravcik, Tanuska, Rehakova, & Ruskova, 2008). Thus, a knowledge base and information sources structure, associated activities and outputs were designed to be solved. For this purpose, a database application was developed as an all-in-one support tool for generating browser-based e-learning applications, performing personal Internet retrieval, creating a combined virtual online/offline learning
Stefan Svetsky, M.Sc. Eng., Ph.D., Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University of Technology. Oliver Moravcik, professor, Ph.D., Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University of Technology. Peter Schreiber, associate professor, Ph.D., Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University of Technology. Jana Stefankova, M.Sc. Eng., Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University of Technology.
220 SOME ASPECTS OF COMPUTER-SUPPORTED TEACHING WHEN TEACHING BACHELORS
environment and the support of content management, etc. (Svetsky, Moravcik, & Tanuska, 2010; Divjak, Begicevic, Moravcik, & Svetsky, 2010). In this context, the introduction of an entirely new paradigm of batch processing of information and knowledge was needed, because in a conventional DBMS (database management system) the data are processed in another way based on a relational model (Moravcik, Svetsky, Hornak, Sobrino, & Stefankova, 2010; Moravcik, Svetsky, Sobrino, & Stefankova, 2010). This gradually resulted in the development of the pre-programmed environment of BIKE (batch information and knowledge processing) that was used for support of the engineering education of bachelors. For students and other teachers, it is available as a standalone Zpisnk/WritingPad (as geniusv.exe), which is installed on computers in a classroom. The existence of such an informatics tool allowed teachers to solve the first stage of processing the knowledge flow between information sources and the knowledge database tables. In this stage, various types of learning materials and libraries with browsable pages and documents were produced. However, the creation of tools and solutions only for processing the content was not sufficient for the needs of teaching, because this technology-driven approach did not take into account the pedagogical aspects of education and the key role of the teacher. It was found that the processing of knowledge (engineering content) also needed to address the flow of knowledge among the produced learning materials (tailored for courses of study) and among individual educational activities. This required more education-driven TEL approach than the previous technology-driven one. In other words, the technology-driven approach for TEL was expanded with educational aspects. From an informatics point of view, the next solution showed a need to understand the information and knowledge processing in order to support teaching and learning activities, such as automation. When programming is focused in this direction, it became clear that when dealing even with the simplest activities a large number of alternatives are available. If one takes the automation of teaching and learning activities into account as an individual interdisciplinary issue, the solving represents a never-ending story (Svetsky, Moravcik, Schreiber, & Stefankova, 2011a; 2011b). In this paper, some examples, i.e., applications of personalized support of teaching are presented. Currently, the BIKE environment allows individuals (teachers, students, and researchers) (Svetsky, Moravcik, & Odlerova, 2011; Svetsky, Moravcik, Ruskova, Balog, Sakal, & Tanuska, 2011):
(1) To design and produce a large amount e-learning of training materials from ones own personal know-how, such as, printed materials, electronic media, and also the multilingual Web-environment by the use of educational content and Internet services; (2) To solve the support of teachers in developing their personal preparation for teaching and related e-learning tools (tutorials, self-evaluation tests, interpretation of the scheme, a personal information system, the digitization of printed books, and the transfer in teaching material for a given study program); (3) To automate all kinds of educational activitiesteaching, testing, evaluating, and grading of students, publishing, making retrieval, administrative activities, and the data transfer from AIS (academic information system/learning management system); (4) To create a personal virtual learning environment and use a communication forum that acts as a personal social networking among students and teacher for feedback, sharing information, instructions, but also for a common research space where participants can store information from the survey of literature (particularly students working on diploma theses); (5) To automate, i.e., streamline the activities of individuals in the Windows environment (the additional features to the operating system, searching in the database, directories and files, to archive files by incorporating certain features of the file manager, and editing programming languagesHTML, PHP/MySQL).
SOME ASPECTS OF COMPUTER-SUPPORTED TEACHING WHEN TEACHING BACHELORS 221 With the multipurpose environment of BIKE (it is only on the authors computer), or it is parts of the diary, which is installed on personal computers, teachers and students can use all five categories and all possible types of learning (face-to-face, blended-learning, active learning informal learning, and life-long self-study). For these reasons, it can be understood as a specific type of personal Mindware (personal external storage), but also as a supplement to the operating system of Windows. It may be noted that despite several years of intensive research, a similar paradigm of batch knowledge processing could not be found in the literature and on the Internet described when working with conventional RDBMS (relational database). No identical or similar multi-purpose software package that provides many activities at once, such as dozens of dedicated software routines, can be found. This multifunctional environment of BIKE gives added value to traditional teaching, which brings a synergistic power factor in terms of educational materials for the creation of new materials, new innovative ways of teaching and self-study. By using BIKE from beyond the established computer and pedagogical practices, it is quite difficult to explain its function. This is one of the reasons for the differences of evaluators when peer-reviewing, where someone classifies it as a tool for knowledge management, and some as soft-computing. Listed below are some of the solutions implemented by using the BIKE environment within teaching and personal support of the activities of the teacher.
Producing E-learning Materials

As was mentioned above, the BIKE or WritingPad enables individuals (teachers and students) to create teaching and learning materials. Figure 1 shows two examples of e-learning material created in the AIS on the left, and by the BIKE development environment on the right. As it can be seen, the e-learning material created by BIKE is more friendly.
Figure 1. Examples of e-learning materials.
Batch Internet Retrievals

Another specific example from the practice may be the implementation of batch Internet retrieval using the WritingPad or BIKE. Figure 2 shows an example of batch retrieving, the result is for photosynthesis by the use of the following keywords: photosynthesis, photosynthesis energy, photosynthesis dark stage, and photosynthesis chloroplasts. This was made by students.
Figure 2. Example of batch retrieving (a screenshot within OPERA).
Personnel Preparation by a Teacher

In teaching practice, a teacher needs to prepare various types of materials for teaching, administration, testing, publishing, and communications with students, etc.. In this case, the BIKE or WritingPad enables the teacher to automate activities. The following screenshots show some examples from engineering teaching (calculation, communications forum, tutorial for teaching language programming, and blended learning) (see Figures 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Figure 3. Example of virtual space for calculations (ideal gas).
Figure 4. Example of communication forum: Teacher-students.
SOME ASPECTS OF COMPUTER-SUPPORTED TEACHING WHEN TEACHING BACHELORS 223
Figure 5. Example of tutorial for C++ teaching (clicking on user menu launches DEV-C++ environment).
Figure 6. Example of blended learning.
Conclusions
In this paper, some aspects of computer-supported teaching from the teachers point of view are discussed. The education-driven approach is emphasized, i.e., technology must adapt to the teachers needs. The history of implementing TEL at the Faculty of Materials Science is briefly described. This resulted in the development of the personalized desktop tool, so-called BIKE, which supports teachers in their daily teaching and learning activities, based on automation. This multipurpose tool or preprogrammed environment allows pedagogues to produce a large number of e-learning training materials to create materials and tools in the teachers personal training course and automate all types of teaching activities in the classroom-based automation of sub-activities, which can create a personal virtual learning environment and communicate with students via a personal social networkIt can also automate work on the PC in the Windows environment. This tool meets the needs of the teacher and students, one can create engineering content one wants from the menu and the user can choose what is needed to
automate self-study or teaching. All these functions automatically improve the quality and effectiveness of teaching. Integrating science and educational engineering content and activities can bring a synergistic effect, i.e., the individual can create the entirely new educational set of materials and the teacher can create a completely new type of teaching that within one hour will have multiple applications simultaneously (e.g., presentation of subject matter, self-evaluation test, index entries in the communication forum, making calculations, etc.). This would not be possible without the integrating of informatics. The paper presented some outlines of the outcomes realized when teaching bachelors. The more variable attitude while learning in the case of using BIKE was shown in comparison with a case where the e-learning is provided with the use of the facultys AIS.
References
Divjak, B., Begicevic, N., Moravcik, O., & Svetsky, S. (2010). Bilateral collaboration for ICT support in engineering education. Joint International IGIP-SEF: Annual Conference 2010, Diversity UnifiesDiversity in Engineering Education. Slovakia/Brussel: SEFI. Moravcik, O., Svetsky, S., Hornak, F., Sobrino, D., & Stefankova, J. (2010). Experiences with the personalised technology support for engineering education. Proceedings of The 21st 2010 Annual Conference AAEE (Australasian Association for Engineering Education) Conference (pp. 532-538), Sydney, Australia, 2010. Moravcik, O., Svetsky, S., Sobrino, D., & Stefankova, J. (2010). The implementation of the personalised approach for technology enhanced learning. Proceedings of WCECS 2010: World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science (Vol. 1, pp. 321-323), San Francisco, USA, 2010. Svetsky, S. (2007). Modelling of multilingual e-learning and virtual learning space for R&D staff. ICETA: The 5th Int. Conference on Emerging E-learning Technologies and Applications (pp. 1-4), Stara Lesna, Slovakia, 2007. Svetsky, S., Moravcik, O., & Odlerova, E. (2011). The new approach for technology enhanced and computer assisted learning in teaching at the Faculty of Materials Science and Technology. Materials Science and Technology (Online), 2, 54-60. Svetsky, S., Moravcik, O., Ruskova, D., Balog, K., Sakal, P., & Tanuska, P. P. (2011). Five years of research of technology enhanced learning implementation in teaching at the Faculty of Materials Science and Technology. Journal Research Papers MTF STU (pp. 105-114), Trnava, Slovakia, 2011. Svetsky, S., Moravcik, O., Schreiber, P., & Stefankova, J. (2011a). The informatics tools development and testing for active learning. Proceedings of WCECS 2011: World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science (Vol. 1, pp. 265-268), San Francisco, USA, 2011. Svetsky, S., Moravcik, O., Schreiber, P., & Stefankova, J. (2011b). The solving of knowledge processing for the automation of teaching and learning activities. Proceedings of ICEIC 2011: International Conference on Education, Informatics and Cybernetics (pp. 69-74), Florida, USA, 2011. Svetsky, S., Moravcik, O., & Tanuska, P. (2010). Some aspects of the technology enhanced learning in engineering education. Joint International IGIP-SEFI: Annual Conference 2010, Diversity UnifiesDiversity in Engineering Education. Slovakia Brussel: SEFI. Svetsky, S., Moravcik, O., Tanuska, P., Rehakova, A., & Ruskova, D. (2008). The implementation of technology enhanced learning at dislocated university workplace. ICETA: The 6th Int. Conference on Emerging E-learning Technologies and Applications (pp. 347-353), Stara Lesna, Slovakia, 2008. TeLearn-European Research on Technology-Enhanced Learning. (n. d.). In ICT research in FP7-challenge 8: ICT for learning and access to cultural resources. Retrieved February 15, 2011, from http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/ict/telearn-digicult/ telearn_en.html
D
Emma Rodero
DA VID
PUBLISHING
The Perception of a Broadcasting Voice
Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain
Voice is our main communication resource but especially is the tool more important for working on radio. Voice on radio transmits not only the explicit text, but also all the meaning and the affective dimension. Consequently, the audiences attention to the radio message as well as understanding and assimilating of it will depend on a correct and expressive use of voice. Even in the most basic bibliography, the importance of the correct use of voice is recognized. Nevertheless, the suitable training for the broadcasters always has not a special consideration. For these reasons, this paper tries to realize a compendium of recommendations and defects around the use of voice on radio, based on different empirical researches made in these years. Keywords: radio, voice, pitch, energy, timbre, stress, intonation, rhythm, articulation
The Importance of the Voice on the Radio

The voice is to the broadcaster as the hands are to the pianist. Just as a musical score is enhanced by the expertise and enthusiasm of the artist, the written word is transforming into compelling, meaningful information for the ear by the eloquence and style of the broadcaster. (Utterback, 2000)
What would be without the familiar, candid, congenial, and friendly voice of a broadcaster? The voice on the radio is a crucial element in communication. Many authors hold that, in radio broadcasts, the perception and understanding of the audience are determined not only by the content, but also by the particular form of presentation. The use of the voice, as the primary instrument for transmitting explicit text, carries the entire burden of meaning and its affective dimension, providing the reference for the radio content. Therefore, the existing literature on the subject, although rare, always refers to the need for adequate training of broadcasters in the domain of its features, especially because of the enormous impact and influence of radio messages on the audience. Despite its importance, however, how the voice is used on the radio is one of the aspects that are neglected in the training of future journalists, at least in Spain. Moreover, even in school, child education is directed in a comprehensive manner to the necessary training in oral communication. As a result, the majority of the broadcasters that we heard on the radio usually do not possess adequate training on the handling of their voices. In general, most of them learn to express their messages by imitation, reproducing the expressive forms that they can hear from their colleagues, hence, gaining the same vices and defects. Those who begin their career in the medium are required to talk like journalists that particular play for the radio, which is not exactly the most natural, accurate, or expressive. In this sense, we are not discovering anything new, since there is an extensive radio bibliography in which these critical problems are continually mentioned. Even from a theoretical point of view, it is easy to argue why these peculiar forms of expression on the radio are linguistically incorrect and unnatural from an expressive
Emma Rodero, Ph.D., professor, Department of Communication, Pompeu Fabra University.
226
THE PERCEPTION OF A BROADCASTING VOICE
point of view. Despite this, there is little research devoted to studies in professional practice, where the main problems in the use of voice on radio are observed. Thus, the objective of this paper is to describe, based on the theory and various empirical researches realized over the years, the main defects in the use of voice on the radio and to evaluate how the audience perceives these defects.
The Perception of the Voice on the Radio

The first important aspect that supports the relevance of the use of voice on radio is that listeners are aware of the changes that broadcasters make in their vocal parameters. Several of the studies we have conducted show that changes in the voice influence the perception that the audience has of the message. While individuals are not able to establish the specific factors, their perception of the message is modified when the message is presented along with changes in the voice. This fact is clearly demonstrated in one of the studies in which the sample, of 126 persons, varies the adjectives assigned, according to the use of voice in radio news, subjected to analysis. In this case, the sample assessed two models of real radio bulletins against two models developed with the correct use of voice (Rodero & Romera, 2006). For programs with the correct model of presentation expressed by male and female voices, the assessment yielded positive adjectives; the ones more frequently used were safe, enjoyable, compelling, quiet, calm, or nearby. The real models of presentation which were considered incorrect and correspond to the actual patterns of presentation of news on radio were assessed by the sample as fast, exuberant, monotonous, or unpleasant. In addition, several studies on the use of voice on radio show that one a natural presentation is a key factor in correct and pleasant radio presentations. The sample places significant value in voice presentation that is as natural as possible. Therefore, when the models are closer to that kind of speech, they are focused less on the presentation and more on the content. This has been demonstrated in each of the tests that we have done in different studies. The sample hates the exaggerations; therefore, exaggerated models of presentation occupy the last positions when evaluated. At the same time, the sample argues that a natural presentation is their preference because when the presentation is done otherwise, they lose the message content and depart from optimal understanding of the text transmitted. In addition to naturalness, another important feature of an adequate presentation on radio is variation. This is not so much related to comprehension but to the attention of the audience. We have observed in these studies that there is one flaw the audience does not tolerate under any circumstances: a boring presentation. This feature is reflected in the existing literature, which states that monotony is the worst feature that can be attributed to a broadcaster: In a study of prose and poetry presented to listeners in two ways, one with a normal intonation and the other with a monotonous intonation, it was demonstrated that monotony leads to a loss of comprehension (Bolinger, 1989, p. 68). Knapp (1982) had also cited studies of this behaviour. These studies have determined that, compared with a monotony voice, continuous variations in the speed, strength, quality, and pitch of the voice can generate greater attention from the audience. Other authors conclude that monotony decreases the understanding of speech by more than 10%. A study by the Gallup Organization (Glass, 1992, p. 297), in which 73% of the samples considered a monotonous voice as a fatal error, further corroborated the importance of pitch variation. In summary, the sample constantly requires speech that is not boring, but any change in the presentation, must always develop in a natural way. This means that they choose the formats to collect major changes and are
227
more dynamic than those with only minor changes in the presentation. Therefore, models that are monotonous or without rhythm are given the worst evaluation. The explication is quite clear: The effective transmission of the message is lost completely when the attention of the audience is not capture. A more dynamic speech, one that is not sleepy, is preferred over a linear presentation that is so boring, it causes the audience to lose interest and fail to pay attention to content of the radio message. In short, we can conclude that the audience is aware of and is influenced by variations in the different elements of voice in their perception and understanding of the message. In this regard, the sample welcomes the presentation that is natural and has continuous variations, but always in the proper measure. Now the question is: What are the qualities emphasized for broadcasters? Thus, we begin the next section.
Qualities of the Voice on the Radio

The use of the voice is based on the handling and combination of three acoustic qualities: intensity, pitch, and timbre. First, intensity is the strength or power of the voice, dependent on the air pressure exerted on the vocal cords. Therefore, it represents the force or energy that drives air from the lungs to the vocal cords. This pressure causes the vocal folds to vibrate, some to a greater or a lesser extent. The perception of the intensity of the voice is reflected in the volume at which the listener hears that voice (Rodero, 2003). This quality of voice is not very decisive on the radio if we consider that the broadcasters work with a microphone that amplifies the sound. Despite this, our research indicates that the intensity that one must use on radio must be strong enough in order to transmit security; therefore, it must be neither too high nor too low. The second of the acoustic qualities of the voice is pitch, which plays a critical role in the use of voice. Pitch is the height or elevation of the voice determined by the number of times per second that our vocal cords vibrate. If they vibrate many times per second, the tension is increased; the voice rises and is finally heard with a higher pitch. In contrast, fewer vibrations per second cause less tension on the vocal cords; hence, the voice drops and is therefore more somber. According to this, pitch is the voice quality that makes possible to classify sounds on a tonal scale, from low to high pitch. According to our research, the pitch of the voice on the radio must be low. Most people prefer this kind of voice, because it arouses a greater sense of credibility, trust, and confidence. This is easily understood when the voice is compared to the high pitch, for example, of the voice of a child. Because high-pitched voices are associated with children, they produce a lack of confidence. For this reason, the majority of authors recommend using a low-pitched voice for radio messages, especially in news broadcasts where credibility is one of the most valued qualities. Keith Cohler (1985, p. 182) stated clearly: For broadcasters, the recording of voice is more appreciated in the two most serious tones, either a man or a woman. Sorry for the sopranos and high but it works so. All these references are fully consistent with the research that we have done. The conclusion is that the voices appropriate for radio are those that have a low pitch, due to the feelings of safety and credibility that they arouse. In one specific study (Rodero, 2001), the sample was asked which voices they considered more pleasant in reporting news on the radio. For both male and female voices, the answer was clearly always the low-pitched voices. These were valued as more powerful, safe, understandable, credible, communicative, close, direct, warm, gentle, reliable, quiet, and natural. In the other extreme, the high-pitched voices were regarded as always sharp and described with these adjectives: cold, bored, nervous, and without authority and credibility. Finally, timbre is the personality or color of the voice; it is the quality that enables us to distinguish a person just by listening to his voice. With respect to this quality, our studies indicate that the most valued
228
voices are those that have resonance, brightness, and clarity, because they are perceived as more important and thus more secure. In contrast, the sample hates voices that are darker and less resonant. These are the same qualities that Rodriguez Bravo (1989, p. 256) emphasized in his research, stating that This depends on how nice of a harmonious pitch of voice and attitude of the broadcaster is fairly quiet and friendly to get a sound that is relaxed and warm. In conclusion, with regard to the qualities of the voice, the audience prefers low-pitched voices, resonant timbres, and clear and strong intensities.
Prosody and Pronunciation Features

Along with the acoustic qualities, prosody and pronunciation are the two key elements in a broadcasters use of voice. First, prosody consists of the intonation, accent, and rhythm of speech. When we analyze a voice, we discover and address their acoustic qualities. However, when these qualities occur in succession as a spoken sequence, they become a variation of pitches, which makes up the intonation; a succession of pitches, durations, and intensities, which generates the accent; and finally, a sequence of durations, which develops rhythm. Therefore, prosody extends from an acoustic point of view: the changes in frequency, amplitude, and time, which comprises the changes in pitch, intensity, and duration that make up the intonation, accent, and rhythm (Rodero, 2003). Among the elements of prosody, intonation is one of the most important variables in the use of voice, because it contains the message. Such is its importance that, depending on the form it takes, it can exercise a more powerful influence on the listener than the content itself. In this sense, the studies we have done show that broadcasters often use a type of circumflex intonation, which produces the so-called acoustic sing song (Rodero, 2006, 2001; Rodero & Campos, 2005). The error consists of regularly repeating a specific melody, which happens independently to the content. Therefore, the ups and downs of pitch occur at regular intervals, regardless of the word that is being said at the time. Obviously, if we start from the premise that form and content must go hand in hand, we understand that this practice has no meaning. The research which we have done on this subject does not leave room for doubt (Rodero, 2006). Here, we have shown that the vast majority of the pitch combinations that broadcasters use at the beginning, middle, and end of their sentences have a circumflex intonation, although the pitch level varies. Indeed, in two of the investigations realized for news (Rodero & Romera, 2006; Rodero, 2001), the sample assigned a negative value to the practice, describing it as a kind of pitch that is not serious, sung as a cry, a song, or ridiculous. Instead, the model that was preferred by the audience in the two investigations was a model of a natural presentation, one that always retains the content of the message, so that it complies with and reinforces the language functions of this prosodic element, and for that reason, encourages the attention and understanding of the listener. Thus, the model modifies the pitch levels according to the syntax and semantic function of the discourse, and to the speakers communicative intention. This recommendation is especially important if one does not want to produce tremendous contradictions between form and content. As the second prosodic element, we define accent as the emphasis that we put in a word to reveal its importance compared to the other words spoken. Based on this definition, it is easy to understand that the proper stretch emphasizes only those words that are crucial in the understanding of the message. Thus, at least in our investigations (Rodero, 2001), this model is rated as the most appropriate because it gives meaning to the text. The sample positively evaluated this model, saying: It is natural and balanced, It is normal, and The
229
broadcaster stresses where he must do it or puts emphasis on the key. However, we found that broadcasters often use a kind of emphasis away from naturalness, marking excessive words with shock talk, and over-accentuating or emphasizing some words that do not add meaning to the message (such as pronouns, prepositions, or articles). In addition to being incorrect, this kind of accentuation generates rejection in the listener, as evidenced by several of the studies already cited. These studies indicate that, after selecting the correct model, the sample prefers speech that does not reinforce any accent. Thus, the worst defect for them is to twice accentuate a word that has no meaning, because this renders the presentation, exaggerated, and unnatural. The next flaw is the model that emphasizes the words empty of meaning, because it marks what is not relevant; it is unnatural and lost consciousness. The final error is marking too many words, which the sample describes as exaggerated, unnatural, and unbalanced. The final element that we have analyzed is rhythm or the combination of speed and pauses that broadcasters make in their presentations. First, it is clear that a presentation with a reading speed that is too quick and with minimal breaks impacts negatively on the understanding of the message, while a slow reading speed with too many pauses negatively affects the listeners attention. It is thus necessary to find the average between the two, and especially, to know that the rhythm has to vary depending on the meaning of each part of the message. Consistent with this idea, the tests that we have realized show that the audience prefers this kind of rhythm, because it is light and fair, does not result in loss of meaning, and is understandable and normal. However, we note that the broadcasters adopt a reading speed that is too quick and with minimal breaks, which makes it difficult for the listener to comprehend the message and gives the sensation of being hit (Rodero, 2012). We must not forget that from the 170 words a minute, it begins to be ease of understanding. Finally, one of the key elements in assessing the use of voice on the radio is the pronunciation. It is clear and highlighted in the literature on radio, that a broadcaster must have impeccable diction, and use correct and clear pronunciation. According to our research (Rodero, 2001), naturalness and clarity are the most outstanding qualities of pleasant pronunciation. And along with the naturalness, it is the clarity. Under no circumstances will the sample support exaggerated pronunciation, which they consider pompous and pedantic. At the same time, the sample also requires clarity. Moreover, in addition to being understood perfectly, the message must be correct. In this regard, we have shown that the audience is able to detect errors in pronunciation, which they consider incompatible with the work of a professional broadcaster. When they find improprieties, their assessment equates to a bad broadcaster. Despite this, the study realized about pronunciation on radio bulletins. Rodero (2002) has found that it is not always the case. These broadcasters have realized four errors of pronunciation by each news bulletin.
Conclusions
The way in which broadcasters use their voice is a key factor in the transmission of data through this medium. This fact is not always taken into consideration, at least in professional radio networks in Spain. From the studies that we have realized in the past years about the use of the voice on the radio, we have drawn the following conclusions: (1) Changes in the use of voice are clearly perceived by the listeners and have an influence on the understanding of radio messages. Therefore, the listeners give enough importance to the use of voice; (2) The audience values in a positive way the use of voice that is natural and with variations, but always in the proper measure. The correct presentation is one in which form and content are integrated to facilitate the
230
understanding of the message. However, these characteristics are not always found in the professional broadcasts; (3) The voices preferred by the audience are the ones with a low pitch, a clear and resonant timbre, and a strong intensity because such voices are convincing, safe, understandable, credible, communicative, close, direct, warm, gentle, truthful, calm, and natural; (4) The main defects in intonation detected among the broadcasters are using slight variations in pitch and a circumflex intonation, repeating patterns and breaking all language functions of this prosodic element. As far as the accent is concerned, broadcasters put too much emphasis on words, accentuate less important words, or over accentuate some words. In relation to rhythm, broadcasters speak with an excessive speed and few pauses, which decreases the understanding of the message. Finally, in terms of pronunciation, broadcasters realize errors or omissions in the articulation of certain phonemes; (5) Based on the perception of the audience, the main recommendations are: use a natural rhythm in which the pitch movement occurs according to the message content, enhance only those words that are crucial in the understanding of the text, adopt an appropriate rhythm that has a lower speed but is varied with pauses, and use proper diction. In conclusion, after a review of the literature on radio, and data analysis on the use of voice on radio and the audience perception of the same, we assert the need for broadcasters to undergo better training to ensure improvements in broadcast presentations.
References
Bolinger, D. (1989). Intonation and its uses. Great Britain: Edward Arnold. Cantero, F. J. (2002). Theory and analysis of intonation. Barcelona: Editions Universitat de Barcelona. Glass, L. (1992). Say it rightHow to talk in any social or business situation. New York, N. Y.: Perigee Books. Keith Cohler, D. (1985). Broadcast journalism: A guide for the presentation of radio and television news. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Knapp, M. L. (1982). Non-verbal communication. Barcelona: Paids. Rodero, E. (2001). The main errors of a news presenter on radio. In P. Martnez Costa (Ed.), Reinventing radio (pp. 307-315). Pamplona: Ediciones Eunate. Rodero, E. (2002). The pronunciation as huge variable to understand the audiovisual messages (Unpublished manuscript). National Meeting About Spanish in the Media, Salamanca, Spain. Rodero, E. (2003). Presentation on radio. Madrid: IORTV. Rodero, E. (2006). Analysis of intonation in news presentation on television. In A. Botinis (Ed.), Experimental linguistics (pp. 209-213). Athens: University of Athens. Rodero, E. (2012). A comparative analysis of speech rate and perception in radio bulletins. Text and Talk, 32(3), 391-411. Rodero, E., & Campos, G. (2005). The voice of broadcasters of news on television, 25. Comunicar: Revista Cientfica Iberoamericana de Comunicacin y Educacin. Rodero, E., & Romera, C. (2006). Comparative analysis of news presentation on radio (Unpublished manuscript, Pontificia University). Rodriguez Bravo, A. (1989). The radio voices construction (Doctoral dissertation, Universidad Autnoma). Utterback, A. (2000). Broadcast voice handbook. Chicago: Bonus Books.
DA VID
PUBLISHING
The Place of ICT (Information and Communication Technology) in the Administration of Secondary Schools in South Eastern States of Nigeria
Angie Oboegbulem
University of Nigeria, Enugu State, Nigeria
Rita N. Ugwu
Obollo-Afor Education Zone, Enugu State, Nigeria
This study aimed at identifying the role of ICT (information and communication technology) in school administration and the extent of its application by secondary school principals in administration. To guide this study, two research questions were answered and two null hypotheses were tested. The design of the study was a descriptive survey design. The population comprised all the 30 schools in the south eastern states, comprising Abia, Anambra, Ebonvi, Enugu, and Imo states with ICT and Internet facilities. There was no sampling since all the 30 principals from the five states were used for the study. A 26-item questionnaire was constructed and used for data collection. Means and t-test statistic were used for data analysis. The findings showed among others that the use of ICT in school administration is a necessity and worthwhile venture especially in this era of globalization, but the extent of their application in secondary schools is very slow as school administrators are incompetent in handling ICT facilities for effective administration of schools. Keywords: ICT, administration, secondary schools, Nigeria
Introduction
ICT (information and communication technology) in its widest sense is technological tools and resources used to communicate, create, organize, disseminate, store, retrieve, and manage information (Obi, 2002; Nwachukwu, 2004; Edefiogho, 2005; Chaka, 2008). ICT does not only mean computers. It has to do with technological tools which according to Chaka (2008) include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephone. This implies that ICT is a combination of computer and telecommunication application. ICT has contracted the world into a global village and as such has been recognized to be a vital tool for solving communication problem world over. According to European Commission (1995), G8 Nations (2000), Leach and Moon (2000), and Gusen (2001), ICT has proved to be a very powerful tool in education reform. Based on this, institutions in the last few years have been reviewing their mission, goals, strategies, and operations in order to position themselves more effectively to meet the challenges of the 21st century.
Angie Oboegbulem, Ph.D., Department of Educational Foundations, University of Nigeria. Rita N. Ugwu, Ph.D., Post Primary Schools Management Board, Obollo-Afor Education Zone.
232
THE PLACE OF ICT IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Therefore, in this world of wide knowledge movement, education which is perceived generally as an instrument par excellence for effecting social challenges through inculcation of rightful values, skills, attitudes, and knowledge should be at the forefront of this movement. Nigerian institutions, of which secondary education is one, must become active members of this global movement in order to meet the challenges of this modern era. The success of any system of education is hinged on proper planning, adequate financing, and efficient administration (FRN (Federal Republic of Nigeria), 2004). Without efficient and effective school administration, the aims and objectives of any educational system cannot be achieved. As ICT is sweeping through the global world, there is the need for Nigeria and her educational administrators to keep abreast of the principles and applications of ICT for effective job performance. The school administrator must be up to date in the provision of the right information and enhancement of teaching and learning. The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004, p. 18) outlined eight objectives of secondary school education as follows:
(1) Provide trained manpower in the applied science, technology and commerce at sub-professional grades; (2) Inspire students with a desire for self-improvement and achievement of excellence; (3) Provide technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agriculture, industrial, commercial and economic development; (4) Provide all primary school leavers with the opportunity for education of a higher level, irrespective of sex, social status, religious or ethnic background; (5) Offer diversified curriculum to cater for the differences in talents, opportunities and future roles; (6) Develop and promote Nigerian language, art, and culture in the context of worlds cultural heritage; (7) Foster national unity with an emphasis on the common ties that unite us in our diversity. (8) Raise a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views and feelings of others, respect the dignity of labor, appreciate those values specified under the broad national goals, and live as good citizens.
To achieve the above objectives, the secondary school administrator has a crucial role to perform in the achievement of the goals of education and his/her performance determines the success or failure of the educational plan in his/her school. For instance, the objective of provision of trained manpower in the applied science, technology, and commerce cannot be achieved without keeping abreast with ICT appliances. An uninformed school administrator cannot provide and update information. According to Cussack and Sckiller in Oboegbulem and Ogbonnaya (2008), there have been increasing changes for administrators in the areas of leadership expectation, work demands, schools and personal accountability, human resources management, decision-making communication, power and authority, and planning. These changes demand that the school administrator must be computer literate to cope with the demands on him/her. In todays world, ICT can increase school efficiency and reduce unnecessary bureaucracy in school administration. With ICT, the secondary school head can discharge his/her duties by using computers and Internet in solving school general problems and in carrying out his/her day-to-day assignment especially as it relates to having a reliable information system in a laptop computer. ICT can play a major part in diminishing the work load of the administrator and his/her staff especially in keeping daily records of students, in analyzing students attendance records, and in marking students scripts and recording results. Through this, much time is saved and utilized in other directions for effective school administration. Despite the above roles, ICT can play for the school administrator, one wonders if ICT is utilized in secondary schools in south eastern states. Besides, the FRN (2004, p. 34) in National Policy on Education made it clear that Government shall provide necessary infrastructure and training for the integration of ICT in
233
advancing knowledge and skills in the modern world. It is assumed that if government policy has been implemented, administrators, teachers, and students in school system must have acquired ICT skills which will help them for effective instructional delivery, facilitation of teaching and learning as well as general administration of schools. No wonder Iwiyi (2007) pointed out that computer acquisition and use is an important aspect of teaching and learning process. The researchers are also of the view that this will be a means for effective administration of schools to meet the challenges of the 21st century. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine the roles ICT can play in the administration of secondary schools and extent of its application in secondary school administration.
Research Questions
The research questions of this study are as follows: Q1: What roles can ICT play in the administration of secondary schools? Q2: To what extent are these roles applied in secondary schools?
Hypotheses
The hypotheses of this study are as follows: Ho1 (null hypothesis 1): There is no significant difference (P < 0.05) between the mean ratings of principals in urban and rural schools with regards to the roles of ICT in administration of secondary schools in south eastern states; Ho2 (null hypothesis 2): There is no significant difference (P < 0.05) between the mean ratings of principals in urban and rural schools with regards to the extent of use of ICT in the administration of secondary schools in south eastern states.
Method
Population The population of this study comprised 30 principals in the 30 schools in the south eastern states with ICT and Internet facilities. The schools were stratified in urban and rural areas. Based on this, a total of 20 urban and 10 rural schools participated in the study. Sample Size There was no sampling since the population is small. As a result, all the 30 principals in both urban and rural areas from the five states Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, and Imo State were used for the study. The study adopted a descriptive survey design. The instrument for data collection was a 26-item researcher developed questionnaire titled PIASS (The Place of ICT in Administration of Secondary Schools). The instrument was made up of two parts. Part one sought information regarding the state and name of the school. Part two comprised 26 items in two clusters in which the respondents were requested to indicate their opinions on a 4-point rating scale of 4SA (Strongly agree), 3A (Agree), 2D (Disagree), and 1SD (Strongly disagree) for cluster one and 4VH (Very high), 3H (High), 2L (Low), and 1VL (Very low) for cluster two. The instrument was face validated by three experts in the Department of Educational Foundations and one in Measurement and Evaluation all in University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The questionnaire was also trial tested using 10 principals in the south eastern states. Cronbachs alpha was used to test internal consistency of the
234
items. The items yielded a coefficient of 0.87 and 0.83 respectively for the two clusters. The copies of the questionnaire were administered to the respondents with the help of five trained research assistants. Mean and SD (standard deviation) were used to answer the two research questions while t-test statistic was used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.
Result
Q1: What Roles Can ICT Play in Administration of Secondary Schools? The data in Table 1 showed that both groups of principals rated the 14 items in the first cluster high as roles that ICT can play in the administration of secondary schools in the south eastern states of Nigeria. This implies that with the use of ICT in secondary school administration, the principals will be able to store lasting information that can be updated in personal data of staff/students, make returns, write and dispatch mails, browse the Internet for up to date information, keep confidential information secret, carry out WASCE (West African School Certificate Examination)/NECO(National Examination Council) online registration of students, deliver interesting papers during workshops/seminars using power point display, communicate with other colleagues in other parts of the world, among others. Table 1 Mean Ratings of the Respondents on the Roles of ICT in Administration of Secondary Schools
S/N Item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Use of computers offers a principal a better means for storing lasting information that can easily be updated on personal data of staff/students ICT facilities offer an easier means for a school head to make returns, write and dispatch mails With the use of computers and computer networks an administrator can easily browse the Internet for up-to-date information ICT provides a better way for the school heads in storing inventory of school properties that can be updated at any point in time With the use of computers, administrators can easily keep confidential information secret Designing/Printing of students results is easier done by an administrator through the use of computers Wide knowledge of latest happenings is gotten by school heads through listening to radios/TV in his/her office School leads communicate widely and get information from colleagues in other parts of the world with the use of telephone, e-mail, and fax With computer and computer networks the school heads find it easy to carry out WASCE/NECO online registration of students Through the use of ICT administrators can deliver interesting papers during workshops/seminars using power point display With skill in computer acquisition an administrator can retrieve information for decision-making With ICT administrators have easier access in collating results of the students in Micro-soft Excel The use of computers allows for maintenance of accuracy in school records especially in the area of continuous assessment The use of computers allows for easy storage/retrieval of students reports Cluster mean Urban principals (N = 20) Dec. Mean X SD 3.84 5.59 4.00 3.70 3.80 3.37 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.62 3.87 3.58 3.83 3.69 3.78 0.55 0.48 0.00 0.41 0.40 0.60 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.56 0. 35 0.42 0.37 0.45 0.33 SA SA SA SA SA A A SA SA SA SA SA SA SA SA Rural principals (N = 10) Dec. Mean X SD 3.78 3.52 4.00 3.65 3.74 2.78 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.55 3.66 3.55 3.77 2.96 3.64 0.52 0.45 0.00 0.40 0.38 0.70 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.40 0.50 0.35 0.42 0.33 SA SA SA SA SA A SA SA SA SA SA SA SA A SA
THE PLACE OF ICT IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS Q2: Extent of Use of ICT in Secondary Schools
235
On the other hand, Table 2 which shows the extent of use of ICT, is rated low in the most of the items except in items 16, 20, and 22 which are rated high by both groups of respondents. By implication, most of the principals do not use the ICT facilities available to them to store lasting information on personal data of staff/students that can be updated, browse the Internet for up-to-date information, design/print students results, deliver papers using Micro-soft power point display, and maintain accurate aids in continuous assessment of students, among others. Table 2 Mean Ratings of the Respondents on the Use of ICT in Administration of Secondary Schools
S/N 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Item Storing lasting information that can be updated on personal data of staff/students Making returns, writing and dispatching mails Browsing the Internet for up-to-date information Storing inventory of school properties that can be updated at any point in time Designing/printing of students results Getting knowledge of the happenings in the world through radio/TV Communicating and getting information form colleagues in other parts of the world through Internet and e-mail Registering students online in WASC/NECO registration Delivering papers at workshops/seminars using Micro-soft power point display Retrieving information for prompt action in decision-making Maintaining accurate records in continuous assessment of students Using ICT for storage and retrieval of students reports Cluster mean Urban principals (N = 20) Mean X 1.65 3.86 2.07 2.26 1.43 3.79 2.30 4.00 1.42 1.44 1.67 1.40 2.27 SD 0.48 0.54 0.38 0.50 0.38 0.41 0.61 0.00 0.30 0.36 0.38 0.52 0.41 Dec. L VH L L L VH L VH L L L VL L Rural principals (N = 10) Mean X 1.55 3.80 1.44 2.02 1.40 3.63 1.65 4.00 1.25 1.22 1.42 1.34 2.06 SD 0.51 0.45 0.35 0.35 0.30 0.40 0.54 0.00 0.27 0.30 0.35 0.50 0.37 Dec. L VH VL L VL VH L VH VL VL VL VL L
Data in Table 3 showed that the calculated t-value of 1.08 is less than the critical value of 2.05 at 28 degrees of freedom and 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no significant difference in the opinion of the groups. The null hypothesis is therefore accepted. Thus, there is no significance difference in the opinion of the groups. Table 3 T-test Analysis of the Difference Between the Mean Scores of Principals of Urban and Rural Schools on the Roles of ICT in the Administration of Secondary Schools
Group Urban principal Rural principal N 20 10
X
3.78 3.64
SD 0.33 0.33
df 28
Level of significance Calculated-t 0.05 1.08
Critical-t 2.05
Dec. Ho1 accepted
Data in Table 4 indicated that the calculated t-value of 1.40 is less than the critical value of 2.05 at 28 degrees of freedom and 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no significant difference in the opinions of the two groups. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted.
236
Table 4 T-test Analysis of the Difference Between the Mean Scores of the Principals of Urban and Rural Schools on the Extent of Use of ICT in the Administration of Secondary Schools
Group Urban principle Rural principle N 20 10
X
2.27 2.06
SD 0.41 0.37
df 28
Level of significance 0.05
Calculated-t 1.40
Critical-t 2.05
Dec. Ho2 accepted
Discussion
The opinions of the principals in research question one are that ICT plays the following roles in administration of secondary schools in the south eastern states. These roles include assisting the principals in storing lasting information that can be updated easily on personal data of staff/students, making returns, writing and dispatching mails, browsing the Internet for administrative improvement, keeping confidential information secret, designing/printing of students results, registering students online for WASCE/NECO examinations, and gaining wide knowledge, among others. The finding shows that the roles of ICT in the administration of secondary schools were highly rated. This implies that secondary school administrators need ICT in their day-to-day running of schools, especially in the era of globalization where ICT education has become an important issue in Nigerian education. In line with this, Edefiogho (2005) made it clear that ICT increases the efficiency and effectiveness of educational management and administration. According to him, if managerial functions at school and other levels of the education system are to be carried out efficiently and effectively, it is necessary that information of high quality is available at all times for elective decision-making. No wonder that the principals for instance rated such items as storing lasting information, making returns/writing mails, retrieving information for prompt action in decision-making, among others, as important roles of ICT in administration of schools. Experience has also shown the researchers that use of ICT in schools provides for a reliable information system that will in turn guarantee the right information. Besides, ICT has the capacity to automate processes and save time, thereby freeing school managers to focus on instructional leadership. The point is that if a principal of a school for instance is to have all the necessary information about his/her school in a laptop, then, the running of his/her school will be made easier for him/her. The extent of use of ICT in the administration of secondary schools was rated low in most of the items except in making returns, writing and dispatching mails, getting knowledge of happenings in the world through radios/TV, and registering students online for WASCE/NECO examinations. This is an indication that the roles which ICT can play in the administration of secondary schools are yet to be applied by the principals in their day-to-day running of schools. Ibenye (personal communication, June 30, 2010) made it clear that the computers in her school residence in Abia State are just used for teaching students only. She indicated that she does not use the computers for administrative purposes like storing information about all the students in the school and designing/printing the students results. Above all, she indicated that she is a computer illiterate. In line with this, Oboegbulem and Ogbonnaya (2008) stated that the inability of administrators to keep up with the pace of development in ICT is one of the constraints that have made it difficult for innovative use of ICT in the management and administrative process. It is worthy of noting that the indications of Ibenye is not farfetched from other principals of south eastern states with ICT facilities in their schools. It is only computer literate principals that will effectively and efficiently apply ICT in their day-to-day running of the schools and browse through the Internet for up-to-date information. This, therefore, shows why
237
the extent of use of ICT in administration of secondary schools was rated low in most of the items. The result of analysis in Table 3 shows that the roles ICT can play in school administration do not differ significantly between urban and rural principals who have ICT facilities in their schools. With a calculated-t of 1.08 being less than the critical-t of 2.05 at 28 degrees of freedom and 0.05 level of significance, the null hypothesis is accepted. The result of t-test in Table 4 shows that the extent of the application of the roles of ICT in the administration of schools does not differ significantly between urban and rural principals with ICT facilities in their schools. With a calculated value of 1.40 and critical t-value of 2.05 at 28 degrees of freedom and 0.05 level of significance, the null hypothesis is accepted.
Findings and Implication of the Research

The findings of this research identified the roles ICT could play in secondary school administration in south eastern states of Nigeria. It showed that ICT is minimally used by principals in the administration of schools. The findings are of importance to the government secondary school boards, policy-makers, administrators, and stake holders in education in the sense that in order to discuss issues in contemporary education, the principals as secondary school administrators must use ICT in their day-to-day management of the schools for effective and efficient performance. This study has also created awareness in the minds of principals of secondary schools on their current position in the application of ICT in daily administration of schools and the need for developing competency in the use of ICT appliances for effective administration of schools.
Conclusion
This study has identified the roles ICT could play in the administration of secondary schools in the south eastern states of Nigeria and the extent of use of ICT in secondary school administration by the principals. The roles include use of ICT by principals in storing lasting information on staff/students personal data, browsing the Internet for up-to-date information, making returns/writing mails, registering students online for WASCE/NECO examinations, delivering interesting papers in workshop/seminars using power point display, communicating with colleagues in other parts of the world, and retrieving information for prompt action in decision-making, among others. ICT should be used by the principals for effective school administration. Based on the discussions and implications of the study, recommendations are made.
Recommendations
The recommendations of the study are as follows: (1) Government should provide computers with Internet facilities to schools through secondary school boards; (2) State government should organize training for principals on the use of ICT in school administration; (3) State government should be in collaboration with secondary school boards to provide laptop computers to principals of schools; (4) Federal government should arrange for provision of ICT appliances in all secondary schools in south eastern states; (5) Secondary school boards should organize workshops/seminars at intervals for principals. In such workshops/seminars, the principals should be advised to come with their own lap tops.
238
References
Chaka, J. G. (2008). Information and communication technology (ICT) as a vital tool in the education sector reform in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Sociology in Education (NJSE), 2(2), 181-190. Edefiogho, D. H. (2005). Information and communication technology and overall development: New frontiers Shekinah home coming. Nsukka: Stanzero Printers. European Commission. (1995). European commission white paper in teaching and learning: Towards the learning society. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities. FRN (Federal Republic of Nigeria). (2004). National policy on education (44th ed.). Lagos: NERDC Press. G8 Nations. (2000). Okinawa charter on the global Information society. Retrieved from http://www.dotforce.org/reports/itI.htmi Gusen, J. (2001, May). The information technology education in Nigeria: A challenge for the classroom teacher. A paper presented at Maiden Conference (Chapters 2-3), College of Education, FCE Pankshin. Iwiyi, G. U. (2007). Teacher education in Nigeria: Challenges for the 21 century. Journal of Todays Education, 10(3), 1-5. Leach, J., & Moon, B. (2002). Pedagogy, information and communication technology: Teacher professional knowledge. Curriculum Journal, 11, 385-404. Nwachukwu, D. O. (2004). Technology development in Nigeria. Aba: Ridden Publishing House. Obi, C. (2002). Information technology skills needed by business education teachers for effective instruction in the secondary schools in Enugu State. The Journal of World Council for Curriculum and Instruction, Nigeria Chapter, 4(2), 99-106. Oboegbulem, A. I., & Ogbonnaya, N. O. (2008). Challenges in the application of information and communication technology (ICT) in the management of universities. In B. G. Nworgu (Ed.), Education in the information age: Global challenges and enhancement strategies. Proceedings of The First International Conference of the Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
DA VID PUBLISHING
The Design and Development of a Web-Based E-learning Platform for the Understanding and Acquisition of Various Entrepreneurial Skills in SMEs and Industry
Ayodele Ogunleye
University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
Tunde Owolabi
Lagos State University, Ojo, Nigeria
Sunday Adeyemo
University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
In recent times, the role of entrepreneurs has been recognized to be of great significance in accelerating the pace of growth of economic development of any country. Internet-enabled technologies have also challenged existing business models in numerous market sectors and offered innovation opportunities to a variety of stakeholdersnot least SMEs (Small and Medium Scale Enterprises). The focus of this paper is on the development and design of an educational Web-based e-learning platform tool that presents a possible future scenario of a platform for the acquisition of innovative entrepreneurship skills and technology transfer needs of school leavers and graduates from higher institutions of learning. The platform enables the display of various product design and job-related entrepreneurship skills that are capable of bringing together students, teachers, researchers, and experts from industry and economic life. This learning in network promotion of SMEs sector offers students unlimited possibilities to acquire new knowledge and explore business linkages in various dimensions. An important ingredient of the system is a mechanism that gives illumination of basic concepts, procedures, stages, and essential indices for acquiring entrepreneurial skills through content dissemination, monitoring, evaluation, control, and accountability in globalised environment. Other features include provisions for the learning of multiple-instruments used in industries, individual and group tasks, hands-on sessions, games, and organizational learning in entrepreneurship and visual visitation display of industrial sites. The approach is cost-effective and the solution is suitable for a variety of platforms. It could, for example, be used as a platform for acquiring online degree in entrepreneurship education. With a degree in entrepreneurship, students can develop the basic understanding that they need for starting their own business. This will ultimately promote employability of graduates in the globalised economy. Keywords: SMEs (Small and Medium Scale Enterprises), entrepreneurial skills, technology transfer, product designs, industrial visitations, experiential games, entrepreneurship education
Introduction
Historically, entrepreneurship development in Nigeria started late as many of the indigenous entrepreneurs in the country were never allowed to develop by the former colonial powers. However, with the promulgation
Ayodele Ogunleye, Ph.D., Department of Science and Technology Education, University of Lagos. Tunde Owolabi, Ph.D., Faculty of Education, Lagos State University. Sunday Adeyemo, Ph.D., Department of Science and Technology Education, University of Lagos.
240
THE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A WEB-BASED E-LEARNING PLATFORM
of the Nigerian Enterprise Promotion Decree of 1972 when events changed, and this provided the stimulus for entrepreneurship development via small- and medium- scale enterprises promotion. As a result, private businesses sprung and grew generating employment, income, and increase in GDP (Gross Development Product), while the Nigerian government supported entrepreneurial ingenuity through various programs that were designed to encourage self-employment, income empowerment, social cohesion, technical progress, and economic development. Since the mid 1980s, there has been increased commitment of government to entrepreneurship development especially after the introduction of the SAP (Structural Adjustment economic Program) in 1986, added to the establishment of the NDE (National Directorate of Employment), NOAS (National Open Apprenticeship Scheme), SMEDAN (Small and Medium Enterprise Development Association of Nigeria), etc.. In early 2000s, entrepreneurship studies were introduced into the Nigerian educational system especially higher institutions as a mandatory course. The CED (Centre for Entrepreneurship Development), which has the objective of teaching and gingering students of higher institutions (especially in SET (science, engineering, and technology)) to acquire entrepreneurial, innovative, and management skills, was also established. This is to make the graduates self-employed, create job opportunities for others, and generate wealth.
Literature Review
Entrepreneurship sometimes cannot often be accurately defined, however, according to Evans and Volery (2001), it is a process of creating value, be it by individuals or organizations and this process involves recognition of the opportunity and use of resources. In other words, the individual or the organization gives the market place a product or service by using resources in a new way. This process is not simple as it requires the entrepreneur or entrepreneurial organization to modify the venture concept and strategy until it is right (Good, 2003). Entrepreneurship can also be defined as the ability to develop a new venture or apply a new approach to an old business (Steinfioff & Burgers, 1993). Furthermore, Laukkanen (2000) was of the opinion that entrepreneurship has emerged as a key issue and policy tool for economic growth, regional development and job creation. Entrepreneurship education, according to Isaac, Visser, Friedrick, and Brijlal (2007), is the purposeful intervention by an educator in the life of the learner to survive in the world of business. It has as its focus on action orientation primarily embodied in teaching students how to develop a business plan. Bassey and Archibong (2005) were of the opinion that the goal of entrepreneurship education should be to empower our graduates irrespective of their areas of specialization with skills that will enable them to engage in income yielding venture, if they are unable to secure jobs in the public sector. Hence, today, entrepreneurship education has come to denote all forms of knowledge delivery that seek to empower the individual to create real wealth in the economic sector, thereby advancing the cause of development of the nation as a whole. One major rationale of including entrepreneurship curricula in universities, according to Cotton, OGorman, and Stampfi (2000), was that it will help graduates to acquire increased understanding of entrepreneurship, equip them with entrepreneurial approach to the world of work, and prepare them to act as entrepreneurs and managers of new businesses. In the literature, it has been established that the development of technical innovation and the capacity to translate such innovation into entrepreneurial ventures is a positive step in the direction of socio-economic development. There is underdevelopment when this step is missing. In Nigeria, technical innovation and
241
entrepreneurship are conditioned by the political economy, the institutions, the socio-cultural opportunities, and constraints. Fundamentally, innovation has to do with changes leading to improvement in the quality and quantity of products as well as techniques of doing things. Innovation is dynamic and creates new things out of existing ones. Through innovation, the entrepreneur introduces new production techniques, new commodities, improves existing ones, opens up new markets, explores new source of raw materials, and designs new techniques of management. Research and development programs are formal avenues of introducing or inculcating innovative skills in the entrepreneur. These skills are what the entrepreneur translates into business establishment and development. Previous research studies have shown that there exists a significant relationship between entrepreneurship education and students career intention. One such study carried out by Kolvereid and Moen (1997) revealed that students with a major in entrepreneurship have a higher intention to engage as entrepreneurs and are likely to initiate business. Another study carried out by Noel (2001) equally showed that students who graduated in entrepreneurship reached higher scores in entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial self-efficacy than students who graduated in other disciplines. Bassey and Olu (2008) also investigated how students perceptions of tertiary entrepreneurship education relate to graduate self-employment potential in Nigeria using a sample of 690 students in three universities. The result of their work showed that there was a significant relationship between students perceptions of university administrations provisions for tertiary entrepreneurship education and curriculum objectives for tertiary entrepreneurship education.
The Problem
Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa, with a population of 140 million. According to the 2006 provisional census, Nigeria has a youth population of 80 million, accounting for 60% of the population. The country suffers from extreme poverty: Over 70 million people live on less than $1 a day. Today, there is a growing problem of youth unemployment in Nigeria, with over 64 million young people being unemployed, and of the 16 million employed, 1.6 million are actually underemployed. In addition, only 10% of the graduates released into the labor market annually by universities and other tertiary institutions are able to obtain paid employment. The problem, therefore, is one that keeps recurring every year, hence, the directive of the Federal Government to all tertiary education regulatory agencies to establish necessary mechanisms for the introduction, development, and sustenance of entrepreneurial culture among Nigerian youths. To make up for the curricula inadequacies in meeting employment problem, the NUC (National Universities Commission) in July, 2004, organized a workshop on entrepreneurship for Nigerian universities as a way forward. The NUC workshop produced a draft curriculum on entrepreneurial studies for Nigerian universities. Consequently, many universities have initiated entrepreneurship education programmes in an attempt to reverse graduate unemployment trend by giving the needed training in entrepreneurial skills to students for setting up businesses and to consider self-employment as a viable career option. Technological developments in the past few years have seen the startups of Internet cafes, new Internet service providers, computers in some schools, and connectivity hubs that provide access to information at high speeds. The Nigerian government has created and adopted policies promoting the use of technology in education. Furthermore, the Nigerian Economic Policy 1999-2003 is a comprehensive compendium of President Obasanjos policies and guiding principles for the nation. The Nigerian Economic Policy 1999-2003
242
(1999) stated, Government will provide affordable quality education for all Nigerians, the universal basic education and mass adult literacy programs will be pursued in earnest, and in particular, Government will create incentives to expand access to information and communications technology which will facilitate leap-froging in order to short-circuit the longer span of development. The policy even recommended partnerships with national and international agencies, including the United Nations transfer of knowledge through expatriate nationals program. The focus of this paper, therefore, is on the development and design of an educational Web-based e-learning platform tool. An important ingredient of the system is a mechanism that gives illumination of basic concepts, procedures, stages, and essential indices for acquiring entrepreneurial skills through content dissemination, monitoring, evaluation, control, and accountability in globalized environment. Other features of the system have the following functionalities: (1) Provisions for the learning of multiple-instruments used in industries; (2) The system will have e-lectures based on learning objects; (3) The system will enable students to submit assignments, evaluate their understanding, and help them acquire more knowledge; (4) The system will allow for group collaboration individual and group tasks; (5) Platform for acquiring online degree in entrepreneurship education.
Method: Systems Design and Development

The methodology used in this study consists of the followings. Software Requirements The following software is required to be installed on the server before running the application: (1) Microsoft Windows XP, 2007 Professional; (2) Macromedia Dreamweaver MX; (3) Microsoft FrontPage; (4) Microsoft Access; (5) Personal Web-server or Internet Information Server; (6) Visual Basic Enterprise Edition. The Design and Development of the Website In developing the Website, the use of a well-defined methodology is quite important. Hence, the focus is using a clear logical structure to present the available material without losing users in insignificant details or links, which is capable of distracting the attention of the users from the educational goals it is intended to achieve. The research aims at developing a Web application that can be hosted with a domain name on the Internet server. This application will be designed such that things like passwords, registration for courses, course texts, assessment, tutorials, examination, and collaborative learning will all be available online. Analysis of Requirements The requirements for specifications of the system are: (1) It must have an Interface for registering users and will also be able to store their details in a well-normalized database; (2) It must have an Interface for registering users;
243
(3) It must make it available for users to be able to download lecture series for their private studies; (4) It must enable users to do assignments and take short tests and make results available to students online; (5) It must provide for collaborative activities among users. The objectives of the site are as follows: (1) The site should be able to attract and retain users interests; (2) The site should be able to maximize the audience, thereby ensuring that the largest possible number of people use it; (3) The site should provide access to a large amount of information, tasks, and resources; (4) The site must have a presentation structure and a storage structure. The two structures must be similar to make it easier to maintain the Website. The presentation structure is the mental model of the Web-based classrooms structure formed by visitors as they browse through the pages of the site. It is the collection of hyperlinks that ties the materials together. The storage structure is the hierarchy of files and directories (often called folders) used on the Web-server to store the classrooms Web-pages and other data. It is created and maintained by the researcher. The storage structure of the Website is shown in Figure 1, while Figure 2 shows the screen shot of the CEDESA (Centre for Entrepreneurship Development and Skills Acquisition) homepage.
Identification Learner information Accessibility Course announcement Lecturer detail Lecture 1 Lecture 2 Lecture 3 Lecture4 Learning materials Homepage Lecture6 Lecture 7 Lecture 8 Lecture9 Lecture 10 Working groups Discussion group Chat group E-mail group Figure 1. Storage structure. Lecture5
244
Figure 2. Centre for entrepreneurship development and skills acquisition homepage.
Results
Features of the Website Welcome to CEDASA. Welcome to the CEDESA located at the University of Lagos, Akoka-Yaba. The centre aims at disseminating best practices on the design, implementation, evaluation, and promotion of entrepreneurship and SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises) policies and local development initiatives. It seeks to foster the development of an entrepreneurial society, capable of innovating, creating jobs, and seizing the opportunities provided by globalization, while helping to promote sustainable growth, integrated development, and social cohesion. Faculty, staff, and students of the center are passionate about entrepreneurship and the impact it will have on job-seekers, hence, it offers a wide range of activities, programs, speakers, and initiatives. Here, at the center, we harness the wisdom, experience, and perspective of the business community and our alumni. We provide our students with opportunities to participate in student organizations, quality advising and internships as well as scholarship assistance to students. CEDASA is a center of excellence in human resources development through the use of visual learning, gives thrust to the endeavors that goals as a nation for the inculcation of self-employable skills are amongst the young graduates. The diversion of a significant percentage of the graduates from wage employment to self-employment or entrepreneurial careers is a matter of urgent need, hence, the policies and programs are designed specifically for entrepreneurship promotion which can greatly affect the growth of entrepreneurs and also contribute towards a higher form of entrepreneurship which is technically more superior The use of the Web-based e-teaching and learning systems is another training delivery platform with value-added benefit to participants. This supports face-to-face and hands-on sessions for this program, and essentially embodies key principles in utilizing effective technology-based modes in teaching and training the participants. This kind of Web-based teaching and learning system is one of the best systems and is the first of its
245
kind in any university in Nigeria. This Web-based teaching and learning system is in accordance with the vision, mission, and goals set under the corporate plan of the centre which is being implemented under the guidance of good and enables team of experts comprising of faculty, software engineer, multimedia artists, Web designer, programmers, and network administrators to use all the in-house resources. They deserve congratulations and thanks for the day-and-night work in producing an excellent Web-based multimedia material. Vision. The vision is to help build a fully industrialized Nigeria through the catalytic and pioneering role of the micro/small/medium enterprises. Mission. The mission is to make any person understand, actualize, and energize his/her inner potential for positive action by promoting entrepreneurial culture, skills acquisition, self-employment, economic independence, and self-actualization. CEDASA objectives are as follows: (1) To stimulate an entrepreneurial attitude in students, lecturers, researchers, support staff, and in employers and employees in general; (2) To enhance employability of educated youth through industry specific skill training; (3) To empower women to acquire the necessary skills for personal development; (4) To provide skills to equip the youth for gainful employment or to establish ones own enterprises; (5) To reduce unemployment and the number of the youths engaged in dysfunctional pursuits; (6) To reduce poverty and provide for additional sources of income; (7) To arrange interactions with successful entrepreneurs; (8) To arrange factory visits; (9) To provide hand-holding support after the training; (10) To build NGO (Non Governmental Organizations) capacity for generating mass employment and women empowerment; (11) To build up entrepreneurship potentials of Nigerian youth; (12) To motivate and equip Nigerian youth to access their entrepreneurial potentials to start and manage small business enterprises. Entrepreneurship Development Module Lectures The entrepreneurship development module lectures are as follows: (1) Module One: Introduction to small business enterprises; (2) Module Two: Introduction to entrepreneurship; (3) Module Three: Unlocking entrepreneurship competencies; (4) Module Four: Business orientation; (5) Module Five: Market plan; (6) Module Six: Production plan; (7) Module Seven: Organization and management plan; (8) Module Eight: Financial plan; (9) Module Nine: Developing a viable business plan; (10) Module Ten: Presentation (and appraisal) of business plan.
246
Sourcing for Capital to Start a Small Business of Your Own Many young entrepreneurs have dreams and ideas to become a successful businessman. But maximum of them cannot become successful due to insufficiency of funds. Start-up loan is very much necessary for them. There are lots of hard-working young people around the world. Many of them have some great ideas which have chance to become successful in future. But most of the ideas cannot get the fate they expect due to insufficiency of funds. To start up a business, even it is small, a huge amount of money needed, which cannot be carried by the owner. So he/she started to run into the banks and the companies who lend money. But hardly, any bank or financing company provides a loan, because the young people are unable to mortgage any property. And the banks also want a secured investment. There are lots of talents in the young people, but all his/her talents are gone to destroy only for funds. A person or institution can help him/her to become a successful. There are lots of examples available who lose their souls to find a loan. But somehow when any of them could manage funding, they have the ability to become one of the most successful business institutions in the world. If we see the starting of some most successful organizations, we would notice this fact. But, all of the ideas would not be acceptable. Of course, we have to analyze their thoughts and maximum time, which the result would be positive. All young entrepreneurs would not be successful, but every talented person should get the chance to become a successful entrepreneur. For this reason, funds for the start-up small business loan are very necessary. There are several sources of financing which include: (1) Personal savings; (2) Family and friends; (3) Commercial banks; (4) Trade credits; (5) Angel investors; (6) Thrift and credit cooperatives; (7) Partnership funding; (8) Retained earnings. Catalogue of Small/Medium Scale Businesses Businesses owned and operated by entrepreneur take different forms. While some are owned by an individual, others are owned by two or more persons. The form of business ownership that an entrepreneur selects may be dependent upon his/her circumstances, abilities, resources, environment, and the characteristics of the business. The prospective owner should evaluate in detail the characteristics of each form of business and their advantages and disadvantages and then select a form of business ownership that matches his/her interest. Several small business ideas abound from agriculture to manufacturing, construction to transportation and communication. The important thing here is to seek the Lord and not to jump presumptuously into any venture. On the other hand, you must beware of remaining in the camp of those who claim to be seeking the Lord for months and years on end without rising to do anything. To remember, whatever is not of faith is sin. To take a step of faith and God will bless the work of your hand (see Appendix).
Conclusions
Entrepreneurship development and innovations in Nigeria are at the peak of awareness, creation, and participation by both the people and government. Policies of government should now be shifted to addressing
247
the problems of infrastructural decay and finance. The problem of power supply is still very much on ground while credit framework via microfinance banks put in place to assist entrepreneurs with soft loans is still in infancy. The attainment of Nigerias vision of becoming one of the top 20 leading economies of the world by the year 2020, otherwise known simply as vision 20:20 is a more compelling for us to energize our entrepreneurship activities. The government and development/change agencies must in the society. The implication is that if Nigeria expects its technical innovativeness and entrepreneurship to play a crucial role in its socio-economic development, it should endeavor to harness the positive factors and counteract the negative ones. To this end, the following recommendations are made: (1) There should be an inventory for use as a data base of all technical innovations in Nigeria. This can be done effectively by a team of researchers, each assigned to different sectors; (2) The government should create social and political conditions that are favorable to indigenous innovation and entrepreneurship and provide sufficient funding facilities; (3) The government should use appropriate national agencies to develop in entrepreneurs aggressive marketing skills they need to commercialize innovations; (4) To support innovations, international agencies, and multinational corporations should invest in small-scale industries; (5) Research should be undertaken to develop better processing equipment. Research costs money. Research funds and venture capital are needed to exploit the results of research. Government and the research institutions should try to bridge the communication gap between the producers of technologies and potential users, and thus, move the innovation from the workshop to the doors of the people; (6) Linkages should be established between all the actors in technical entrepreneurship: government, funding agencies, universities, research institutions, innovators, manufacturers, entrepreneurs, and users; (7) The government should formulate truly protective patent laws. The assurance of protection against copying can stimulate an inventor. However, patent laws in Nigeria are said to be so fluid that they hardly provide any protection. The ineffective patent system is a disincentive to innovation; (8) Nigerian entrepreneurs should have tax relief and easy access to venture capital to encourage them to invest in manufacturing, rather than in buying and selling; (9) Parts of the engineering curriculum at Nigerian universities and polytechnics should be critically examined and reorganized, entrepreneurs should seek the assistance/incorporate the services of other persons in skills that they lack but highly need for their business to succeed or grow; (10) Promotion of micro-, small-, and medium- scale enterprises should be intensified and entrepreneurship development activities incorporated in Nigerias industrial blueprint by government.
References
Anyakoha, E. U. (2006). Practical tips for economic empowerment and survival. Nsukka: AP Express. Bassey, U. U., & Archibong, I. A. (2005). Assuring quality graduate output through entrepreneurial oriented education in Nigerian universities. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies, 12(3), 18-23. Bassey, U. U., & Olu D. (2008). Tertiary education and graduate self-employment potentials in Nigeria. Journal of the World Universities Forum, 1(3), 131-42. Cotton, J., OGorman, C., & Stampfi, C. (2002). Can national education policies meet the call for more entrepreneur? A project supported by the European community (Project Number-FIN/00/C/P/RF/92650), March, 2005. Retrieved from http://www.google.com
248
DiaBelen, A., Oni, B., & Adekola, A. (2000). Labor market prospects for university graduates in Nigeria. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. Diejomal, U., & Orimolade, W. (1991). Unemployment in Nigeria: Economic analysis of scope, trends and policy issues. Nigerian Journal of Economic and Social Sciences, 13(2), 127-132. Egai, N. A. (2008). Entrepreneurial development: For increased competitiveness and business growth. Institute of Chartered Economists of Nigerias Seminar, June 6, 2008. Abuja: National Centre for Women Development. Etuk, E. (2000). Great insights on home creativity. U. S.: Morris Publishers. European Union. (2002). Final report of the expert group best procedure project on education and training for entrepreneurship. Brussels: European Commission Directorate-General for Enterprise. Evans, D., & Volery, T. (2001). Online business development services for entrepreneurs: An exploratory study. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 13, 333-350. Good, W. S. (2003). Build a dream: A Canadian guide to starting a business of your own (5th ed./higher education ed.). Toronto, Canada: McGraw- Hill Ryerson Ltd. Hisrich, R. D., & Peter, M. P. (2002). Entrepreneurship. Singapore: McGraw-Hill. Igbo, C. A. (2005). Modern institutional techniques and their application in technical vocational education programs of polytechnic and monotechnics. ETF Capacity Building Workshop, Auchi. Igbo, C. A. (2006). Developing entrepreneurship through entrepreneurship education. Journal of Home Economics Research, 7, 50-54. Isaacs, E., Visser, K., Friedrich, J. C., & Brijlal, P. (2007). Entrepreneurship education and training at the further education and training (FET) level in South Africa. South African Journal of Education, 27, 613-629. Kolvereid, L., & Moen, O. (1997). Entrepreneurship among business graduates: Does a major in entrepreneurship make a difference? Journal of European Industrial Training, 21(4), 154. Laukkanen, M. (2000). Exploring alternative approaches in high-level entrepreneurship education: creating micro-mechanism for endogenous regional growth. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 12, 25-47. Madumere-Obike, C. U. (2000). Reposition education for employment: Implications for educational management. Multidisciplinary Journal of Research Development (MIKJORED), 7(3), 43-52. National University Commission. (2004). Labor market expectations of Nigerian graduates. Abuja: Education Trust Fund (ETF). Noel, T. W. (2001). Effects of entrepreneurial education on student to open a business. Frontiers of Entrepreneurship. Research, Babson, Conference Proceedings, Babson College. Nwangwu, I. O. (2007). Entrepreneurship in education: Concept and constraints. African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies, 4(1), 196-207. Ocho, L. (2005). National development and curriculum issues. In S. O. Oriafo, B. S. Edozie, & D. Eze (Eds.), Contemporary education (pp. 23-30). Benin City: DaSylva Fluence. Onu, V. C. (2006). Practical tips to successful entrepreneurship. Journal of Home Economics Research, 7, 12-19. Onuma, N. (2009). Rationale for youth preparation and entrepreneurship education in the face of global economic crisis in Nigeria. Annals of Modern Education, 1(1), 224-232. Osuala, E. C. (2004). Principles and practice of small business management in Nigeria: A didactic approach. Nsukka: Fulladu Publishers. Owusu-Ansah, W. A. (2004). The impact of entrepreneurship education on career intentions and aspiration of tertiary students in Ghana. A paper presented at The 49th World Conference of International Council for Small Business, June 20-23, 2004, Johannesburg, South Africa. Schumpeter, J. A. (1975). Theory of economic development. Cambridge: Howard University Press. Schumpeter, J. A. (2001). Role of the entrepreneur in economic growth. Retrieved May 11, 2009, from http://www. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/entreprenurship Steinhoff, D., & Burgers, J. (1993). Small business management fundamentals. New York: McGraw Hill International.
Appendix: The Following Checklist (Covering Various Sectors of the Economy) Is Provided
Agriculture/Agro-Allied Business 1. Carbonated beverages 2. Cassava starch production 3. Cassava/yam flour processing 4. Cocoa products

5. Fadama farming 6. Farm tools production 7. Fish farming 8. Fruits processing 9. Garri production 10. Goat/sheep rearing 11. Grains production 12. Grass cutter rearing 13. Groundnut shelling 14. Livestock feed production 15. Palm products, brooms, baskets, tooth picks, etc. 16. Piggery 17. Poultry 18. Rabbit farming 19. Rice milling 20. Soluble coffee making 21. Tractor hiring services 22. Tree crops production 23. Tubers production 24. Turkey farm Baby Items 1. Baby powder production 2. Baby cream production 3. Baby shoes shop 4. Baby cloth production 5. Baby items shop 6. Baby nappy production 7. Baby oil production 8. Baby jelly production 9. Childrens toys production 10. Disposable diapers production Catering and Hospitality Business 1. Biscuits production 2. Bottled water production 3. Bread making 4. Butchering 5. Catering school 6. Cold store 7. Cutlery making 8. Fast food centre 9. Food items sale 10. Hoteling 11. Ice block 12. Ice cream production 13. Lunch pack making 14. Packed rice sale 15. Palm oil production 16. Pop corn making 17. Restaurant operation 18. Sachet water production 19. Seafood sales 20. Soybeans milk production 21. Tea making 22. Vegetable oil production 23. Yoghurt production Chemical and Allied Business 1. Adhesive production 2. Battery electrolyte production 3. Car liquid wax 4. Carburetor cleaner 5. Carpet cleaner production 6. Fertilizer production 7. Fumigation services 8. Glass sprayer 9. Herbicides production 10. Home disinfectants 11. Insecticides production 12. Leather preservation 13. Lighter fluid production 14. Metal polish production 15. Mouth wash production 16. Paint production 17. Radiator rust remover 18. Stain removers production 19. Termite proofing 20. Wood polish production Construction 1. Bolt and nuts 2 Burglary proof constructions 3. General welding 4. Iron bending 5. Iron chair making 6. Iron doors construction 7. Iron table making 8. Iron/steel bars marketing 9. Local iron satellite dish construction 10. Stove stand construction Educational Services 1. Nursery/primary school operating 2. Secondary school 3. Seminar organizing 4. Conference organizing 5. Distance learning services 6. Day care centre 7. Continuing education centre 8. Extra-mural lesson 9. Computer school 10. Polytechnic 11. Resume writing 12. Schools bags production 13. Pens making 14. Markers making
249
250

15. School chalk production 16. Library glue production Fashion and Styles 1. Barbing salon 2. Beauty salon 3. Boutique shop 4. Undies making 5. Face lotion production 6. Fashion designing 7. Fashion school 8. Fashion show business 9. Hair cream production 10. Hand purses/wallet production 11. Manicure services 12. Sale of shale materials 13. Shampoo production 14. Sunglasses production 15. Tailoring services 16. Travel bags making Forest-Based and Furniture Business 1. Dye production 2. Firewood gathering 3. Home furniture making 4. Office furniture making 5. Safety matches production 6. Saw briquetting 7. Saw milling 8. School furniture making 9. Toothpick production 10. Upholstering 11. Wood carving Garment Industry 1. Bath towels production 2. Bed-sheet production 3. Belts production 4. Blankets production 5. Curtains production 6. Face caps production 7. Handkerchief 8. Factory uniform production 9. Neckties production 10. Pillow cases production 11. Pajamas production 12. Raincoats production 13. Suspenders production 14. Sweat shirts production 15. Swimsuits production 16. Under-wears production 17. Wooden/plastic hangers files General Services 1. Auto mechanic 2. Block making 3. Car wash 4. Carpentry 5. Chair/general rental services 6. Clock repair 7. Construction services 8. Digital photo laboratory 9. Electrical works 10. Fabrication 11. Gymnasium/fitness centre 12. Laundry/dry cleaning 13. Photo studio 14. Plumbing works 15. Tour organization 16. Vulcanizer 17. Wedding consulting 18. Welding works Info-Tech Business 1. Computer repairs 2. ICT Consulting 3. Sale of Computer accessories 4. Sale of laptop 5. Sale of PCs 6. Software engineering Internet-Based Business 1. Automobiles net marketing 2. Award site 3. Banner designer 4. Business software site 5. Cyber copywriting 6. Discussion boards 7. Download site 8. Free-for-air link pages 9. Games site 10. Internet press releases 11. Multi-media production site 12. News site 13. Search engine positioning 14. Sporting goods site 15. Travel site 16. Web design 17. Web production 18. Website overhaul Leather Making 1. Hockey/cricket balls 2. Leather bags making 3. Leather boxes making 4. Leather shoes making 5. Leather tanning 6. Volleyballs 7. Footballs

Printing and Publishing 1. Book binding 2. Christian books publishing/marketing 3. Diary/calendars production 4. Exercise books / envelopes production 5. Foolscap/duplicating paper production 6. General printing and publishing 7. Graphic designing 8. Greeting cards production/marketing 9. Jotters production 10. Lithographing 11. Magazine publishing 12. Newsletter printing 13. Newspaper publishing 14. Notepad and envelopes production 15. Office flat files production 16. Past exams questions and answers publishing 17. Stickers production 18. Storybooks writing and publishing 19. Textbooks publishing 20. Vernacular books publishing Professional Services 1. Accounting practice 2. Architectural practice 3. Auction service 4. Educational consulting 5. Engineering consulting 6. Estate valuing services 7. Graphic art & design 8. Investment consulting 9. Legal services 10. Management consulting 11. Marketing consulting 12. Medical practices 13. Outdoor advertising 14. Stock analyst 15. Veterinary services 16. Wight loss centre Rubber/Plastic Buckets Chairs Layers Toys, etc. Rubber production Balloons Feeding bottle nipples Pipes Shoes
251
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Designing Appropriate Curriculum for Special Education in Urban School in Nigeria: Implication for Administrators
Michael Eskay, Angie Oboegbulem
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
The provision of a well-planned, modified, and articulated curriculum that would provide students with disabilities appropriate access to the general curriculum and effective instructional support is the thrust of this paper. The paper examined the various issues on the concept and objectives of special education and the role of a well-designed curriculum as a panacea to integration of the special-needs children. The paper highlighted the defining features of any good curriculum and examines the key leadership issues related to effective special education and reviews the emerging standards for administrators performance in determining the knowledge and skills needed by effective leaders. Keywords: curriculum, administrators, designing
Introduction
Education obviously is meant for the generality of population irrespective of the individuals physical disposition. NERDC (Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council) (1989) stated that education is the social instrument through which the culture of a people is perpetuated, implemented, and refined. To fulfill this very important purpose, education must therefore serve not only the physically and academically adequate, but also those who display a wide variety and range of different learning patterns. This invariably implies that every learner should have educational opportunities consistent with his/her abilities. The educational programme must deliberately plan and develop diversified programmes that will satisfy diverse needs of which special education is one of such programme. Egbo (2005, p. 2) noted that despite many well-intentioned educational policies that have been adopted by the federal government of Nigeria, for example, the 6-3-3-4 secondary school structure and the new UBE (universal basic education) scheme education in Nigeria has fallen victim to the nations chronic, social, and political challenges that tend to reduce institutional efficiency. In a situation, report on the state and future of special education in Delta State, Onwubolu (2005, p. 15) lamented that inadequate curriculum, poor funding, lack of interest in the education of exceptional children, lack of adequate personnel, and equipment are problems deterring the growth and development of special education in the state. Abang (1992) noted that the implementation of the 6-3-3-4 shown education system has not been successful in the schools for learners with disabilities because the government has not required commitment and seriousness in the implementation of the system.
Michael Eskay, Ph.D., professor, Department of Educational Foundations, University of Nigeria. Angie Oboegbulem, Ph.D., Department of Educational Foundations, University of Nigeria.
DESIGNING APPROPRIATE CURRICULUM FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION
253
The role of the school administrator is vital in the education of the child. Administration involves the planning and organization of activities and resources aimed at fulfilling the goals of the particular organization. The administration of education is central to the realization of educational objectives and must provide for all and work towards the improvement of the less privileged.
The Concept of Special Education

The need to provide special education programme in Nigeria was first made in the National Policy of Education (FRN (Federal Republic of Nigeria), 2004). FRN (2004) defined special education as the education of children and adult who have learning difficulty because of different categories of handicaps, such as blindness, deafness, hardness of hearing, social maladjustment, among others, due to circumstances of birth inheritance, social position, mental and physical health pattern, or accident in later life. There are also the specially gifted and talented who are intellectually precocious and thereby find themselves insufficiently challenged by the programme of the normal school and who may take to stubbornness and apathy in resistance to it (p. 28). Ozoji (2005) saw special education as a formal special training given to people (children and adults with special needs). Special education, therefore, is the education of people who need additional, academic, and social assistance. The United Nation declaration on the rights of special needs to education affirms that their acquisition of education will enable them to develop their capabilities, skills to the maximum. These group of persons require special assistance through special education to equip them for gainful living. NERDC (1989) classified the basic feature of students with special needs as those who deviate from average or normal learning. Commonly identified ones are:
(1) Neuromuscular or physical characteristics; (2) Sensory abilities; (3) Mental characteristics; (4) Communication abilities; (5) Social or emotional behaviour.
These groups require some modification of the normal school practices and special educational services in order to develop to their fullest potentials. Objective of Special Education FRN (2004) in its National Policy on Education stated the objectives of special education as follows:
(1) To give concrete meaning of ideas of equalizing educational opportunities for all children, their physical, mental and emotional disabilities notwithstanding; (2) To provide adequate education for all handicap children and adults, so that they will fully play their role in the development of the nation; (3) To provide opportunities for exceptionally gifted children, to develop at their own pace in the interest of the nations economic and technological development.
To achieve the above objectives of special education, the preparation of teachers for adequate education, for both learners with and without disabilities and use of appropriate suitable, useful, and adequate curriculum, and for learners becomes imperative. The role of the educational administrator in this regard is to plan and
254
organize activities resources aimed at the fulfillment of the outlined objectives. Although school administrators (principals) do not need to be disability experts, they must have fundamental knowledge and skills that will enable them to perform essential special education leadership tasks.
The Concept of Curriculum

Mogbo (2002) defined the term curriculum as encompassing the content, structure, and processes of teaching and learning, which the school provides in accordance with its educational objectives and values. This includes the knowledge, concepts, and skills that students acquire as well as the factors that inform the ethos and general environment of the school. Mogbo (2002) saw curriculum as all planned experiences, opportunities, and activities provided by a school to assist the learners attain the designed learning outcomes and desired change in behaviour. According to Mogbo (2002), the way in which the curriculum is defined, planned, implemented, and evaluated crucially influences the quality of education provided. The above view inform curriculum as the live-wire of any school. Ozoji (2003) supported this view when he pointed out that any effective and ideal curriculum process should be made up of such fundamental issues like objectives, content, learning experiences, organization, and evaluation of these to achieve the goals of the curriculum. Curriculum planning involves the following steps:
(1) Diagnosis of need; (2) Formulation of objectives; (3) Selection of content; (4) Organization of content; (5) Selection of learning experiences; (6) Organization of learning experiences; (7) Determination of what to evaluate and ways and means of doing it. (Taba, 1962)
Designing an appropriate curriculum should take into cognizance in the curriculum plan that would suit every Nigerian child including the special needs. Such a curriculum should be planned in such a way that would provide opportunities, activities, and experiences for the education of the special needs. In support of the above, Nwachukwu (2006, p. 276) identified areas in which curriculum planners and teachers would be enabled to identify as:
(1) The content of the curriculum that is taught to children generally at school; (2) The adopted curriculum that addresses the peculiar needs of children with special needs; (3) The curriculum that would make special-needs childrens education worthwhile; (4) The curriculum that is specially designed to address the specific learning needs of special-needs children.
The author is of the opinion that one of the defining features of any good curriculum is planning. Curriculum planning involves:
(1) Breadth and flexibility; (2) The choice it offers in the selection and sequencing of content ensures its adaptability to the dignity of childrens circumstance and experience.
Planning curriculum should focus on:

(1) Activity-based learning; (2) Self-directed learning; (3) Cooperative and group work; (4) Peer learning.
255
Curriculum guideline should involve:

(1) Development of key skills within broad content areas; (2) The use of individualized education programme; (3) The use of variety of assessment tools; (4) The use of multi-disciplinary approaches in the education of students with special needs.
Similarly, Oboegbulem (2004) stated that the teaching methodologies in curriculum planning should involve:
(1) Individualization of instruction; (2) Special remedial programme when necessary; (3) Bringing the child in a strategic-sitting position in the classroom when need be; (4) Emphasizing less structure and more self-selected activities; (5) Motivating children through encouragement and deep teacher support; (6) Emphasizing group projects; (7) Using audio-visual aids; (8) Using concrete instead of abstract materials; (9) Reducing competition to a minimum.
Framework for Designing Appropriate Curriculum for Special-Education Learning Disabilities In designing appropriate curriculum for special education needs, the key learning areas as shown in Table 1 are very important. Table 1 Framework for Designing Appropriate Curriculum
Curriculum guideline for special education needs Communication and language Mathematics Social, environmental, and scientific education history, geography, and science Social, personal, and health education Physical education including functional movement Arts education (visual arts, music, drama) Religion and moral education Curriculum in primary school Language Mathematics Social, environmental, and scientific education history, geography, and science Social, personal, and health education Physical education Arts education (visual arts, music, drama) Religion and moral education Curriculum area in post-primary school Language and literature. Mathematics Science and technology; social, political, and environmental education. Guidance counseling pastoral care Physical education Arts education Religion and moral education
Note. Source: NCCA (National Council for Curriculum Assessment), 1999.
National Council for Curriculum Assessment National councils for curriculum assessment are as follows: (1) Communication and language: (a) sensory and perceptual; (b) emotional cognitive development; and (c) interaction with immediate environment;
256
(2) Mathematics: (a) explore; (b) solve problems; and (c) comprehend basic concepts; (3) Social, environmental, and scientific education, history, geography, and science education: (a) understanding of environment; and (b) concept of time, cause, and effect; (4) Social, personal, and health education: (a) must be seen as parts of fostering personal development; and (b) explore wide range of stimulating equipment; (5) Arts education, visual arts, music, and drama: creative experience and activities and enjoyment of music; (6) Religious and moral education: should be church responsibility. Skills that are essential to all learners: (1) Development of enabling skills: (a) attending; (b) listening; (c) interacting; and (d) responding; (2) Life skillsskills that are essential for all facets of a persons life: (a) communication skills; (b) personal and social skills; (c) aesthetic and creative skills; (d) physical skills; and (e) mathematical skills; (3) Assessment tools at primary school: (a) teacher observation; (b) teacher-designed tasks; (c) projects; and (d) take home assignment.
The Role of the School Administrator in Designing Special Education Curriculum in Urban Primary or Secondary Schools
Special education presents one of the major challenges to administrators of schools curriculum. Administrators need to provide students with special needs and appropriate access to curriculum and effective instructional support. The role of the administrators is closely monitoring the student performance and progress through participation in their assessment. Various researches on special education have indicated that the roles of school administrators are very vital and pivotal to the success of special education process. This has a lot of implications on key leadership issues related to effective special education and performance of principals to determine the knowledge and skills they need. Studies have shown that special education has evolved from primarily segregated learning environment often characterized by low academic expectations, social isolation for students and their teachers, and a curriculum poorly aligned with general education (Turnbull & Cilley, 1999). Today, special education is viewed less as a place and more as an integrated system of academic and social supports designed to help students with disabilities succeed within LRE (least restrictive environments) (Sage & Burrello, 1994; Eskay, 2001, 2009). In view of the above, the school administrator is responsible for the improvement of educational opportunities for all students, especially those with unique learning needs. As noted in the IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act), the principals values, beliefs, and personal characteristics inspire people to accomplish the schools mission. The administrator as the principal of the school ensures that staff members have the support and resources needed in the area of common planning time, unmanageable teaching schedules, heterogeneous classroom rosters, and professional development opportunities to perform their jobs well (Sage & Burrello, 1994). This calls for effective principals leadership behavior for: (1) Encouraging teacher leadership; (2) Team learning; and (3) Flexibility and collegial self-governance. Effective principal emphasizes innovation, collaboration, and professional growth. Maintain a clear focus on powerful academic outcomes for all learners.
257
Research has shown that principals who focus on instructional issues, demonstrating administrative support for special education, providing high-quality professional development for teachers, and producing enhanced outcomes for students with disabilities and for others at risk for school failures. Finally, in designing an appropriate curriculum for special education in an urban school, the following principles should be taken into consideration: (1) The curriculum should reflect the lives of the children and families; (2) Reflect the diversity found in the society for example, gender, age, language, and abilities; (3) Provide for childrens safety while being appropriately challenging; (4) Encourage exploration, experimentation, and discovery; (5) Promote action and interaction; (6) Organized to support independent use; (7) Are rotated to reflect changing curriculum and accommodate new interests and skills; (8) Are rich in variety; (9) Can accommodate childrens special needs.
Conclusions
The achievement of a well-designed curriculum in special education depends on the ability of the school administrator to ensure appropriate educational opportunities for students with disabilities. This involves adequate planning of the curriculum that focuses on activity-based learning, self-directed learning, and cooperative group work and peer learning. The school administrator need to make provision for adequate resources for the implementation of effective curriculum which involves provision of adequate personnel for the training and re-training of in-service and pre-service teachers who will be able to develop key skills within a broad content areas, using individualized education programme, variety of assessment tools as well as multi-disciplinary approaches in the education of students with special needs. The school administrator need to provide teacher-educators with facilities that will enable them to possess the skills needed, understand the curriculum, new methods, and techniques in teaching for the attainment of the goals and objectives of special education.
Recommendations
Designing an appropriate curriculum for special education in an urban school can be a very interesting and exciting experience where the following principles are taken into consideration in planning curriculum for them: (1) Limit the number of new concepts introduced in a lesson to avoid confusing the students; (2) Teach from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract. Be sure that students understand one concept before going to another; (3) Do not use elaborate language or unclear models in teaching concepts. Use simple language; (4) Space your introduction of new concepts. Do not introduce many concepts at a time to students. It can be confusing. Provide sufficient guided practice for the group before progressing to individual turns; (5) Introduce higher-order skills only when the basic concepts have been learnt by students. Higher-order skills will not be useful or reliable if the basic concepts are not firm; (6) It is said that practice makes perfect. Allow the students to learn concepts and use them frequently first before application. This method will help them remember and recall the concepts.
258
References
Abang, T. B. (1992). Special education in Nigeria. International Journal of Disability, 29(1), 13-18. Burrello, L. C., & Lashley, C. (1992). On organizing the future: The destiny of special education. In K. Waldron, A. Riester, & J. Moore (Eds.), Special education: The challenge for the future (pp. 64-65). San Francisco: Edwin Mellen Press. Egbo, B. (2005). The state and future of education in sub-Saharan Africa: Lesson learned from developed countries. A keynote address presented at the 2005 National Conference of the Nigerian Primary and Teacher Education Association, Asaba Delta State, June 14, 2005. Eskay, M. (2001). Cultural perceptions of special education administrators in small scale societies (Doctoral dissertation, Loyola University). Eskay, M. (2009). Cultural perceptions of special education administrators in Nigeria. LAP Lambert Academic Publishing AG & Co KG, Koln, Germany FRN (Federal Republic of Nigeria). (2004). National policy on education, NERDC (4th ed.). Abuja: NERDC Press. FRN (Federal Republic of Nigeria). (2007). Education Reform Act 2007. The National Assembly of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Abuja. Mogbo, I. N. (2002). Restructuring the curriculum of the disabled for self-sustenance, counseling implications. The Journal of National Council for Exceptional Children, 6(4), 76-80. NERDC (Nigerian Education Research and Development Council). (1989). Handbook on education and care of the exceptional child. Lagos: NERDC Press. Nwachukwu, R. C. (2006). Curriculum planning for special needs children: Contemporary issues in special needs education. Journal of the National Council for Exceptional Children, 7(1), 276-280. Oboegbulem, A. I. (2002). The re-training needs of teachers for the universal basic education. In Ali, & Okeke (2002) (Eds.), Philosophy and education (pp. 100-111). Onitsha, Nigeria: Africana-Fep. Publishers Ltd.. Oboegbulem, A. I. (2004). Administrative strategies for the preparation of teachers of special needs children: The exceptional child. The Journal of the National Council for Exceptional Children, 7(1), 319-326. Onwubolu, C. O. (2005). The state and future of special education in Delta state. Paper presented at The Nigerian Primary and Teacher Education Association Conference, FCE (Technical) Asaba, June 13-17, 2005. Ozoji, E. D. (2003). Special education for beginner professionals. Jos: Deka Publications. Ozoji, E. D. (2005). Re-positioning special needs education for effective service delivery in Nigeria (Deka Special Education Monograph Series No. 8). Jos: Deka Publication. Rea, P. J., Mclaughlin, V. L., & Walther-Thomas, C. S. (2002). A comparison of outcomes for middle school students with learning disabilities in inclusive and pullout programs. Exceptional Children, 68, 203-222. Sage, D., & Burrello, L. (1994). Leadership in educational reform: An administrators guide to changes in special education. Baltimore: Brookes. Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. New York: Harcourt Brace and World. Turnbull, H. R., & Cilley, M. (1999). Explanations and implications of the 1997 amendments to IDEA. Upper Saddle River, N. T.: Merril/Prentice Hall. UNESCO. (2000). Module 2 counseling regional training seminar on guidance and counseling. Zambia: UNESCO Press. USDOF. (2002). No child left behind: ESEA reform. Retrieved October 8, 2000, from http://www.Nochildleftbehind.gov/next/ overview/index.html
D
Consequences
Wolfgang Ernst Eder
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Engineering Design vs. Artistic Design: Some Educational
Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, Canada
Design can be a noun, or a verb. Six paths for research into engineering design (as verb) are identified, they must be coordinated for internal consistency and plausibility. Design research tries to clarify design processes and their underlying theoriesfor designing in general, and for particular forms, e.g., design engineering. Theories are a basis for deriving theory-based design methods. Both are useful for education. Design engineering and artistic forms of designing, industrial design, have much in common, but also differences. For an attractive and user-friendly product, its form (observable shape) is importanta task for industrial designers, architects, etc.. Conceptualizing consists of preliminary sketches, a direct entry to hardwareindustrial designers work outside inwards. For a product that should work and fulfill a purpose and perform a transformation process, its functioning and operation are importanta task for engineering designers. Anticipating and analyzing a capability for operation is a role of the engineering sciences. The outcome of design engineering is a set of manufacturing instructions, and analytical verification of anticipated performance. Engineering designers tend to be primary for TS (technical system), and their operational and manufacturing processesThey work inside outwards. Design engineering is more constrained than industrial design, but in contrast has available a theory of TS and its associated engineering design science, with several abstract models and representations of structures. Hubkas theory, and consequently design methodology, includes consideration of tasks of a TS(s), typical life cycle, duty cycle, classes of properties (and requirements), mode of action, development in time, and other items of interest for engineering design processes. Students learning design engineering at times need a good example of procedure for novel design engineering. The systematic heuristic-strategic use of a theory and the methodical design process is only necessary in limited situations. The full procedure should be learned, such that the student can select appropriate parts for other applications. Hubkas methodology is demonstrated by several case examples. Keywords: design research, sorts of designing, scientific investigation of design engineering, engineering design methodology, computer application, case examples
Introduction
Vladimir Hubka with colleagues professors Umberto Pighini and M. Myrup Andreasen, founded WDK (workshop designkonstruktion) at a meeting in 1978 at Halden, Switzerland. WDK was an informal and international network of people interested in advancing knowledge about engineering design. Hubka also initiated the first international conference on engineering design, ICED (International Conference on Engineering Design) 81 Rome, with emphasis on engineering, and continued to organize and support this
Wolfgang Ernst Eder, Ph.D., retired professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada.
260
ENGINEERING DESIGN VS. ARTISTIC DESIGN: SOME EDUCATIONAL CONSEQUENCES
bi-annual series until 1997. A summary of his work appears in (Eder, 2011). After ICED 95, Praha, the author has noticed an erosion to include all designing and down-play engineering, which has now almost disappeared from this conference series (and from others). A first presentation of the essential discussions of this paper was given in (Eder, 2012d). In the authors opinion, some strict distinctions need to be made. Design in the English language has two usages. As a noun, the design refers to that actual manifestation of a product, a tangible man-made object, an idea, a concept, a pattern, an artificial process, etc.the way it looks, feels, and behaves, the result of a human intention. As a verb, designing refers to the mental and other processes that occur during this activity in order to establish the design. Design practice at times looks for such guidance to overcome problemswhen the design situation is non-routine, when expertise and competence are lacking (Eder, 2009b), for instance, in educating novices, or in allowing experienced engineering designers to reach beyond their level of competence. In design research, the main interest lies in designing, the verb, and in any underlying theory that can provide guidance for methods to enhance or enable designing. Research for activities, such as design engineering follows at least six parallel paths (Eder & Hosnedl, 2008; 2010): (1) The classical experimental, empirical way of independent observing, e.g., by protocol studies, including self-observation, and impartial observation of experimental subjects, etc.: describing, abstracting, recognizing, perceiving, understanding, modeling, and formulating hypothesesobservations capture a proportion of thinking, usually over short-time spans; (2) Participative observation, the observer also acts as a member of the design team and thus acts in the observed process (Hales, 1991), which in consequence may be biased by the observers participation; (3) A reconstructive, detective way of tracing past events and results by looking for clues in various places (Nevala, 2005)Reconstructions never fully capture the original events, human memory is limited, and needs to be re-constituted for recall; (4) Speculative, reflective, and philosophical generating of hypotheses, and testing; (5) Transfer between practical experience and the insights of knowledge; (6) Development of not-for-profit products (Howard, 2011). These paths must be coordinated to attain internal consistency and plausibility. Hubkas developments occurred mainly by paths 4 and 5. The purpose of design research, to clarify design processes, includes designing in general, and particular forms of designing, e.g., design engineering (see Figure 1), and the scientific treatment of design engineering is currently much farther advanced that for any other form of designing. The underlying theories should provide the basis for deriving theory-based design methods to assist designers in solving their problems. We must also acknowledge the utility of pragmatic and industry best practice methods for designing, for which theoretical base is inadequate or lacking. Admittedly, the engineering and other sciences can provide some assistance, especially for heuristic what-if investigations, and for analyzing expected behaviors. In addition, design research should explore where these assisting methods may be neededroutine vs. non-routine design situations, and the needs of management vs. practitioners (Eder, 2009b). A further necessary distinction is between a theory and a method. From Eder and Hosnedl (2010), as formulated in cybernetics (Klaus, 1965; 1969), Both theory and method emerge from the phenomenon of the subject (see Figure 2). A close relationship should exist between a subject (its nature as a concept or object), a
ENGINEERING DESIGN VS. ARTISTIC DESIGN: SOME EDUCATIONAL CONSEQUENCES 261 basic theory (formal or informal, recorded or in a human mind), and a recommended methodthe triad subjecttheorymethod. The theory should describe and provide a foundation for explaining and predicting the behavior of the concept or (natural or artificial, process or tangible) object, as subject. The theory should be as complete and logically consistent as possible, and refer to actual and existing phenomena. The (design) method can then be derived, and consider available experience. One aim is to separate theory from method.
Figure 1. Hierarchy of sciences. Source: Eder and Hosnedl (2008); McMasters (2004).
The theory should answer the questions of why, when, where, how (with what means), and who (for whom and by whom) with sufficient precision and fidelity. The theory should support the utilized methods, i.e., how (procedure), to what (object), for the operating subject (the process or tangible object) or the subject being operated, and for planning, designing, manufacturing, marketing, distributing, operating, and liquidating (etc.) the subject. The method should be sufficiently adapted to the subject, its what (existence), and for what (anticipated and actual purpose). The phenomena of subject, theory, and method are of equal status. Using Koens (2003) convention, underscoring the second letter of a word indicates its heuristic nature: A method is a prescription for anticipated future action, for which it is heuristically imperative that you adapt it flexibly to your current (ever-changing) situationAnd nearly all words in this paper should have the second letters underscored. Methods are heuristic, ... a plausible aid or direction ... is in the final analysis unjustified, incapable of justification, and potentially fallible (Koen, 2003, p. 24). The engineering method is the use of heuristics to cause the best change in a poorly understood situation within the available resources (Koen, 2003, p. 59). Methods must be learned, preferably on simplified examples, before they can be used
262
(often from memory) on a problem of any substantial importance (Eder, 2009b).
Figure 2. Relationship among theory, subject, and method. Source: Eder and Hosnedl (2008; 2010); Klaus (1965; 1969).
The triad subjecttheorymethod is a valuable educational insight. It confirms that forethought is a necessary precursor to establishing a method (for using the subject, or for designing the subject) and accomplishing an action. In addition, some rehearsal and/or training is often needed for effective and efficient action. This triad subjecttheorymethod is also one cause for the basic arrangement of engineering design science (Hubka & Eder, 1996), as shown in its map (see Figure 3). Engineering design science does not intend to imply that design is a science, only that scientific methods have been used to investigate engineering design. The left hemisphere of Figure 3 shows the theory (south quadrant) and practice (north quadrant) of existing TS (technical system), the right hemisphere shows the theory (south quadrant), including a fully systematic methodology, and suggested practice (north quadrant) of engineering design processes, including the heuristic and scientific information usable for designing, and the heuristic and systematic advice about the design process itself.
ENGINEERING DESIGN VS. ARTISTIC DESIGN: SOME EDUCATIONAL CONSEQUENCES 263
Figure 3. Model (map) of engineering design science. Source: Hubka and Eder (1996); Eder and Hosnedl (2008; 2010).
Basic Considerations
Design engineering and the more artistic forms of designing (e.g., industrial design, architecture, graphic, and sculptural art) have much in common, with partly overlapping duties, but also substantial differences (see Figure 4)the descriptions show a contrast of extremes, rather than all aspects of designing.
Figure 4. Scope of sorts of designing. Source: Eder and Hosnedl (2008; 2010).
264
ENGINEERING DESIGN VS. ARTISTIC DESIGN: SOME EDUCATIONAL CONSEQUENCES If a product is intended to be visually attractive and user-friendly, its form (especially its observable shape)
is importanta task for industrial designers, architects, and other professions. Industrial design (Flurscheim, 1983; Julier, 2000; Tjalve, 1979; Tjalve, Andreasen, & Schmidt, 1979), in the English interpretation, tends to be primary for consumer products and durables, emphasizes the artistic elements, appearance (size, shape, etc.), ergonomics, marketing, customer appeal, satisfaction, and other observable properties of a product. This includes color, line, shape, form, pattern, texture, proportion, juxtaposition, emotional reactions (Green & Jordan, 2002), etc., in the terminology adopted by Hubka and modified by Eder (Eder & Hosnedl, 2010), these are mainly observable properties of a tangible product. The task given to or chosen by industrial designers is usually specified only in rough terms. The mainly intuitive industrial design process emphasizes creativity and judgment, is used in a studio setting in architecture, typographic design, fine art, etc.. Industrial designers can introduce new fashion trends in their products. For industrial designers, conceptualizing for a future tangible product consists of preliminary sketches of observable possibilities (even if somewhat abstract)a direct entry into hardware (the constructional structure) and its representation. The sketches are progressively refined, and eventually rendered (drawn and colored, and/or modeled by computer or in tangible materialsmaquettes) into visually assessable presentation material, full artistic views of the proposed artifact, to provide a final presentation, for management approval. The tangible model (to scale), or the sample produced by the designer, as it (will) appear(s) or directly represents the final product. Considerations of engineering may take place, depending on circumstances, e.g., stability and self-strength of a sculpture. Industrial designers usually work outside inwards, defining the observable envelope, thus constraining any internal constituents and actions. In contrast, for design engineering, the transformation process, TrfP(s), and/or the TS involved in the TrfP(s), the TS(s), are the subjects of the theory and the method. The suffix (s) indicates that this TrfP(s) and/or TS(s) signifies the subject, the product of interest that should be or has been designed. If a tangible product should work and fulfill a purpose by helping to perform a transformation process, TrfP, e.g., by mechanical, electrical, chemical, electronic, etc., means, its functioning and operating (note the verb form) are importanta task for engineering designers. Anticipating and analyzing this capability for operation is a role of the engineering sciences. Engineering intends to create what does not yet exist, that is likely to work, even if the way it works (its mode of action) is only partially understood by scientific means. Engineering needs designers to be aware of a wide range of existing information (scientific and experience-based heuristic) and its complex interactions, and to consider and accommodate all relevant influences of scientific, technical, economic, societal, political, and other areas to achieve a technically and economically successful and optimal product. The outcome of design engineering is a set of manufacturing instructions (detail and assembly drawings to scale, including tolerances and raw material specifications (Booker, 1979) for a product that is or will be capable of operating, These design outcomes, in more recent times, are likely to be computer-resident for each constructional part, including instructions for assembly, adjustment, testing, use, spare parts, etc. (see Figure 5). These were traditionally produced manually in a design/drawing office, using drafting machines. Computer seats have more recently taken over some duties. In addition, documented analytical verification of anticipated performance in all life-cycle phases must be delivered, preferably by a qualified professional engineer. The resulting tangible product is a TS.
Figure 5. Engineering detail drawing with typical geometric features. Source: Eder and Hosnedl (2008).
Design engineering is more constrained than industrial design, because:
266
(1) A design specification is usually prescribed by a customer or a marketing department, and is often the basis of a legally binding contract for delivery of a desired performance, a transformation process, TrfP; (2) The relevant engineering sciences must be applied; (3) Societal norms and regulations (including laws) must be satisfied; (4) Risks and hazards must be controlled, the existing information must be respected; (5) Economic considerations apply, e.g., survival and profitability. Design engineering has a available theory of TS(s) (Hubka & Eder, 1988) and its associated engineering design science (Hubka & Eder, 1996), which suggests several abstract models and representations of structures for transformation processes, TrfPStr(s), and TS(s), TSStr(s), that can be used as tools for establishing requirements, and for verbal, graphical, cognitive, and conceptual modelling of novel or redesigned products (mathematical modelling is well established in the engineering sciences). In fact, design engineering must consider a wide spectrum of information, and fit into the various cultural schemes applicable to different regions and countries (see Figure 6). This is one of the many challenges facing engineering. Conversely, design engineering influences many of the cultural, social, political, and other environments. The process of implementing any technology (process or tangible object, old or new) almost invariably begins with design engineering.
Figure 6. Dimensions of design engineering in technology and society. Source: Eder and Hosnedl (2008).
ENGINEERING DESIGN VS. ARTISTIC DESIGN: SOME EDUCATIONAL CONSEQUENCES 267 Is a car an engineering product? The steering mechanism, the suspension, the motor and drive train, the instruments, and a whole range of other items internal to the car (and often hidden from view) are certainly engineering products, to which industrial-artistic designers can have little input. Mostly, these items cannot normally be observable for the driver, passenger, or by-stander, they are described by the mediating and elemental design properties of a TS. Some of the intermediate products are OEM/COTS (original equipment manufacturers, and commercial off-the-shelf) parts (engineering products) manufactured by other organizations, e.g., springs, starter motors, alternators, computers, etc.. Even the interior of doors and other body parts (structural members, stiffeners, etc.) are much more engineering than artistic. The exterior of the body parts (including the enclosed volume of the passenger compartment) is certainly more industrial-artistic, for instance, the arrangement and appearance of the dashboard. Even the arrangement and division of individual body panels are engineered for manufacturability and stiffnessan engineering responsibility. In fact, a car is definitely an engineering productwithout the engineering you only have an essentially decorative monument. Without the industrial design, the appearance and appeal of the car may be unsatisfactory, reference the US Army General Purpose Vehicle (GP) of the 1940s, the original jeep. Is this a reason why the industrial designer often gets named, but the engineering designers are not ever mentioned, and credit for the engineering items is often given to science? In contrast, an electrical power transformer (500 MVA, 110 KV) needs minimal industrial design. This comparison of artistic vs. engineering designers is, of course, extreme and exaggerated, the truth is somewhere in between, many TS need also industrial design, and cooperation is often essential. The comparison is based on the authors personal experience in industry and life10 years in industry (19511961) on the drawing board for electrical power transformers and switchgear, vehicles for alpine forestry, and other non-consumer engineering products (Eder, 2011).
Outline of Theory of (Existing) TS(s)

Figure 7 shows the basic model on which the theory and method are based. This model of the transformation system, TrfS, declares as in Figure 7.
Figure 7. General model of a transformation system. Source: Eder and Hosnedl (2008; 2010).
An operand (M (materials), E (energy), I (information), and/or L (living things)) in state 1 (Od1) is
268
transformed into state 2 (Od2), using the active and reactive effects (in the form of M, E, and/or I) exerted continuously, intermittently, or instantaneously by the operators (human systems, TS(s), active and reactive environment, information systems, and management systems, as outputs from their internal processes), by applying a suitable technology Tg (which mediates the exchange of M, E, and I between effects and operand), whereby assisting inputs are needed, and secondary inputs and outputs can occur for the operand and for the operators. This model, initially proposed in 1974, is now recognized as the prototype for a PSS (product-service-system), recently the focus of research in product development. Hubkas theory and consequently the recommended design methodology (see section 4 of this paper) also includes many other considerations. The operators can be active or reactive in their interaction with each other and in their technology-interaction with the operand. A hand power tool is reactive to its human operator, but active towards the operand. An automotive automatic transmission is mainly active. The operators of a TrfS can in most cases be regarded as full transformation systems in their own right. For instance, the MgtS (management system) performs its management process, driven by human managers, management TS(s), a management environment, a management information system, and an upper-level management system. Both the general environment (regional, national, and global) and the active and reactive environment cover physical, chemical, societal, economic, cultural, political, ideological, geographic, ecological, and all other influences directly or indirectly acting on or reacting to the transformation system, its process, and its operators. The transformation process, TrfP, that is the main purpose of the transformation system, TrfS (and therefore, is the task of the TS as its operator), has a structure of operations and their arrangement or sequencing. The transformation process, TrfP, can take place if (and only if): (1) all operators of the transformation system, TrfS, are in a state of being operational, they (especially the TS) should be able to operate or be operated, if appropriate inputs are delivered to the operator; (2) an operand in state Od1 is available; and (3) both are brought together in a suitable way, with an appropriate technology. The TrfP must, therefore, be totally external to the operators. A typical life cycle of a TS is defined as a sequence of TrfS (see Figure 8). For any real TS, each of these seven typical transformation systems represents several to many actual transformations. For education, this life-cycle model helps to explain: (1) the normal operation of an engineering design and manufacture organization; (2) the need for a supply chain to the design and manufacture organization, especially for raw and semi-finished materials for life cycle stage LC4manufacture; and (3) the need for a sales-distributing-servicing organization and network for the completed TS(s); and several other societal and economic factors. Various useful structures can be recognized (see Figure 9): (1) transformation process, TrfP(s), and its structure of operations; (2) technology, Tg; (3) TS-function structure, FuStr, a structure of TS-internal and cross-boundary capabilities of operation also adopted in Pahl, Beitz, Feldhusen, and Grote (2007); (4) organ structure, OrgStr, action locations on constructional parts interacting (Pahl et al., 2007) replaces this with physics; and (5) constructional structure, CStr, the acting constructional partsthe main emphasis of (Pahl et al., 2007)for engineering design, this structure is represented (usually graphically (Booker, 1979)) in (e1) preliminary layout, (e2) definitive/dimensional layout, and (e3) detail, assembly, parts-list, etc.. These
ENGINEERING DESIGN VS. ARTISTIC DESIGN: SOME EDUCATIONAL CONSEQUENCES 269 structures are, of course, closely interrelated, but almost never in a 1:1 relationship. The TrfP and the TS exhibit properties. These are arranged in classes appropriate to each constituent of the TrfS derived from Figure 7, and the classes are arranged in major groupings of observable, mediating, and elemental design properties.
Figure 8. Typical life cycle of a TS. Source: Eder and Hosnedl (2008).
270
Figure 9. Model of a TSstructures. Source: Eder, (2009b); Eder and Hosnedl (2008).
The states of TS-properties exist and change among the different states of existence, e.g., various life-cycle phases of a TS(s), and under various operating states, the duty cycle of an operational TS: (1) at rest, no operation; (2) during start-up; (3) during normal operationidling, full-power and part-load, overload, etc., for self-acting operation (automatic), or running and ready to be operated by another operator, e.g., human or another TS; (4) during shut-down, ending an operational state and returning to at rest conditions; (5) in fault conditions: (a) internal faultsoverload, safe trip-out, breakage, or equivalent; and (b) external faultsdamage, wrecking, etc.; (6) during maintenance, repair, testing, etc.; (7) at life ended; and (8) any other states. The TS(s) can thus be operational, and even operating, in the absence of the operand of the TrfP. Further considerations include mode of action, development in time, and other items of interest for engineering design processes. The models of Hubkas theory are closely interconnected, and have been extended into considerations of engineering education (Eder & Hosnedl, 2008), engineering management (Eder & Hosnedl, 2008; 2010), the
ENGINEERING DESIGN VS. ARTISTIC DESIGN: SOME EDUCATIONAL CONSEQUENCES 271 design process itself (Eder, 2009b; Eder & Hosnedl, 2008), and others.
Outline of Engineering Design Methodology

Using the model of Figure 7 as basis, the stages and steps of a novel design process are fully described (Eder & Hosnedl, 2008; 2010). The most important design operations (using the letter/number scheme from the full listing) are summarized as:
(1) Task defining: (P1) establish a design specification for the required system, a list of requirements; partly clarified also in (Pahl et al. 2007); (P2) establish a plan and timeline for design engineering; (2) Conceptualizing: (P3a) from the desirable and required output (operand in state Od2), establish a suitable transformation process TrfP(s); (P3.1.1) if needed, establish the appropriate input (operand in state Od1); (P3.1.2) decide which of the operations in the TrfP(s) will be performed by TS(s), alone or in mutual cooperation with other operators; and which TS(s) (or parts of them) need to be designed; (P3.1.3) establish a technology, Tg, (structure, with alternatives) for that transformation operation, and therefore the effects (as outputs) needed from the TS(s); (P3b) establish what the TS(s) needs to be able to do (its internal and cross-boundary functions, with alternatives); (P4) establish what organs (function-carriers in principle and their structure, with alternatives) can perform these functions. These organs can be found mainly in prior art, especially the machine elements, in a revised arrangement as proposed in (Weber & Vajna, 1997; Eder, 2004, 2005); (3) Embodying/laying out and detailing: (P5a) establish what constructional parts and their arrangement are needed, in sketch-outline, in rough layout, with alternatives; (P5b) establish what constructional parts are needed, in dimensional-definitive layout, with alternatives; (P6) establish what constructional parts are needed, in detail and assembly drawings, with alternatives.
Adaptation for redesign problems (probably about 95% of all design engineering tasks) proceeds through stages (P1) and (P2) above, then analyzes from (P6) or (P5b) to (P4), and/or to (P3b) to reverse-engineer these structures, modify them according to the new requirements, and use the stages in the usual order to complete the redesign. These headings for novel and re-design processes are used in the case examples mentioned below. The classes of properties of existing TrfP(s) and the TS(s), and the classes of properties related to the life-cycle phases LC1LC3 (the manufacturing organization), lead directly to the list of primary and secondary classes of requirements that are the basis for step (P1), establishing a design specification (Eder & Hosnedl, 2010). Hubkas engineering design methodology allows and encourages the engineering designers to generate a wider range of solution proposals at various levels of abstraction from which to selectone of the hallmarks of creativity. They should also use serendipity, opportunism, spontaneity, and pragmatic and industry best practice methods (see Figure 10). The apparent linearity of this procedure is only a broad approximation (Mller, 1990), parts of the TrfP(s) and/or TS(s) will inevitably be at different stages of concretization, and of different difficulty, routine to safety (Mller, 1990). Only those parts of this engineering design process that are thought to be useful are employed. Such an idealized procedure cannot be accomplished in a linear fashion, essential operations include iterative workingrepeating a part of the design process with enhanced information to improve the solution proposals, within a stage or step of the engineering design process, and
272
between stages and recursive working, breaking the larger problem into smaller ones, sub-problems and/or sub-systems, to recursively solve (e.g., using the same systematic design methodology) and re-combine, using analysis and synthesis (Eder, 2008). In the process, the perceived or assumed TS-boundary is frequently redefined to restrict and focus, or expand, the designers window of observation (Nevala, 2005).
Figure 10. Strategies for design engineering and problem-solving.
CAD (computer-aided design) can effectively be used in stages (P5a), (P5b), and (P6)in earlier stages, the representations are often too abstract for computer graphic processing (including semantics and implications), but mathematical analysis and simulation in earlier stages are often useful, called CAE (computer-aided engineering). Stage (P3b), development of a TS-function structure, reveals a special position. For instance, the TS-cross-boundary functions can include such non-obvious functions as present a pleasing appearance to the TS(s) or allow easy and ergonomic operation by a humana direct connection to the need for involvement of industrial design. Also, the TS-internal functions can include adjust or regulate and control with respect to some TS-propertiesThis can be solved mechanically, electrically, fluidically, electronically (plus software), etc., and can provide a direct connection to mechatronics.
Problem-Solving
Superimposed on the systematic approach to design engineering is a sub-process of problem-solving, frequently applied in every design stage (see Figure 11).
Figure 11. Basic operationsproblem-solving in the engineering design process. Source: Gregory (1966); Koen (2003); Schn (1983; 1987); Wales et al. (1986a; 1986b); Wallas (1926); Hubka and Eder (1996); Eder and Hosnedl (2008; 2010).
Iterative working is related to TrfP/TS properties, requirements, and both heuristic and analytical use of the mediating properties, the engineering sciences, and the problem solving cycle (Eder, 2008, 2009a; Weber, 2005, 2008) (see Figures 11 & 12). Observable and mediating properties of future existing TrfP(s)/TS(s) can be analytically determined from the established elemental design properties, giving a reproducible result. The inversion of this procedure, synthesis, is indeterminate, each required observable property is influenced by many different elemental design properties that therefore need to be iteratively established to approach the desired state of the observable property. Analysis is in essence a one-to-one transformation, convergence to one solution. Synthesis goes far beyond a reversal of analysis, it is almost always a transformation that deals with alternative means and arrangements, involving divergence as well as convergence, a one-to-many (or few-to-many) transformation. Synthesizing, as part of Op-H3.2 Search for Solutions, is the more difficult kind of action (Eder, 2008; 2009a). Figure 12 constitutes proof that iterative procedure is a theoretical necessity in EDS, and a practical necessity in design engineering. This insight is also of educational importance, and demonstrates the need for perseverance.
274
Figure 12. Main relationships between problem-solving, and mediating: Elemental design and observable properties. Source: Weber (2008); Eder and Hosnedl (2010).
Application of Computers for Engineering Design

In the era known as B.C. (before computers), the process of design engineering (especially for industrial equipment) had an expected output in the form of detail drawings (see Figure 4) of all constructional parts prepared on translucent tracing paper (or cloth) to relevant national standards, including tolerances, surface finish, raw materials, etc., under consideration of likely manufacturing methods, delivered to manufacturing as blue-prints. In addition, assembly drawings, parts lists, assembly and adjustment instructions, usage instructions, repair instructions, etc., were prepared. Checking of these documents was always performed to ensure accuracy and completeness, avoidance of undesired redundancy, conformity to standards, tolerancing, etc.. For a novel product (usage process, TrfP, and/or TS), a senior engineering designer (usually a university
ENGINEERING DESIGN VS. ARTISTIC DESIGN: SOME EDUCATIONAL CONSEQUENCES 275 graduate) would conceptualize, produce sketch layouts, perform preliminary calculations of expected performance and capabilities, and produce a final layout to correct sizes. Technologists would then produce the detail drawings, and a check-assemblyin a drawing office equipped with drafting machines. Specialized checking personnel would perform the drawing check. For redesign, similar tasks needed to be completed, but with much less conceptualizing. This was obvious at the time, but needs to be repeated for the current situation in which much of the previous information has been lost. Engineering designers can obviously still design without computers. Even when designing with computers, engineering designers often need to do some preparation work (e.g., conceptualizing) without computer assistance. Computers cannot design completely independently, generally computers are tools that can assist designing (Hubka & Andreasen, 1983). Some parts of designing may be automated. Computers help to solve problems, contribute to improvements in TrfP(s) and/or TS(s), optimize quality, improve and perfect the parameters of the design process, and record the results of designing. Acceptance by industry of early 2D- and 3D- CAD applications (due to their limitations) caused a drastic change in detail-design procedures. CAD applications could not be used for layouts, most of them are still not suitable. Detail design of individual constructional parts tended to be allocated to different engineering designers on their own computer seat. Coordination among these specialists became difficult, and many errors resulted. The latest versions of some CAD applications are starting to allow inheritance of some properties from one constructional part to another, and automated check assembly (see Figure 13) (Eder & Hosnedl, 2008; 2010).
Figure 13. Progress of computer support of representation for design engineering. Source: Eder and Hosnedl (2008, 2010; as cited in Burr et al., 2005, with permission).
Supporting Evidence
Evidence exists for the efficacy of the Pahl et al. (2007) and VDI (verein deutscher ingenieureAssociation of german engineers) design methodologies (Birkhofer, 2011). The reason for comparing Pahl et al. (2007) is that these are the most comprehensive methodologies to date, but Pahl/Beitz do not fully articulate their theory. Hubkas theories and methodology have been compared with several other
276
approaches and design methods (Eder & Hosnedl, 2008, 2010; Eder, 2012c), almost all of which are expanded sub-sets of the Hubka methodology. Hubka and Eders (1988) methodology is derived from his theory of TS(s)Hubka and Eder strictly differentiated between the theory of (existing) TS(s), and engineering design methodology for future transformation systems for which the process (not only manufacturing) and the TT operator are to be designed (and from which appropriate methods, models, and parts can be selected). Either pragmatic and practical experience, or a theory can be a basis for proposing a methodTheory and method are not interchangeable. For instance, Pahl/Beitz (Pahl et al., 2007) used experience, Hubka and Eder (1988) used a theoretical approach based on experience. Students learning design engineering at times need a good example of procedure for novel design engineering. As shown in (Eder, 2009b), such a fully systematic procedure is only necessary in limited situations, when an engineering designer is faced with an unfamiliar and non-routine situation. Systematic design engineering as a procedure is the heuristic-strategic use of a theory to guide the design processengineering design science (Eder & Hosnedl, 2008, 2010; Hubka & Eder, 1996) is recommended as guiding theory. Methodical design engineering as a procedure is the heuristic use of newly developed and established methods within the engineering design process, including theory-based and industry best practice, strategic and tactical, formalized and intuitive methods. Systematic and methodical procedures have a substantial overlap, but are not co-incident. The full procedure should be learned, such that the student can select appropriate parts for other applications. Creativity (Eder, 1996) is usually characterized by a wide search for solutions, especially those that are innovative. This search can be supported by the recommended systematic and methodical approach. All generated alternatives should be kept on record, to allow re-tracing and recovery from subsequent detection of a better alternative. Each step in the overall procedure should be concluded by selecting the most appropriate (one or two) solutions for further processing, in order to control a tendency towards combinatorial complexity. The primary purpose of the case examples that follow the Hubkas design methodology is to present teaching examples for procedural application of the recommended engineering design method, especially for the conceptualizing phases of the engineering design process, that students and practitioners can follow and study to help learn the scope of the method and its models and show that the systematic method can be made to work. This purpose has been applied in courses at the ETH (Eidgenssische Technische Hochschule) by Dr. Vladimir Hubka (19762000), at The Royal Military College of Canada (19812006) by the author, and at the University of West Bohemia (1990present) by Professor Stanislav Hosnedl, who has applied the theory and method for all levels of higher education and for industry consultations. A secondary purpose was to verify and validate the theory and its models, check for correctness, illustrate and document the theories, procedures, methods, and models that can be used within systematic design engineering, and to show up deficiencies which were corrected in the theories, models, and methods. The emphasis in all case studies was on the engineering design procedure and use of the models, the chosen TS(s) in several case studies were not necessarily optimal. The systematic procedure must be adapted to the problem. The cases demonstrate that an engineering designer can idiosyncratically interpret the models to suit the problem, and develop information in consultation with a sponsor. Opinions will vary about whether a requirement should be stated in a particular class of properties, or would be appropriate in a different class.
ENGINEERING DESIGN VS. ARTISTIC DESIGN: SOME EDUCATIONAL CONSEQUENCES 277 Hubkas engineering design methodology is demonstrated by the scope and variety of our case examples. Care should be exercised when reading these case examples, they were not intended to show a plausible optimal resulting proposed TS(s), and some of these cases are doubtful in that respect. The initials indicate the originator: VH (Vladimir Hubka), MMA (Mogens Myrup Andreasen), WEE (W. Ernst Eder), and SH (Stanislav Hosnedl). The first case study, systematic design according to the state of the theory and method at that time, appeared in a machine vice (VH) (Hubka, 1976). Hubka and Eder (1992a) included the second case studya welding positioner (VH). The next three case examples, also systematic, were published in 1981 in Germana riveting fixture (VH), a milling jig (VH), and a powder-coating machine (MMA)the first two were systematic, the third took a more industrial-artistic design approach. Another set was published in 1983 in Germana P-V-T-experiment (WEE), a hand winding machine for tapes (VH), and a tea-brewing machine (MMA)again, the third took an industrial-artistic design approach. An English edition of case studies was finally published in (Hubka, Andreasen, & Eder, 1988), after revisions requested by the publisher, and included the existing six case studies first published in German language, plus two new itemsa wave-powered bilge pump for small boats (MMA), and an oil drain valve (VH)and again the bilge pump only loosely followed the systematic method. Three further case studies were published in (Eder & Hosnedl, 2008)the tea machine revised to current systematic procedures showing enhanced engineering information (WEE); re-design of a water valve (WEEthe first demonstration of systematic re-design); and an electro-static smoke-gas-dust precipitator, with rapper for dust removal (WEEthe first demonstration of treatment for sub-problems) (Eder, 2009c). The most recent book in this sequence (Eder & Hosnedl, 2010) contains three new case studies, a portable frame for static trapeze display demonstrations (WEE) (Eder, 2010) which was built and used, re-design of an automotive oil pump (WEEthe second demonstration of re-design) (Eder & Heffernan, 2009), and a hospital intensive care bed (SHthe second demonstration of treatment for sub-problems)the latter shows cooperation between industrial design and design engineering (Hosnedl et al., 2008), and is one of many projects operated in cooperation with Czech industry. Hosnedl et al. (2008) has also introduced the Hubka theories and methods into industrial use. Two new cases were presented at the International Design Conference DESIGN 2012, Dubrovnik (WEE) (Eder, 2012a; 2012b), both sub-systems from the Caravan Stage Barge (2010) which has been in operation in Canadian and USA coastal waters, and now in the Mediterranean, since 1995. The Canadian Engineering Education Association 3rd Annual Conference 2012 received two further case examples (WEE), a sub-system of the Caravan Stage Barge (Eder, 2012e), and an auxiliary sub-system for a wind tunnel balance (Eder, 2012f). For engineering education, a consequence of the discussions in this paper is that students, as novices in design engineering, should be introduced to the theory of TS(s) (Eder & Hosnedl, 2008, 2010; Hubka & Eder, 1988, 1996) in suitable stages throughout the (three-, four-, or five- year undergraduate) curriculum, should be encouraged to study several worked case examples, and should practice the models and steps of the theory-based design methodology, preferably on projects close to engineering practice. In a capstone experience, such as a final-year project, they can then apply their intuition, trial-and-error procedures, and other methods, coordinated by systematic design methods, to the specific project to learn a more independent way of approaching projects, and still be aware of systematic project management (see Figure 10).
278
Closure
Depending on the nature of the (tangible or process) product, it is obvious that both engineering designers and artistic-industrial designers must in many cases work together. Their duties are partially overlapping. The theory of TS(s) (Eder & Hosnedl, 2008, 2010; Hubka & Eder, 1988, 1996) is partially applicable to industrial design (McAloone & Bey, 2010) of the five cases presented in this booklet from Technical University of Denmark, only one refers to an engineering product, but exclusively with the external observable properties. It is also partially applicable to architecture. Nevertheless, engineering design is distinct from other forms of designing, and this needs to be acknowledged, especially for engineering education.
References
Birkhofer, H. (2011). From design practice to design science: The evolution of a career in design methodology research. Journal of Engineering Design, 22(5), 333-359. Booker, P. J. (1979). History of engineering drawing. London: Northgate. Burr, H., Vielhaber, M., Deubel, T., Weber, C., & Haasis, S. (2005). Cax/engineering data management integration: Enabler for methodical benefits in the design process. Journal of Engineering Design, 16(4), 385-398. Caravan Stage Barge. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.caravanstage.org Eder, W. E. (1996). WDK 24EDCEngineering design and creativity. Proceedings of the Workshop EDC, Pilsen, Czech Republic, November 1995, Zrich, Heurista. Eder, W. E. (2004). Machine elements integration of some proposals. Proceedings of AEDS 2004 Workshop, The Design SocietyAEDS-SIG, November 11-12, 2004, Pilsen, Czech Republic. Retrieved from http://www.kks.zcu.cz/aeds Eder, W. E. (2005). Machine elements revision and outlook for design education. Proceedings of The Second CDEN International Conference, University of Calgary, Alberta, July 18-19, 2005, Kananaskis Resort, Alberta. Eder, W. E. (2008). Aspects of analysis and synthesis in design engineering. Proceedings of Canadian Design Engineering Network CDEN 08, Halifax, N. S., July 27-29, 2008. Eder, W. E. (2009a). Analysis, synthesis and problem solving in design engineering. Proceedings of International Conference on Engineering Design, ICED 09 (pp. 2-23), August 24-27, 2009, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA, Session W3 SIG-AEDS. Eder, W. E. (2009b). Why systematic design engineering? Proceedings of the 6th Symposium on International Design and Design Education, DEC 6, August 30-September 2, 2009, San Diego, California, USA, New York, ASME, paper number DETC2009-86067. Eder, W. E. (2009c). Case study in systematic design engineeringSmoke gas dust precipitation paper. Proceedings of the 6th Symposium on International Design and Design Education, DEC 6, August 30-September 2, 2009, San Diego, California, USA, ASME DETC2009-86069. Eder, W. E. (2010). Case study in systematic design engineeringTrapeze demonstration rig. Proceedings of the 7th Symposium on International Design and Design Education, DEC 7, August 15-18, 2010, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, ASME DETC2010-28065. Eder, W. E. (2011). Engineering design science and theory of technical systemsLegacy of Vladimir Hubka. Journal of Engineering Design, 22(5), 361-385. Eder, W. E. (2012a). Case example in systematic design engineeringLeeboard mounting. Proceedings of International Design Conference, DESIGN 2012, Dubrovnik, Croatia, May 21-24, 2012, FMENA, Zagreb. Eder, W. E. (2012b). Case example in systematic design engineeringPropeller shaft bearing arrangement. Proceedings of International Design Conference, DESIGN 2012, Dubrovnik, Croatia, May 21-24, 2012, FMENA, Zagreb. Eder, W. E. (2012c). Comparison of several design theories and methods with the legacy of Vladimir Hubka. Retrieved from http://www.designsociety.org

Eder, W. E. (2012d). Engineering design vs. artistic designA discussion. Proceedings of Canadian Engineering Education Association CEEA 2012 Conference, June 17-20, 2012, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba. Eder, W. E. (2012e). Case study in systematic design engineeringBow thruster covers. Proceedings of Canadian Engineering Education Association CEEA 2012 Conference, June 17-20, 2012, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba. Eder, W. E. (2012f). Case study in systematic design engineeringWind tunnel balance model support. Proceedings of Canadian Engineering Education Association CEEA 2012 Conference, June 17-20, 2012, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba. Eder, W. E., & Heffernan, P. J. (2009). A case study in systematic and methodical design engineering. Proceedings of CDEN/C2C2 Conference 2009, July 27-29, 2009, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario. Eder, W. E., & Hosnedl, S. (2008). Design engineering: A manual for enhanced creativity. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC-Press. Eder, W. E., & Hosnedl, S. (2010). Introduction to design engineeringSystematic creativity and management. Leiden, Netherlands: CRC-Press/Balkema. Flurscheim, C. H. (1983). Industrial design in engineering: A marriage of techniques. London: The Design Council and Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. Green, W. S., & Jordan, P. W. (2002). Pleasure with products: Beyond usability. Boca Raton: CRC-Press. Gregory, S. A. (1966). Design science. In S. A. Gregory (Ed.), The design method (pp. 323-330). London: Butterworths. Hales, C. (1991). Analysis of the engineering design process in an industrial context. Winetka, Illinois: Gants Hill Publ. Hosnedl, S., Srp, Z., & Dvorak, J. (2008). Cooperation of engineering and industrial designers on industrial projects. Proceedings of the 10th International Design Conference (pp. 1227-1234), FMENA, Zagreb, DESIGN 2008. Howard, T. (2011). The design society newsletter. Lyngby, Denmark: Technical University of Denmark. Hubka, V. (1976). Theory of design processes (in German). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Hubka, V. (1982). Principles of engineering designGeneral procedural model of designing (W.E. Eder trans.). Zrich: Heurista. Hubka, V., & Andreasen, M. M. (1983). WDK 10: CAD, design methodsKonstruktionsmethoden. Proceedings of ICED 83 Copenhagen (Vols. 2). Zrich: Heurista. Hubka, V., Andreasen, M. M., & Eder, W. E. (1988). Practical studies in systematic design. London: Butterworths. Hubka, V., & Eder, W. E. (1988). Theory of technical systems: A total concept theory for engineering design. New York: Springer- Verlag. Hubka, V., & Eder, W. E. (1992a). Engineering design. Zrich: Heurista. Hubka, V., & Eder, W. E. (1992b). Introduction to design science. Berlin, Springer-Verlag. Hubka, V., & Eder, W. E. (1996). Design science: Introduction to the needs, scope and organization of engineering design knowledge. London: Springer-Verlag. Julier, G. (2000). The culture of design. London: Sage Publ. Klaus, G. (1965). Cybernetics in philosophical view (4th ed.). Berlin: Dietz Verlag. Klaus, G. (1969). Dictionary of cybernetics. Frankfurt: Fischer. (in German) Koen, B. V. (2003). Discussion of the method: Conducting the engineers approach to problem solving. New York: Oxford University Press McAloone, T., & Bey, N. (2010). Environmental improvement through product development, DTU management engineering, engineering design and product development. Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark. McMasters, J. H. (2004). The biomechanics of flight: Many possible solutions looking for problems. International Journal of Engineering Education, 20(3), 398-404. Mller, J. (1990). Working methods of engineering sciences B systematics, heuristics, creativity (in German). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Nevala, K. (2005). Content-based design engineering thinking (Academic dissertation, University of Jyvskal). Finland, Jyvskal: University Printing House. Retrieved from http://cc.oulu.fi/~nevala Pahl, G., Beitz, W., Feldhusen, J., & Grote, H. K. (2007). Engineering design (3 ed., K. Wallace, & L. Blessing Ed. and trans.). London: Springer-Verlag. Schn, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books, New York. Schn, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Towards a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Tjalve, E. (1979). A short course in industrial design. London: Newnes-Butterworths.
280
Tjalve, E., Andreasen, M. M., & Schmidt, F. F. (1979). Engineering graphic modelling. London: Newnes-Butterworths. Wales, C. E., Nardi, A. H., & Stager, R. A. (1986a). Professional decision-making. Morgantown, West Virginia: Center for Guided Design (West Virginia University). Wales, C. E., Nardi, A., & Stager, R. (1986b). Thinking skills: Making a choice. Morgantown, West Virginia: Center for Guided Design (West Virginia University). Wallas, G. (1926). The art of thought. London: Cape. Weber, C. (2005). CPM/PDDAn extended theoretical approach to modelling products and product development processes (pp. 11-28). In Proc. Ph.D., November 7-9, 2005, Srni, Czech Republic. Weber, C. (2008). How to derive application-specific design methodologies. In D. Marjanovic (Ed.), Proceeding of 10th International Design ConferenceDESIGN (pp. 69-80). FMENA, Zagreb, 2008. Weber, C., & Vajna, S. (1997). A new approach to design elements (machine elements). In A. Riitahuhta (Ed.), WDK 25Proceeding of ICED 97 (Vol. 3, pp. 685-690). Tampere: Tampere University.

US-China Education Review 2013 4A

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

US-China Education Review 2013 4A

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

US-China Education Review

David Publishing Company www.davidpublishing.com

David Publishing Company www.davidpublishing.com

US-China Education Review

Curriculum and Teaching

Extended TAM Model: Impacts of Convenience on Acceptance and Use of Moodle

IMPACTS OF CONVENIENCE ON ACCEPTANCE AND USE OF MOODLE

IMPACTS OF CONVENIENCE ON ACCEPTANCE AND USE OF MOODLE

Research Model and Hypotheses

Perceived convenience (Pc)

Attitude toward using Moodle

Perceived ease of use (Peu) Figure 1. Research model.

IMPACTS OF CONVENIENCE ON ACCEPTANCE AND USE OF MOODLE

0.575*** Perceived ease of use (Peu)

Figure 2. Results of the research model.

Discussion and Conclusions

IMPACTS OF CONVENIENCE ON ACCEPTANCE AND USE OF MOODLE

IMPACTS OF CONVENIENCE ON ACCEPTANCE AND USE OF MOODLE

IMPACTS OF CONVENIENCE ON ACCEPTANCE AND USE OF MOODLE

Some Aspects of Computer-Supported Teaching When Teaching

Stefan Svetsky, Oliver Moravcik, Peter Schreiber, Jana Stefankova

220 SOME ASPECTS OF COMPUTER-SUPPORTED TEACHING WHEN TEACHING BACHELORS

Producing E-learning Materials

Figure 1. Examples of e-learning materials.

Batch Internet Retrievals

222 SOME ASPECTS OF COMPUTER-SUPPORTED TEACHING WHEN TEACHING BACHELORS

Figure 2. Example of batch retrieving (a screenshot within OPERA).

Personnel Preparation by a Teacher

Figure 3. Example of virtual space for calculations (ideal gas).

Figure 4. Example of communication forum: Teacher-students.

SOME ASPECTS OF COMPUTER-SUPPORTED TEACHING WHEN TEACHING BACHELORS 223

Figure 6. Example of blended learning.

224 SOME ASPECTS OF COMPUTER-SUPPORTED TEACHING WHEN TEACHING BACHELORS

The Perception of a Broadcasting Voice

Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain

The Importance of the Voice on the Radio

Emma Rodero, Ph.D., professor, Department of Communication, Pompeu Fabra University.

THE PERCEPTION OF A BROADCASTING VOICE

The Perception of the Voice on the Radio

THE PERCEPTION OF A BROADCASTING VOICE

Qualities of the Voice on the Radio

THE PERCEPTION OF A BROADCASTING VOICE

Prosody and Pronunciation Features

THE PERCEPTION OF A BROADCASTING VOICE

THE PERCEPTION OF A BROADCASTING VOICE

THE PLACE OF ICT IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS

THE PLACE OF ICT IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS

THE PLACE OF ICT IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Level of significance Calculated-t 0.05 1.08

Dec. Ho1 accepted

THE PLACE OF ICT IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Level of significance 0.05

Dec. Ho2 accepted

THE PLACE OF ICT IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Findings and Implication of the Research

THE PLACE OF ICT IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS

THE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A WEB-BASED E-LEARNING PLATFORM

THE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A WEB-BASED E-LEARNING PLATFORM

THE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A WEB-BASED E-LEARNING PLATFORM

Method: Systems Design and Development

THE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A WEB-BASED E-LEARNING PLATFORM

THE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A WEB-BASED E-LEARNING PLATFORM