US-China Education Review 2013 5A

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Volume 3, Number 5, May 2013 (Serial Number 24)
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US-Chi na
Educ at i on Revi ew
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Volume 3, Number 5, May 2013 (Serial Number 24)

Contents
Curriculum and Teaching
Big Class Size Challenges: Teaching Reading in Primary Classes in Kampala, Ugandas
Central Municipality 283
Samuel Kewaza, Myrtle I. Welch
Integrative Education: Teaching Psychology With the Use of Literature and
Informational Technology 297
Anna Toom
Development and Evaluation of Educational Materials for Embedded Systems to
Increase the Learning Motivation 305
Makoto Koshino, Yuki Kojima, Noboru Kanedera
High School Technical EducationHigh Prerequisite for Getting a Job 314
Anna Papokov
The Case for Blended Instruction: Is It a Proven Better Way to Teach? 320
Michael V. Pregot
The Effects of Chloride on Durability of Concrete Mixed With Sea Sand 325
Do-Gyeum Kim, Myung-Sug Cho, Jong-Suk Lee
Mathematical Modeling of Industrial Water Systems 332
Pavel M. Gotovtsev, Julia Y. Tikhomirova, Ekaterina I. Khizova
Educational Technology
Using E-portfolios and ESL Learners 339
Maha Alawdat
US-China Education Review A, ISSN 2161-623X
May 2013, Vol. 3, No. 5, 283-296
Big Class Size Challenges: Teaching Reading in Primary

Classes in Kampala, Ugandas Central Municipality
Samuel Kewaza,
Kampala, Uganda, East Africa
Myrtle I. Welch
SUNY Buffalo State, Buffalo, USA

Research on reading has established that reading is a pivotal discipline and early literacy development dictates later
reading success. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate challenges encountered with reading
pedagogy, teaching materials, and teachers attitudes towards teaching reading in crowded primary classes in
Kampala, Ugandas Central Municipality. This studys scope reached beyond daily functional literacy for reading
road signs, recipes, and posters into teaching reading with critical reading methodologies that benefit learners
progress to higher reading levels. The methods used to collect quantitative and qualitative data were surveys,
interviews, and questionnaires. Three approaches to data collection that guided the study were determining the
effect of the size of the classes on the teaching methods used to teach reading skills in primary classes, the effect of
big classes on the teaching materials used to teach reading skills in huge classes, and the effect of enrollment on
teachers attitudes towards teaching reading in big classes. Data were collected from 48 teachers of reading skills in
lower primary classes, 16 primary head teachers, and 16 heads of the lower sections in the 16 primary schools
selected for the study. Most responders tended to show that the commonest teaching methods used by the teachers
of reading in the crowded classes were those that tended to raise chorus reading. Such methods helped the teachers
involve every pupil to read. Besides, such methods indirectly enabled the teachers to have better class control.
Another finding was that the teachers used mostly the traditional learning materials, including chalkboards and wall
charts. No school had any materials that use modern technology. Yet, the markers and manila paper that would be
used to design other teaching materials were given out irregularly. Also, the big numbers of pupils handled made
the teachers teaching a burdensome task. It was concluded, therefore, that the teaching-learning process of reading
in the lower classes was substantially affected negatively by the large classes.
Keywords: Uganda, reading, teaching, big classes, primary classes, attitudes
Introduction
Reading plays an essential role in the daily lives of most people. It is functional when people read road
signs, maps, recipes, labels, fill forms, or apply for jobs that are unique to our daily lives. It is fundamental to
school achievement, and hence, learning to read at the appropriate time is crucial to ones academic success.
All school subjects require reading various written materials like graphs, charts, maps and tables. In Kaplans
(1986) opinion, failure to learn to read by the end of Primary one (i.e., first grade) is associated with later
academic failure.

Samuel Kewaza, Kampala, Uganda, East Africa.
Myrtle I. Welch, Ph.D., SUNY Buffalo State.
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BIG CLASS SIZE CHALLENGES: TEACHING READING IN PRIMARY CLASSES
284
Teachers of reading skills have built up and used different methods for teaching reading, sometimes
mechanically, in order to help learners overcome the initial difficulty of identifying letters, of recognizing
words, and of uttering sounds they represent. Undoubtedly, reading is one of the most effective means of
language learning. It expands ones proficiency in the use of the language. It also gives the skills necessary to
acquire more knowledge. These skills are difficult to achieve in the big class sizes commonly found in Kampala
Central Municipality primary schools.
The Statement of the Problem
The problem addressed by the present study is the challenges of teaching reading to large classes in lower
primary in Kampala, East Uganda. A lot of complaints have been registered by both parents and teachers that
pupils academic performance is poor due to inappropriate reading skills demonstrated by those children. For
this reason, the parents are anxious that their children should learn to read sooner than later.
What is even more surprising is that unlike in the rural environment, children in Kampala City join
Primary one after attaining nursery school education where they grasp the vowel sounds and learn to shape
letters among other things. Besides, they have access to readings provided on billboards, TV (television), and
advertisements on buildings. In some homes, adults read to children, and they look at pictures in books, or
newspaper. It is, therefore, likely that rather than socio-economic factors, the effective teaching of reading in
the lower primary in Kampala Central Municipality is challenged by the big class sizes.
The Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to investigate the challenges of teaching reading skills in large primary
classes in Kampala Central Municipality. This study will, therefore, establish the challenges working against
attaining maximum reading levels attained by children at primary levels.
The Scope of the Study
The study was conducted in selected primary schools in Kampala Central Municipality, Kampala District.
It was restricted to lower primary classes in the area focusing on teaching methods, teaching materials used to
teach the reading skill and the teachers attitudes towards reading.
Significance of the Study
The results of the study may be found useful to teachers, school administrators, the MOES (Ministry of
Education and Sports) and District Education Authorities, and future researchers. Since it is the teachers who
are directly concerned with the instruction of reading in the schools, the study may help them in the choice of
reading methods, techniques and learning materials. School administrators may be encouraged to facilitate
teachers in teaching reading lessons by providing the necessary material. MOES authorities may see the need
for sufficient financial support for procurement of the necessary instructional materials essential for
empowering learners to read effectively. Besides, policymaker authorities may plan for reducing the
pupil-teacher ratio per school. The study may provoke other researchers interested in finding out more about
the reading skill at various levels of learning. Consequently, more scientific knowledge related to reading is
likely to be generated.
285
Literature Review
A number of studies have been carried out on reading as an aspect essential to language learning. However,
little has been done on matters concerning the effect of big class sizes on teaching the reading skill of pupils in
the lower classes. This study, therefore, will bridge the gap but first by making a general review of studies
related to the research problem under the following sub-problems:
(1) Big class sizes and teaching methods;
(2) Big class sizes and teaching materials;
(3) Big class sizes and teachers attitudes.
Big Class Sizes and Teaching Methods
Home experiences have shown that there is a linkage between childrens learning to read and their
background. According to Smith (1988), schools build on the language learning began at home. Even before
children join the spoken language club, parents can encourage reading development by reading to the children,
telling them stories, and discussing childhood experiences. This point implies that such parents feel that when
the children are exposed to reading early enough in their growth and development, children are likely to acquire
the reading skill much earlier than if they were without that experience.
This view is emphasized by Bracey and Leita (1996) that in some homes, children can see from an early
age that reading and writing are pleasurable and useful in that people in their families write letters and
messages, and read books and newspapers. Thus, each child has an opportunity to participate actively, because
each one is taken as an individual who also has the need to read.
The same authors argue that children from homes whose parents are illiterate do not have the advantage of
any literature in their homes. They also advise that it is necessary for teaching of reading to help the children
from the disadvantaged homes to experience, that what is said, can be written and read, and that reading is the
reverse process of decoding words to discover a meaning. In this sense, a teacher acts as a catalyst for learning
which requires him/her to assist every learner. But when there are too many pupils in class, some learners may
go without this assistance.
Kay (1971) believed that the association of familiar objects with written symbols is an informal way of
introducing children to reading and even writing. Thus, in infants classes, the teacher of reading talks about
objects in the classroom and writes out names on labels which are attached to them. This implies that such a
method can work if the classroom has various objects against which the teacher can attach labels.
Rosenthal (1987) noted that the complexity of the reading process makes it difficult to learn by only one
method. Instead, most teachers of reading adopt a combination of techniques determined by the teachers own
preferences, students needs, and the instructional materials available. In this regard, the teachers choice of
teaching methods depends on various factors, such as the number of pupils in a class.
Rosenthal (1987) outlined the commonly used teaching programs of reading, such as the developmental
methods, the whole language philosophy, the language experience method, phonics instruction, sight words,
look-and-say instruction, and individualized reading program. We can infer from the list above that a teacher
can apply different methods suitable for his/her class sizes.
Brimer and Paul (1971) argued that grade promotion, curriculum, methods of teaching, and lack of
adoption in the present day conditions are resulting more and more in the loss of interest in school learning and
even in knowledge of any kind. Farrant (2000) confirmed this when he asserted that bad methods that teachers
286
use cause learning blockages that are difficult to unlearn and overcome later. The assertion emphasizes the
importance of employing proper teaching methods that will result in encouraging the learner to carry on with
the required task. However, one wonders if it is possible to do so in a crowded class.
Izizinga (2000) advocated the use of the child-centered method to teach reading. She criticized teachers
who assume that they possess the classes and adopt a teacher-centered method of teaching, assuming the role of
experts who have to perform all the time. She added that they are probably ignorant that learner-involvement is
the key to learning how to read. The viewpoints seem to show that teachers sometimes resort to teacher-centered
methods to teach the reading skill.
Contrary to the above criticisms, Venkateswaran (1995) pointed out that at low levels, learners can read
aloud followed by the whole class orally word by word or sentence by sentence or an individual reads sentence
by sentence after the teacher. In this sense, it seems that the teacher guides the learning process by showing the
learners how to read.
Welch (2009) asserted that, Reading is in the mind, not in the mouth (p. 10). Therefore, this assertion
mandates time for silent reading, even in large classes. Welch (2009) contended that read-aloud methods alone
can hinder reflective thinking skills. It is through meta-cognitive thinking skillsthinking about ones own
thinkingthat one conceptualizes what is read.
To emphasize the importance of child-centered methods, Kochhar (2000) asserted that the child is of
prime importance. Guiding his/her learning experiences is a second principle of the teaching process. Therefore,
the child should begin to learn when he/she becomes purposefully involved in the learning process. However,
effectiveness of the methods used in the teaching of reading is quite often eroded by big class sizes. Related to
the above is shortage of space where reading can be taught using certain methods. Conveniently, Namatovu
(2000) explained that by the time of implementing UPE (Universal Primary Education), classrooms were
already full with more than 100 pupils. Already that was too much for a teacher to handle. The rooms and the
seats remained the same. Thus, some children were forced to sit on the floor.
It can be inferred from Kochhar that those pupils who are forced to sit on the floor feel portable, and hence,
cannot concentrate on what is being taught. The researcher felt that all these problems might be affecting the
acquisition of the reading skill of the pupils in the lower classes. To ascertain this, an investigation was
essential.
Big Class Sizes and Teaching Materials
After the implementation of UPE, teaching materials in schools worsened. Kanyike (1998) revealed that
working space, furniture, library space, storage spaces, sanitation facilities, water supply, and instructional
materials have either not been available in schools or accessible to pupils. This viewpoint seems to show that
the shortage of materials was in short supply although the enrollment was high.
Similarly, Keller (1995) reported that most primary schools are in a poor state of repair with inadequate
teaching materials and high proportion of untrained teachers. With such situation, one wonders how the
teaching skill can be handled.
Carasco (1996) also emphasized that although schools had received books in previous years, the books
were still not being used in classrooms. Carasco (1996) revealed that teachers reported that the failure to use
instructional materials was one of their most serious adverse classroom experiences. In view of the above, it
appears some materials that would be used to teach the reading skill are not given out to teachers of reading.
287
Also, the MOES attests that instructional materials, such as textbooks are inadequately and inappropriately
managed in government primary schools.
The implication of the above statements shows that government primary schools lack instructional
materials that would facilitate the teaching of the reading skill. In 1996, the California Department of Education
suggested that a balanced comprehensive early literacy program must embrace a variety of reading materials
including environmental print, magazines, newspapers, and reference materials, works of fiction, and
non-fiction and technology.
The same department explained that such materials can be divided into three categories to facilitate good
readability: reading aloud, instructional reading, and independent reading. In this regard, it appears that
teaching the reading skill is difficult for the teacher who experience lack of such materials.
A number of educationists have expressed the shortages of scholastic and instructional materials almost at
all levels of education. Odada (1997) observed that besides having inadequate trained staff members, lack of
textbooks and scholastic materials in secondary schools were among the major drawbacks in the teaching of
history. Similarly, Manana (1992) found out that there is a serious inadequacy of basic instructional materials
for social studies in Primary Teachers Colleges. It appears that even the teachers who are trained to teach the
reading skill are not exposed to certain aspects of using teaching devices since the teachers colleges also wish
for the instructional materials.
Further, the benefits that would accrue from the use of teaching materials like the ones stated by Mulima
(1990) are not achieved. They state that teaching materials help the pupils to use more than one sense in
learning. Learning is more effective if the impression on the sense is more vivid, arresting or striking. Thus, the
more senses used in learning, the greater is the impression made on the mind and consequently the greater the
understanding and the longer the retention in the mind of what has been learned (Rowtree, 1988). This view is
reinforced by this Chinese Proverb:
I hear and I forget;
I see and I remember;
I do and I understand.
Essentially, the authors are referring to the use of the ears, eyes, and hands. The learning materials
accelerate the rate at which pupils learn besides making teaching and learning interesting and comparatively
easy. By implication, if reading teachers employed so many teaching materials, the learners would understand
and remember effectively.
From the foregoing observation, the researcher felt that shortages of teaching materials were having an
impact on the teaching effectiveness of reading skills in a big class. This is the need for an investigation on the
correlation of big classes and teaching materials on the reading skills.
Big Class Sizes and Teachers Attitudes
While it is important to have various teaching aids for the learners, in a big class, the teacher may find it
impossible to provide each child with appropriate materials. UNICEF (Nations International Childrens
Emergence Fund) (1997) pointed out that parents see the problem of high pupil-teacher ratio from the
perspective of teachers not being able to control the class; teachers being overloaded and so unable to give
individual attention to a class of over 100 pupils or more. The viewpoint seems to suggest that high
pupil-teacher ratios affect the teaching of the reading skills.
288
According to Farrants (2000) documentation, in a crowded class, there is little participation per pupil
supports the foregoing viewpoint. He maintained that it becomes even more difficult to cater for each pupils
needs or individual differences and hence signs of indiscipline will be inevitable especially where the feeling of
anonymity by children sets in.
Clearly, big class sizes can be overwhelming to a single teacher whose role in class is multidimensional;
that is instructional expert, manager and counselor. Kalinaki (2000) linked poor academic performance to big
class sizes. He observed that many schools with high pupil-teacher ratios experience poor performance by
students since teachers are thinly spread and the learning conditions are not conducive enough for the children.
The observation above suggests that factors affecting learning like those that originate from the learning
environment or the teacher have to be considered for better results of the reading skill. Kyogabiirwe (1991)
asserted that the problem of big classes populations have steadily risen while the number of teachers has
remained the same. Thus, the lesson here is that there is a noticeable high pupil-teacher ratio whose
implications might be affecting the teaching of the reading skill.
According to UNICEF (1997), the rise of pupils per class due to the implementation of UPE affected the
discipline of pupils in class. They also observed that the teachers in such classes spend much time on class
control and consequently become slow in completing the syllabus. This viewpoint implies that teachers can be
overwhelmed by numbers of the pupils during the teaching-learning process of the reading skill.
Contrary to the foregoing claim on numbers, Namatovu (2000) argued that most classrooms, especially in
urban areas, were already full with more than 100 pupils per class even before UPE was introduced. She
concluded that the number of pupils was too much for a teacher to handle. In this sense, it seems, when UPE
was implemented, it worsened the teaching-learning situation not only for the teachers but also the pupils.
Therefore, it is likely that the teaching-learning process decreased pupil performance. The teaching of the
reading skill is likely to have faced similar problems since the classes are crowded.
Methodology
Research Questions
The research questions are as follows:
(1) To what extent do big class sizes affect the teaching methods used by teachers of reading in lower
primary classes?
(2) How do big class sizes affect the use of teaching materials for reading in lower primary classes?
(3) What are the teachers attitudes towards teaching reading as a subject in big class sizes in lower
primary classes?
Research Design
A cross-sectional survey was used for the study. The method has a number of advantages, such as
collecting information once from a random sample that has been drawn from a target population. The target
population included teachers, head teachers and heads of the lower primary sections. The study used mainly
quantitative methods and a few qualitative ones. Interviews and questionnaires were used to obtain views and
opinions from the target group.
Area of Study
The study was carried out in selected primary schools in Kampala Central Municipality, Kampala District
289
(see Appendix A). The area was selected due to the advantages it has. There are very many primary schools of
various grades that are close together. Thus, the researcher saved on transport costs and time that would have
been used if they were scattered. Besides, the researcher wanted to tap a variety of views and opinions from
each grade of school.
Selection of Schools
Due to the presence of many primary schools in the area, the simple lottery random sampling method was
used to select 16 schools. A list of all the schools was secured from the area education officer. Then, they were
listed down according to their grades. Each school in each grade was then listed on a piece of paper separately
folded and put in a container and churned beginning with Grade one schools. Out of the entire Grade one
schools, four schools were selected. This exercise was repeated for Grades two, three, and four. The total
number of schools is 16.
Section of Subjects
The subjects of the study were in three categories. The first one consisted of teachers of the reading skills
in the lower classes in each school that was selected. The expected number from P.I to P.3 in each school was
three teachers who were selected purposively because they are directly involved with reading. The total number
of teachers is 48.
The second category consisted of the heads of the lower section in each school. Being the immediate
supervisors of teachers concerned with reading and advisors to the head teacher, they were included in the
study. They too were selected purposively. The total number of heads of lower section is 16.
The third category was the head teachers. They do the administrative work in the school and are expected
to be the immediate advisors to the education local authorities. Therefore, they are directly responsible for the
effective teaching of reading in their schools. They were selected purposively. The total number of head
teachers is 16 (see Table 1).

Table 1
Sample Size
Name of school Code No. of head teachers No. of teachers No. of heads of lower school
(i) Buganda Road P/S A 1 4 1
(ii) Bat Valley P/S B 1 3 1
(iii) Kyagwe Road P/S C 1 2 1
(iv) Nakasero P/S D 1 4 1
(v) East Kololo P/S E 1 3 1
(vi) Kamwokya K.C.C P/S F 1 3 1
(vii) Nakivubo Settlement G 1 3 1
(viii) Arya P/S H 1 3 1
(ix) Kitante P/S I 1 3 1
(x) Shimoni Dem.Sch. J 1 3 1
(xi) Rhamgharia P/S K 1 2 1
(xii) Nakivubo Blue P/S L 1 3 1
(xiii) Muslim Girls P/S M 1 4 1
(xiv) Old Kampala P/S N 1 3 1
(xv) City Parents P/S O 1 3 1
(xvi) Nabagereka P/S P 1 2 1
Total 16 48 16
290
Instruments of Data Collection
The questionnaire was the main instrument for collecting data from teachers. It consisted of both closed
and open questions. Questionnaires were adopted for these reasons:
(1) They are convenient for collecting data from a large sample with a short-time;
(2) They give the respondents freedom to give frank answers to sensitive questions especially, if they are
not asked to disclose their names;
(3) Respondents can answer questions during their free time.
Observation
The researcher made direct observations of the way classrooms are organized for reading lessons and the
teaching materials used. This helped the researcher to verify and consolidate information that had been gathered
through oral interviews and questionnaires.
Oral Interviews
The researcher carried out interviews with head teachers and heads of the lower sections of each of the
selected schools in order to obtain supplementary information to that collected through an oral, interview guide
and a questionnaire. The researcher visited the schools and offices physically to deliver the questionnaires.
Interviews with head teachers and heads of the departments were conducted in their offices during
predetermined convenient times.
Data Analysis
The main procedure of analyzing data was by using descriptive statistics. Data were grouped into themes
with descriptive tools, such as frequencies and percentages. All data from oral interviews, observations and
questionnaires were subjected to content analysis and then reported in a narrative form. Thus, both the
quantitative and qualitative techniques for analyses were used in order to cover as much as possible the views
and opinions the subjects were willing to provide.
Results
The results from analyzing the challenges of teaching reading in large classes in primary levels in
Kampala Central Municipality are as follows.
Research Question One
The question sought to establish how big class sizes affect the teaching methods used by teachers in lower
primary classes. In order to test this question, Section A of the teachers questionnaire and the interview guide
for head teachers and heads of lower sections were used.
Results showed that all teachers handled reading as a subject on a daily basis. They also showed that they
were trained qualified teachers. Eighty percent of them were Grade 111 teacher certificate holders, 15% were
Grade V, while 5% were graduate teachers. Apart from reading, teachers taught other subjects in the school as
summarized in Table 2.
From Table 2, 79% of the teachers who taught Reading showed that they also taught English, 67% of them
indicated that they taught religious education, and 63% of them revealed that they taught social studies, too.
Forty-six percent of them taught science, while 38% of them taught physical education as well as reading.
Therefore, the majority of teachers of reading in the lower classes taught English as well. The researcher
wanted to find out which teaching methods they used in teaching reading. So, the results are shown in Table 3.
291
Table 2
Summary of Other Subjects Taught Besides Reading
Other subject Expected frequency Frequency Percentage of frequency (%)
(i) English 48 38 79
(ii) Mathematics 48 21 44
(iii) Science 48 22 46
(iv) Social studies 48 30 63
(v) Religious education 48 32 67
(vi) Physical education 48 18 38
(vii) Music 48 20 42

Table 3
Summary of Methods Teachers Frequently Use for Reading
Method Yes No Percentage of yes (%)
(i) The phonic method 31 17 65
(ii) The look-and-say whole-word method 40 8 83
(iii) The look-and-say sentence method 41 7 85
(iv) The alphabet method 26 22 54
(v) Telling stories 17 31 35
(vi) Teacher reads to learners 21 27 44
(vii) Pupils read aloud in turns while others repeat 27 21 56

According to Table 3, 85% of the teachers noted that they used the look-and-say sentence method to teach
reading, 83% revealed that they used the look-and-say-whole-word method, 65% of them showed that they
used the phonic method, and 56% of them indicated the method of making pupils to read aloud in turns while
others repeat. Only 42% of the teachers revealed that they made pupils read silently. Thus, the majority of the
teachers used the look-and-say sentence method.
Concerning whether big classes affect the methods used to teach reading in the lower classes, all the
respondents agreed that such classes affected the teaching methods the teacher used. The reasons on which they
based their considerations were categorized in Table 4.

Table 4
Summary of Big Class Limitations on Teaching Methods
Limitation Frequency Percentage of frequency (%)
(i) Limitation of pupil-teacher interaction 42 86
(ii) Limitation of pupil-pupil interaction 36 75
(iii) Limitation of teachers helpful feedback to individual pupil needs 48 100
(iv) Limitation of testing individual pupils 30 63
(v) Limitation of providing individual motivation 39 81
(vi) Limitation of monitoring pupils attendance 27 56

Results in Table 4 show that all the respondents indicated that in big classes, teachers had limitations of
giving helpful feedback to individual pupils. Eighty-six percent of them responded that they had limitations of
interacting with the pupils, and 81% revealed they had limitations of providing for individual pupil motivation.
Only 56% of the teachers noted that they had limitations of monitoring pupils attendance. Majority of teachers
revealed by 100% that with big classes, it was difficult for a teacher to give helpful feedback to individual pupils.
292
Concerning whether teaching methods used by teachers of reading influenced pupils to like reading,
respondents revealed that if a teacher read aloud to learners in Primary one, the learners feel confident with
what they read. Similarly, if a pupil read aloud while other pupils repeated after him/her, the pupils feel
confident with their oral repetitions. Besides this, it was noted that the sounds of the letters or words made by
the pupils as they learn to read, say through the phonic method are mastered faster than other methods where
learning to read is done silently.
Further, results indicated that with big classes, the commonest methods of teaching reading which
influence pupils to like reading were those which involve pupils in the reading act. So, the methods where
pupils repeat after a leader are very common and enjoyable if well organized by the teacher. Results from oral
interviews revealed that there was a reading lesson marked on the class-time tables in the lower classes.
Asked whether the teachers were supervised during the reading lessons, the respondents revealed the
results shown in Table 5.

Table 5
Frequency of Supervision of Reading Lessons
Supervision frequency Yes No Percentage of yes (%)
(i) Everyday 8 24 25
(ii) Weekly 5 27 17
(iii) Fortnightly 14 18 44
(iv) Monthly 27 15 84
(v) None 4 28 13

The results above show that 84% of the respondents supervised teachers of reading monthly, 44% of them
supervised them fortnightly, and 25% of them supervised them every day. Only 13% of them did not supervise
the teachers of reading. Thus, the majority of the respondents supervised reading monthly. Concerning teaching
methods, teachers of reading use to teach reading in the lower classes, the results were similar to those obtained
through questionnaires. However, the heads of lower sections in School C and E noted that repeating chorus
readings on flash cards were most suitable for primary one because they enjoy doing things in a group. The
head teacher of School B noted that various methods would work very well to cater to the mixed abilities and
age ranges found in lower classes.
Further results indicated that in big classes, the most convenient method of teaching the reading skill is
one which compels all the pupils to participate at the same time. Such methods include identifying group
leaders who can read aloud while the group mates repeat after him/her. In one of the oral interviews, one
respondent in School G revealed that in infant classes, the pupils enjoy making noise in a group. Hence,
methods in reading should enable the pupils to speak, sing, or shout.
Research Question Two
The question sought to find out how big class sizes affect the use of teaching materials for reading in
lower classes. Section B of the teachers questionnaire and the interview guides were used to obtain the results.
The researcher tested different teaching materials that teachers often use in teaching reading. The results are
shown in Table 6.
According to Table 6, 100% of the teachers showed that teachers used the chalkboard, 86% used picture
cards, 85% of them used wall displays, 81% of them revealed that they used textbooks, 75% of them showed
293
that they used jigsaw drawing, and 32% of them indicated that they used photographs. There was no evidence
for strips and video recordings. The majority of teachers revealed that they used the chalkboard.

Table 6
Summary of Teaching Materials Used to Teach Reading
Materials Yes No Percentage of yes (%)
(i) Wall displays 41 9 85
(ii) Chalkboard 48 - 100
(iii) J igsaw drawings 36 12 75
(iv) Picture cards 42 6 86
(v) Textbooks 39 9 81
(vi) Film strips - - -
(vii) Video recordings or slides - - -
(viii) Photographs 15 33 32

The researcher wanted to find out how the teachers used the teaching materials to teach reading. It was
revealed that although materials like manila papers and colored markers were not regularly supplied to them,
the few that they got were used by the teachers to design teaching materials for reading if the teachers had the
time. Further, the teachers noted that teaching materials influence pupils to like reading. Table 7 shows the
themes of the responses which the teachers revealed showing how teaching influences pupils to like reading.

Table 7
Summary of Role Played by Use of Teaching Materials
Code Frequency Percentage of frequency (%)
(i) Encourage pupils to interact freely in class 42 86
(ii) Act as reinforcement to learners 40 83
(iii) Provide a positive environment for creative discipline 39 81
(iv) Enable the pupil to meet his or her individual differences 37 77
(v) Attract learners attention and motivation 48 100

Table 7 revealed that the use of teaching materials influences the learners to like reading by attracting the
learners attention and motivation. Eighty-six percent of teachers showed that teaching materials encourage
pupils to interact freely in class, 83% of teachers noted that the materials provide a positive environment for
creative discipline, and 77% of them showed that the materials enable pupils to meet individual differences. So,
majority of all teachers revealed that the use of teaching materials influences the learners to like reading
because the learners attention and motivation is captured.
Results from oral interviews were similar to those obtained from questionnaires. However, most head
teachers revealed that teaching materials cannot do much in influencing learning, unless the teacher
himself/herself uses them skillfully. One head teacher revealed that it is important for a teacher to stress the
important things the pupils can learn from the teaching materials.
Results from observations obtained through the observation guide revealed the state of teaching materials
used to teach reading. The results showed that 55% of the teaching materials were appropriate, 25% of the
teachers showed that the available teaching materials used to teach reading were inappropriate, and 20% of the
teachers noted the materials for reading were not available.
294
Research Question Three
The question sought to find out teachers attitudes towards teaching reading as a subject to big class sizes
in the lower primary classes. Section C of the questionnaire interview guide was used. The researcher also
wanted to establish the number of pupils the respondents handled per reading lesson. The results are shown in
Table 8.

Table 8
Summary of Number of Pupils Handled Per Teacher
Number of pupils Frequency Percentage of frequency (%)
(i) less than 50 pupils - -
(ii) 5070 pupils 4 8
(iii) 71100 pupils 30 63
(iv) over 100 pupils 14 29
Total 48 100

Besides this, the researcher wanted to find out the teachers attitude towards the class sizes they handled
per lesson. The results are shown in Table 9.

Table 9
Teachers Feelings Towards the Size of Class
Attitude Frequency Percentage of frequency (%)
Small - -
Reasonable - -
Crowded 36 75
Overcrowded 12 25
Total 48 100

Table 9 shows that 75% of the teachers felt their classes are crowded, 25% of them felt that the classes are
overcrowded. No teachers indicated that the classes are small or reasonable. Therefore, the majority of teachers
felt that the classes are crowded.
Concerning the number of pupils teachers would handle effectively in reading lessons, all teachers
indicated numbers between 25 and 50 pupils. It was noted that with such a number, the teaching methods and
teaching materials can be appropriately used.
Teachers indicated that crowded classes had a higher incidence of indiscipline cases than the small classes.
Yet, if the classes are small, the pupils are easy to manage and their participation will easily be enhanced and
monitored. Besides, individual help can be given to pupils easily.
Results from oral interviews revealed that because classes are crowded, there is always a scramble for
almost everything. The facilitiesseats, textbooks, and spaceare always in shortage. Therefore, it is
inevitable to punish pupils who tend to be very vigorous while getting those things.
Conclusions
Conclusions were drawn based upon what had been found by the study. Recommendations were made and
lastly, possible areas for further study were suggested. From the findings, several conclusions were drawn.
295
Lower primary classes in primary schools in Kampala Central Municipality are crowded classes having
between 71 and 100 pupils assigned to one teacher to handle during the teaching-learning process of the
reading skills. Therefore, the teaching methods that are often employed are basically those that call for chorus
reading in the class.
The teachers of reading use such methods, mainly because they want to curb indiscipline that would arise
from pupils who misbehave due to being in a crowded class. Because the classes are crowded, the teachers fail
to give individual attention to learners of the reading skills.
The teaching materials that would reinforce use of various teaching methods are also restricted to the
traditional ones like wall displays, posters and chalkboard. The supply of manila paper and markers out of
which teachers would design teaching aids if teachers got the time was irregular.
The findings revealed that not every pupils needs were catered to in such crowded classes. Additionally,
the teachers felt that there was too much work to handle by a single teacher of the reading skills.
References
Bracey, D., & Leita, P. (1996). Longhorn reading scheme: Teachers guide. Nairobi Longhorn Kenya Ltd..
Brimer, M. A., & Paul, L. (1971). Wastage in education a world problem (3rd ed.). Paris Geneva UNESCO.
Carasco, J . (1996). Universal Primary Education registration monitoring report. Kampala Ministry of Education and Sports.
California Department of Education Press. (1996). Teaching reading. Sacramento.
Farrant, J . S. (2000). Principles and practice of education. London Longman.
Izizinga, R. (2000). The teaching of reading in Uganda. In K. Parry (Ed.), Language and literacy in Uganda. Kampala. Fountain
Publishers.
Kalinaki, K. D. (2000). Giving hope to Ugandan children. Child Link, 3(1).
Kanyike, K. L. (1998). What PLE results do not say. UNEB Newsletter, 6(6).
Kaplan, S. P. (1986). A childs odyssey: Child and adolescent development. New York: West Publishing company.
Kay, N. C. (1971). Practical teaching. Ibadan Evans Brothers Ltd..
Keller, B. (1995). Uganda country file. Department for East and West Africa Department for Policy and Legal Issues.
Kochhar, S. K. (2000). Methods and techniques of teaching. New Delhi Sterling publishing PVT Ltd..
Kyogabiirwe, J . (1991). The effects of large classes on the reading skill in selected Kampala secondary schools (Unpublished
masters thesis, Makerere University).
Manana, A. J . (1992). An evaluation of instructional resources for social studies in primary teachers colleges in Uganda
(Unpublished masters thesis, Makerere University).
Mulima, S. (1990). Teaching lower primary. Nairobi Longman.
Namatovu, I. (2000). Here is the way to improve UPE. Child Link, 6(3).
Odada, M. (1997). The teacher and the declining quality of education in Ugandas primary. UNEB Newsletter, 1(5).
Rosenthal, N. (1987). Teach someone to read: A step by step guide for literacy tutors. London David S. Lake.
Rowntree, D. (1988). Exploring open and distance learning. Routledge.
Smith, F. (1988). Understanding Reading: A Psycholinguistic analysis of reading and learning to read (4th ed.) Hillsdale, N. J .:
Erlbaum.
UNICEF (Nations International Childrens Emergence Fund). (1997). Report on implementing Universal Primary Education.
Venkateswaran, S. (1995). Principles of teaching English. New Delhi Vikas Publishing House PVT Ltd..
Welch, M. I. (2009). Cognitive transfer of a reading strategy: From oral participation to silent reading. Journal of Inquiry and
Action in Education (Buffalo State), 3(1), 58-69.

296
Appendix A

May 2013, Vol. 3, No. 5, 297-304
Integrative Education: Teaching Psychology With the Use

of Literature and Informational Technology
Anna Toom
Touro College, New York, USA

In this work, a new method of teaching psychology based on the union of scientific, artistic, and
information-technological knowledge is presented. The author teaches Cognitive Development in Early Childhood
analyzing Anton Chekhovs short story Grisha and uses both traditional and computerized instructional
methodology. In the authors two stages of the study: (1) all the psychological phenomena embodied in Chekovs
story were identified; and (2) the effectiveness of traditional and computerized instructional methodologies in
students analysis of the story was compared. According to the results, the story truly embodied some fundamental
features of early childhood development. When analyzing the story, online students were more successful: They
comprehended new psychological ideas faster and their new skills, developed in the course of solving the task, were
more stable. The author concludes that: (1) incorporating literature into psychology courses enhances the students
comprehension of complicated psychological concepts, ideas, and theories; and (2) computerized instructional
methodology has a potential for being more efficient than its traditional prototype, because it creates better
conditions for development of peoples ability for an independent intellectual work as well as goal-oriented and
logical thinking.
Keywords: integrative education, distance education, teaching/learning psychology online, computerized
instructional methodology, psychology of arts/literature
Introduction
In the 20th century, some outstanding supporters of integrative education argued that it provided learners
with a higher competence. They declared integrative education as a synthesis of scientific and artistic
knowledge (Dewey, 1916; 1989). Today, we can say with certainty that they were right. Moreover, nowadays,
this idea receives a new incentive. Since computers are widely used in all the areas of human activity and
technical possibilities of communication are rapidly increasing, the information-technological component
becomes an essential part of the integrative approach to teaching and learning as well.
At the same time, being among the most intensively developing industries, the informational
technologies transform the face of modern education. Within the last two decades, distance education based
on the Internet and interactive computer programs developed along with traditional pedagogical forms.
Programs of distance learning are mushrooming around the world involving humanitarian disciplines as well
as exact sciences. Transition of such a subject as psychology from a traditional classroom to a virtual one

Anna Toom, Ph.D., associate professor, Graduate School of Education, Touro College.
DAVID PUBLISHING
D
TEACHING PSYCHOLOGY, LITERATURE AND INFORMATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
298
seems especially challenging.
This work presents a new method of teaching psychology based on the union of scientific, artistic, and
information-technology in its application to online classes.
Fiction stories have been successfully used for teaching psychology and psychoanalysis for a long time
(Bettelheim, 1989; Freud, 1933). Some contemporary specialists have also used literature for their educational
practices (Boyatzis, 1992; Pitts, 1978; Toom, 2006). However, attempts to create computerized versions of
such instructional methodology have been scarce until now. The most popular computerized tools for teaching
the subject that can be found on the American market today do not deal with works of fiction. Meanwhile, this
idea seems to be quite appropriate for teaching even the most complicated aspects of psychology. We are
going to focus on one of themcognitive development in the early childhood.
Scholars keep telling us how difficult it is to study cognitive functioning of very young children.
Textbooks are short of means to present relevant complicated ideas. This drawback may be overcome with
help of Anton Chekhovs short story Grisha (Chekhov, 1979). This uniquely profound illustration of a
two-year-eight-month-old boys cognitive functioning can help to study the topic much more effectively. The
story contains vivid and detailed descriptions of how a child, having just first seen the world after a long cold
winter, perceives the new objects and people outside of his nursery room. We are given a window into how he
copes with unusual experiences, how he thinks, speaks, forms concepts, and develops a categorical structure
of knowledge essential for his further understanding of reality.
The author of this paper has used Chekhovs story for teaching in a traditional classroom successfully for
many years. With a transition to distance education, it became necessary to also incorporate this piece of
literature into the online courses curriculum. The main task of the project became to provide the online
students with a computerized version of this instructional tool that would be at least as efficient as its
traditional prototype.
With this purpose, we conducted a two stage study. In the first stage, we attempted to identify all the
psychological phenomena embodied in Chekovs story Grisha. In the second stage, we compared the
effectiveness of traditional and computerized instructional methodologies in students analysis of Grishas
perception.
Chekovs Grisha as an Illustration of the Child Psychology Theories
At the first stage of the study, 282 graduate students participated while they were taking Dr. Anna
Tooms Child Psychology course during the period 20022009. The students analyzed the main characters
psychological functions and behavioral patterns using scientific definitions and practical criteria of child
development.
For convenience, we divided the text into 20 small episodes; each contained one event (sometimes, two
meaningfully similar events). Subjects received detailed instructions describing a strategy for the episodes
analysis and criteria for the identification and interpretation of the childs actions: a list of basic emotions,
behavioral reactions, and forms of categorization.
The results of this part of the study consisted in the following.
Perception
Eighty-nine percent of the subjects found at least seven out of 13 episodes that illustrated the characters
299
perception. Perception was easy to identify, because it is based on sensations: Grisha looks, Grisha hears,
and Grisha feels hot. Also, it was easy to identify because of its strong connection with the childs motor
activity: his need to approach, touch, and take everything new on his way. Thus, the story confirms the
theories of Kurt Levin (1935) and Leo Vygotsky (1998).
Categorization
Ninety-five percent of the subjects recognized at least eight out of 11 episodes which showed how Grisha
actively categorized the world. He explored and classified everything that he experienced: objects, animals,
space, people, and their behaviors as well as his own. Nobody and nothing passed unnoticed by him. Thus, the
characters cognitive activity is well consistent with J ean Piagets theory (Flavell, 1963).
Memory
Ninety-four percent of the subjects found at least five out of seven episodes that showed the characters
capability to remember familiar people, things, and events even when they were not before his eyes anymore.
Moreover, in these illustrations of the characters memory his object permanence in a progress was easy to
guess. No doubt, the story reflects one of the most sophisticated cognitive phenomena discovered by J ean
Piaget (Flavell, 1963).
Learning
Ninety-nine percent of the subjects found at least five out of eight episodes that demonstrated Grishas
tendency to imitate everything he sees. Ninety-two percent of the subjects found the story episode that showed
how punishment influenced the boys further behavior and social knowledge formation. Therefore, the story
supports theories of learning by Skinner (1938) and Albert Bandura (1977).
Speech
Ninety percent of the subjects, when comparing the characters speech with the standards of speech
development for 2.53-year-olds, found its inconsistence with the boys age. Indeed, Grisha prefers
non-verbal communication, his vocabulary is poor, and he never asks questions (who? what? why? and
where?). Unlike most kids of his age, he has difficulty in producing even short four-word sentences. Then, 85%
of subjects, after analyzing how the caregivers behaved with Grisha, concluded that the main cause of the
boys speech delay was, obviously, the neglect of his need for emotional communication. We can say that the
story supports Renee Spitzs (1945) discovery.
According to these results, Chekhovs story Grisha truly embodies some fundamental features of early
childhood development elaborated by well-known psychologists. Therefore, the appropriateness of the story
as an educational tool for psychology courses was proven.
Comparative Analysis of Instructional Methodologies
At the second stage of this study, the purpose was to compare a computerized instructional tool for
analyzing the story with traditional classroom instructions. To accomplish this goal, we attempted to create an
adequate methodology that included reasonable and scientifically sound strategies to deal with an artistic text
on the basis of both psychological and formal-logical knowledge.
Computerized Instructional Methodology
An interactive computer program guided the user through 20 cycles corresponding to 20 episodes of the
300
story is shown in Figure 1. The algorithm of the program was built in accordance with the psychological
theory of stage by stage formation of mental acts (Galperin, 1969). In every cycle, the user performed a
sequence of acts for finding the correct answers for the two main questions: (1) Is the characters perception
described in this episode? and (2) If yes, does this description match the theory? The central part of the cycle
included a set of auxiliary sub-questions enabling a detailed and in-depth analysis of the episode. These
sub-questions decomposed the users mental act into several more elementary operations. Having performed
them and generalized their answers, one could find the correct answers for the main questions more
successfully. Even if the users answers were incorrect, she/he had an opportunity to find out the correct ones
and receive accompanying explanations from the program. This interactive computer program was written
with the use of ASP.NET (Microsoft Active Server Pages) technology for Web development to produce
dynamic Web pages and MSSQL (Microsoft Structured Query Language Server) data base for storing
information.

Figure 1. Flowchart of the interactive cycle providing the analysis of each episode of the story.
Research Methodology
At the second stage of the study, 60 subjects participated. They were graduate students who were taking
the authors course Child Development and Learning in the Cultural Context. They had a short lecture on the
topic of child perception, then were familiarized with Chekhovs story Grisha, and finally, were invited to
analyze the storys episodes in their chronological orders. Each subjects task was to determine which
particular episodes contained descriptions of the boys perception and whether these descriptions were
consistent with the preliminary studied theory according to which perception in very young children is
accompanied by strong emotions and followed by an immediate motor activity.
For the study, 30 participants analyzed the story in a classroom while 30 others did it in online classes
using the computerized version of this psychological task. All the participants were given the same
instructions and suggested one and the same intellectual strategy for performing the task. Students in the
Exit
Incorrect
answer

Entry

Correct
answers
Not accepted
Accepted
Correct
answer
Giving instructions
for analyzing
the episode N
Generating
number N of the
episode
N =1 20
1.
Displaying
the Nth episode
of the story

2.
Asking two
main questions
pertaining the episode N
Offering to provide explanations
for the correct answers to the main
questions
1.
Asking the auxiliary
sub-questions pertaining
the episode N
2.
Explaining
the correct answers for
the main questions

Incorrect
answers
301
traditional setting wrote their answers in paper forms identical to those forms which the online participants
had to fill on their computer screens. Having analyzed an episode and answered the questions about the
characters perception, the onsite students were provided with the correct answer and brief explanations by the
instructor, while the online students received computerized feedback. The content of the explications was
identical in both groups; and the only difference was in the means of communicationoral in the onsite case
and displayed on the screen in the online case.
Hypothesis
We considered two indicators of success in performing the task: the quantity of correct answers and the
dynamics of learning. We expected that subjects of both groups would answer roughly 50% of the questions;
this expectation seemed to be the most unbiased. We also expected that subjects, when analyzing 20 episodes
in the course of the study, formed some intellectual skill for solving a certain type of problem, or may be, even a
class of analogous problems. Thus, stability in forming this skill might serve as an indicator of successful learning.
Statistical Analysis of the Data
For both groups, we measured the frequency of successful recognition of the main characters perception
and stability in forming the skill helping to solve this problem. Since all the students of both groups found
more than 50% of the correct answers for every episode, calculation of the average of correct answers (A) for
each group was considered sufficient to confirm our first hypothesis. To check the second hypothesis, we
calculated the RMSD (root mean square deviation) for each the onsite and online groups. An original formula
(Davis & Smith, 2005) was adjusted to our studys specific purpose. We operated with differences between
numbers of correct answers given by subjects for the next and the current episodes. The root mean square
deviation for the onsite group was calculated by the following formula:
RHS
A
=
_
(A
n+1
- A
n
)
2 19
n=1
19

RMSD
B
for the online group was calculated analogously; only the variables B were used instead of A.
The data received are shown in Table 1.

Table 1
Descriptions of Episodes and Results of Students Analysis of Episodes Listed by Group Type
Episodes of the story Onsite group Online group
Number Brief content A
n
b
(A
n+1-
A
n
)
c
B
n
b
(B
n+1
-B
n
)
c

1 Grisha
a
walks on the boulevard with his nanny 24 27
2 A rectangular world of Grishas nursery room is described 23 -1 26 -1
3
Mama, nanny, and cat are described as regular visitors of the
nursery room
27 4 28```` -2
4 The dining and living rooms in Grishas house are described 29 2 29 1
5 Papa is mentioned as a very mysterious person 27 -2 28 -1
6 Auntie, another puzzling person, is mentioned 27 0 29 1
7
In a new world, outside of his nursery room, Grisha meets new
people
24 -3 27 -2
8 Grisha sees horses that are absurd for him 27 3 28 1
9 Grisha hears a terrible tramping sounda crowd of soldiers 28 1 29 1
302
(Table 1 continued)
10
Grisha hurries after big cats running by and gets a punishment
from nanny
28 0 28 -1
11
Grisha takes an orange from the woman-seller without nannys
permission and is punished again
26 -2 29 0
12 Grisha finds a piece of glass and is afraid of taking it 28 2 29 0
13
He meets the man with bright buttons that makes him happy
and laughing
29 1 30 1
14 Grisha is taken by his nanny and the man to the cooks room 27 -2 29 -1
15 Grisha suffers from a hot stove 28 1 30 1
16 Grisha observes adults having a meal 26 -2 28 -2
17 He asks and gets a piece of pie and some drink from adults 29 3 30 2
18 Grisha shares his impressions of the day with mama at home 28 -1 29 -1
19 Grisha has an excitement preventing him from sleep 27 -1 29 0
20
After all, he turns out to be sick, and is treated with castor oil
by mama
28 1 29 0
2.0 1.2
RMSD
A

d
RMSD
B

d

Notes. a. Grisha is a Russian masculine name, analogous to English Greg, a short for Gregory; b. A
n
and B
n
are numbers of
correct answers given for every episode by the onsite and online students respectively; c. (A
n+1
A
n
)

and(B
n+1
B
n
) are the
differences between numbers of correct answers in the current and the previous episodes in the onsite and online groups
respectively; and d. RMSD
A
and RMSD
B
are the root mean square deviations for the onsite and online groups, respectively.
Results and Their Interpretation
All the subjects studied expressed a belief that in all the episodes, analyzed by them, the main characters
perception was consistent with two fundamental theories of perception. First, perception is built on sensations;
and Second, in the case of the child, perception is accompanied with strong emotions and is followed by
immediate behavioral acts. In the onsite group, the average A
A
=27, and in the online group, A
B
=28.6 out of
30, the maximal number of correct answers. Thus, Grishas perception, as described in Chekhovs story was
recognized as such with a high frequency by both onsite and online subjects.
The graphic results of the students analysis of the episodes are presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2. The graphic results of the students analysis of the episodes.

The vertical axis shows frequency of correct answers from 23 to 30, the minimal and the maximal
numbers of the correct answers in this study (23 was given by the onsite group for the second episode). It is
evident that the solid black curve keeps above the dotted one. This shows that the online students gave more
correct answers at every episode than onsite students. We observe also that the solid curve is smoother than
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

o
f

t
h
e

c
o
r
r
e
c
t

a
n
s
w
e
r
s
Episode number
Onlinestudentsgroup
Onsitestudentsgroup
303
the dotted one. This is especially noticeable at the episodes No. 2, 7, 11, 16, and 19. Evidently, these episodes
were more difficult to interpret than the others. At these episodes, both curves sharply go down, but downs
of the solid curve are smoother than those of the dotted one. Such kind of smoothness indicates that the online
students learning was more stable and the intellectual skills obtained by them were more reliable than those
of the onsite students.
The RMSD applied to the differences in each of the two groups of subjects confirms these suggestions. It
is evident that the smaller is the RMSD the more stable and reliable is the intellectual skill obtained in result
of the study. The calculation gave the RMSD
A
=2.0 for the onsite group, and the RMSD
B
=1.2 for the online
group. Thus, the online students invariably learned more successfully than onsite ones.
Interpretation of the results is based on the authors many years of work experience as a university
professor of psychology and a researcher.
The result obtained may be interpreted based on a comparison of the conditions for intellectual work in
the onsite and online classes. First, unlike the traditional classroom, where communication is oral, in virtual
classes, students deal with visual information, and it is easier to solve complicated psychological problems
when all the problems, instructions, and feedback messages are visually represented; Second, in the traditional
classroom, the students answers, even correct ones, are often intuitive guesses. In contrast, online
communication requires more deliberate responses, and the computerized instructions more than traditional
ones stimulate students to goal-oriented and focused thinking; Third, a complicated analysis of every storys
episode is not accentuated in the traditional classroom, but in the virtual classroom, on the contrary, it has to
become more explicit and rationalized due to formal representation of information; and Finally, our
computerized instructional tool represents the strategies of intellectual activity needed to reliably obtain
correct answers. In the course of the study, the online students learned not only correct answers, but also
efficient rules of analysis and how to use these rules in the correct order. Due to the formal procedures, which
were performed 20 times, and due to the informative feedback, which was received on each step, the online
students mastered the intellectual strategy leading to success. In a traditional classroom, such a detailed
training of every students logical thinking is practically impossible. This explains a greater number of
mistakes made by those who analyzed the story in a classroom.
Conclusions
Anton Chekhovs story Grisha embodies such fundamental features of toddlerhood and early childhood
as: (1) unity of emotion, cognition, and behavior that determine perceptual abilities of the child; (2) intensive
categorization of the world; (3) appearance of long-term memory and intensive development of object
permanence on the basis of it; and (4) dependence of successful speech development on the childs satisfied
need for emotional communication and existence of positive models to imitate. All these important
phenomena of development at the early age were recognized with a high frequency by participants of the
study. Therefore, the story is a very valuable educational tool for teaching and studying child cognitive
development.
Computerized instructional methodology makes the analysis of the story characters psychological
functions and behavior more scientific. However, this kind of analysisrigorous, logical, and following
certain explicit rulesdoes not impoverish the comprehension of artistic literature, as has often been affirmed.
On the contrary, the study of psychological features of the little boy, the main character of Chekhovs story,
304
becomes only more productive if formal rules of analysis are applied. This is still truer since the subject of our
study is a two-year-eight-months old toddler, whose inner world is still too spontaneous and fluent for
systematic observations and definite conclusions.
Computerized instructional methodology is more laborious, but it has a potential to become more
effective than its traditional prototype. If the interactive computer program serving as an instructional tool is
well organized, it stimulates students motivation for independent intellectual activity. Moreover, it provides a
possibility for enhancing their learning and development of their goal-oriented and formal thinking.
The integrative instructional methodology, while it combines such exciting things as psychology, artistic
literature, and new informational technologies, provides learners with a unique experience. Along with
teaching students psychological theories, ideas, and concepts, we also teach them to understand and appreciate
a piece of art that illustrates the psychology of a child with a great realism and talent. A piece of artistic
literature animates the learning process, brings a positive emotional flavor into it, and enhances the students
comprehension of complicated psychological ideas. Using an exceptionally talented piece of literature for
studying psychology fosters peoples aesthetical taste and greatly promotes their emotional well-being within
both traditional and virtual psychology classes.
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May 2013, Vol. 3, No. 5, 305-313

Development and Evaluation of Educational Materials for
Embedded Systems to Increase the Learning Motivation
*

Makoto Koshino
Ishikawa National College of
Technology, Ishikawa, J apan
Yuki Kojima
Kanazawa University, Ishikawa,
J apan
Noboru Kanedera
Ishikawa National College of
Technology, Ishikawa, J apan

Educational materials of embedded systems are currently used in many educational institutions. However, they
have difficulties in arousing the interest of students. One of the reasons is that a poor CPU (central processing unit),
which has been loaded in the current materials, cannot execute the multimedia processing. In order to make the
exercises in embedded systems more practical, we developed an educational board, which we call E+. E+ is
equipped with a RISC (reduced instruction set computer) microcontroller 32bit SH2 (SuperH), which is
manufactured by Renesas Electronics Corporation. As I/O (input/output) interface, in addition to buttons and LEDs
(light emitting diodes), it is loaded with sensors, such as light sensors and temperature sensors, a full-color LCD
(liquid crystal display) display with a touch screen, voice input/output modules, Ethernet communication and an SD
(secure digital) card on board. We introduced E+ to the 3rd grade students (about 40 students) in the computer
architecture class of department of electronics and information engineering at Ishikawa National College of
Technology. This paper shows that the students are interested in the materials and that they learn the contents in an
efficient manner. We conducted an evaluation after the one-year class of computer architecture. The question which
asks Are you satisfied with the learning in this educational material? scored a high value of 3.80/5.00. The
question asking Was this exercise helpful to improve your general technical capabilities of making things? also
scored a high value of 3.54/5.00.
Keywords: practical embedded system, teaching material, increasing the learning motivation, multimedia
processing, project-based learning, creative education
Introduction
Industrial-scale of embedded software is very large, and software development cost in embedded product
development is in excess of six trillion yen according to Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry survey in
fiscal 2011.
In recent years, mobile devices and information appliances are spread by high-performance and
diversification, and embedded systems have come to be utilized in various fields. Multimedia processing system
using graphics, such as video and images, audio and network techniques have become necessary; development of

*
Acknowledgements: This work is partly supported by the Ministry of Education, under the Program for Promoting
High-Quality University Education.
Makoto Koshino, Ph.D., Department of Electronics and Information Engineering, Ishikawa National College of Technology.
Yuki Kojima, Graduate School of Natural Science, Kanazawa University.
Noboru Kanedera, Ph.D., Department of Electronics and Information Engineering, Ishikawa National College of Technology.
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embedded devices has become more complex.
However, PIC (peripheral interface controller) microcontroller, which is used in many engineering
educational institutions, has not been used much in the real society; it also cannot perform multimedia
processing. We have not had an educational material where students can easily exercise multimedia processing.
In a poor I/O (input/output) interface that consists only of a button or an LED (light emitting diode), it is
difficult at present to stimulate the students interest and motivation for learning.
We developed a new educational material for embedded systems E+, which enables the students to learn
practical contents and stimulates their motivation for learning. We also evaluated its effectiveness of using the
educational materials in our class. The class using the E+ was offered whole year in the third grade. After
learning computer architecture in the first half of the year, the students exercise basic programming by using
the E+. After that, the students create an original application.
We performed in collaboration with Tokyo Drawing Co. Ltd., which is a company of embedded systems
developer, while utilizing our achievements of embedded technology education. This developed on the
industry-academia collaboration, incorporating the needs and perspectives of both the educational institution
and the corporate side. This paper summarizes the effect of educational results using the E+.
Current Issues of Educational Materials
Currently, educational materials of embedded systems, which have been used in many educational
institutions and training for new employees, have the following problems.
Materials Do Not Stimulate the Learners Interests
ARCS (attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction) model of motivational design was proposed by
Keller (1987; 2010). It is important that educational contents are interesting, and thus, they attract the learners
Attention and make the learner feel that there is a Relevance to himself or herself. Currently, almost all of
standard learning materials are made by poor I/O interface, which consists of buttons and LEDs. It is difficult to
arouse the interest of learners and the motivation for learning in these materials.
They Do Not Support Multimedia Processing
Current embedded devices have been featuring low power consumption and high performance processors.
Multimedia processing has been used widely, to produce sounds, images, and videos. In particular, the number
of shipments of LCD (liquid crystal display) has continued to increase steadily in recent years. LCD has been
used in variety of embedded devices. However, many learning materials are not equipped with an LCD. Even if
equipped, most of them are a character LCD. The colour LCD which displays images would require the vast
wiring connection. It is also difficult to extend. Similarly, a voice processing requires the creation of the
peripheral circuits. It is difficult to use them in the limited time of the class. In order to perform processing of
image and voice, high CPU performance is also required. The eight bit PIC microcontroller is suitable for
educational purposes since its structure is simple. However, it does not have sufficient processing performance
for multimedia processing.
The Development Environments in the Previous Materials Are Not Very Common in the Real Society
J apan has an excellent semiconductor product, which has been using in embedded devices in many
markets. However, it is difficult to utilize the learned knowledge of PIC, because it is not very common in
practical business. The standard development environment HEW (High-performance Embedded Workshop)

307
of the real society is not used in the class.
We interviewed educational side (professors of INCT (Ishikawa National College of Technology)) and
corporate side (two companies of the embedded systems). Table 1 summarizes their opinions. Both the
educational and corporate side want the learner to learn the fun of developing. The educational side has an
opinion that materials should be handled easily by teachers when a new training system is introduced. The
corporate side wants learners to learn practical contents, using modules which are actually used.

Table1
Desirable Educational Materials From the Perspectives of Academic Side and Corporate Side
Educational side
wants the students to be attracted by the materials.
wants to use them with minimal time, even if they introduce a new exercise system.
wants to increase the time of the essential exercises by reducing preparation of wiring and parts.
wants the students to learn important contents simply yet deeply.
Corporate side
wants the students to experience a fun of developing embedded systems.
wants the students to learn practical contents by using a module widely used in the companies.
wants the students to acquire the tenacity of problem solving.
wants the students to experience all the procedures from the specification to design and
development.
Development of the Educational Material E+
In order to solve these issues described above, we developed educational material, which we call E+.
This name comes from the Education +Easy +Embedded. Figure 1 shows a picture of the E+.
First, let us describe the function and module that is installed to E+. The E+ is equipped with a SH2
(SuperH) (7084) 80 MHz, which is manufactured by Renesas Electronics 32 bit RISC (reduced instruction set
computer) microcontroller used widely in the embedded industry. Modules have a basic I/O interface, such as
buttons and LEDs. They perform multimedia processing by a colour LCD with a touch panel, an MP3 decoder,
and a microphone input circuit IC (integrated circuit). Thus, it can increase the interest of the learner for the
material. We make it easy to use the sensor with infrared, light, temperature, and distance sensor, in class
exercises. We made it possible to write and read files on an SD card, to install a Real-Time-OS, and to
communicate on Ethernet. Table 2 shows a list of features and modules that are mounted on.

Figure 1. Learning board E+.

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Table 2
List of Items and Contents of E+
Items Contents
CPU SH2 (SH7084) 80 MHz
Flash memory 256 Kbyte
Internal memory 8 Kbyte
External memory 32 Mbyte (SDRAM (secure digital random access memory))
Interface
MMC (multi-media card) (SD card)
Ethernet adapter
RS-232C adapter
Display 2.2 inch color LCD with a touch panel
Sensor
Infrared sensor
Distance sensor
Temperature sensor
Light sensor
Potentiometer
I/O
GPIO (general purpose I/O)
ADC (analog digital converter)
Eight switches/Eight LEDs
Sound I/O
Microphone input circuit
MP3 decoder IC
Other
8 bit DAC (digital analog converter)
Piezoelectric buzzer
Breadboard area
Monitor for debug
Multimedia Processing
The E+ is equipped with a 2.2 inch color LCD (built-in RAM (random access memory)) with a touch
panel. E+ is equipped with a MP3 decoder IC (integrated circuit) and an amplifier circuit; it can input audio
by microphone, also play music files. It has become possible to connect to the network by using the RTOS
(Real Time Operating System). Figure 2 shows a sample run of the software that controls the colour LCD. This
program reads the BMP (BitMaP) image data from the SD card, and displays them to select the image on the
touch panel. Students can develop a wide variety of applications, including a program that plays a song and
displays a graph of the sensor data.

Figure 2. Example of image display.

309
CPU and Development Tools
The E+ is equipped with a Renesas SH2 microcomputer, which is very widely distributed in consumer
electronics and automotive microcontrollers. The development environment is HEW, which is manufactured by
Renesas Electronics. HEW can be used free of charge. HEW is a standard development tool and used in many
companies.
System on One Board
There is an issue that storing and debugging is time-consuming when developing embedded software. ICE
(in-circuit emulator) tool is very expensive. It is very difficult to introduce it in educational institutions. In order
to make it easy to debug serial communications, software debug monitor is pre-installed into the SH2
microcomputer. In the previous educational materials, students have sometimes destroyed the CPU by wiring
the sensors and LCD wrongly. Some students had used more time to wire than to learn the contents. E+ is
equipped with the basic sensor modules pre-installed in a single board; students can learn smoothly.
Documents and Sample Programs
For beginners to learn embedded systems and software efficiently, it is essential to have the instructional
documents. We prepared a manual and developed sample programs to accommodate various levels of students
and a variety of educational settings:
(1) Start-up manual (23 pages):
(a) Overview of E+;
(b) How to setup a development environment;
(c) How to compile and run the program.
(2) Basic manual (34 pages):
(a) Introduction to embedded systems;
(b) Introduction of microcomputer control;
(c) Description of the module with E+;
(d) Commentary of the basic sample project.
(3) Application manual (14 pages):
(a) Commentary of the sample project application;
(b) Application notes (13 pages);
(c) Hints in the development;
(d) Technical construction materials.
Start-up manual shows preparation of development environment and basic flow of execution of the
sample project. Basic manual describes functions of the individual modules and the sample project.
Application manual explains the combination of multiple functions used in the basic manual.
We were able to respond flexibly to the needs of students and teachers by offering the rich documents
from basic contents to applications.
Sample projects are divided into two categories of basic sample projects and application sample
projects. Basic sample projects include how to get the value of the underlying sensor and LED flashing.
Application sample projects contain how to control the touch screen combination and to play the MP3 file. The
contents are shown as follows:

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(1) Basic sample project (seven projects):
(a) flashing LED;
(b) switch input;
(c) AD-conversion;
(d) Buzzer-control;
(e) DA-conversion;
(f) Output serial character;
(g) External interrupts processing.
(2) Application sample project (nine projects):
(a) AD conversion value display on PC;
(b) getting the coordinates of the touch panel;
(c) infrared remote control;
(d) text saving in the SD card;
(e) BMP image display on the LCD;
(f) Bar graph display of the sensor values on the LCD;
(g) MP3 file playing;
(h) servo motor control;
(i) the I/O extension in the serial-to-parallel converter IC.
These manuals and sample programs are open to access on the Web-site http://koshinolab.jp/eplus.html.
Evaluation
Evaluation Before Teaching
E+ has been used in the third grade class computer architecture of about 40 students since 2011. In
order to investigate whether the purpose of this study has been achieved, we conducted a questionnaire survey
in two parts before and after teaching a class E+.
We made the first survey in the first class, using the E+ before evaluation. We made a presentation to
introduce previous educational materials Easy PIC by MikroElektronika, and then provided an overview of
the newly developed E+. Students were then asked 16 questions about their interest in each of the E+ and
Easy PIC. Questionnaire score is set up from 1 to 5 for each question: 1 is the worst, and 5 is the best.

Table 3
Comparison and Evaluation in the E+ and Easy PIC on Attention and Relevance
A and R Question items Easy PIC E+
A: Attention Are the application examples intriguing to you? 4.24 4.34
A1: Perceptual arousal Do you think that this board is more useful than expected? 3.84 4.24
A2: Inquiry arousal Are you interested in this board? 3.89 4.21
A3: Variability Do you think that you can do various things by this board? 3.87 4.24
R: Relevance Do you think that this board offers technology relevant to you? 3.92 4.13
R1: Familiarity Do you think that this board is readily accessible to you? 3.92 4.13
R2: Goal-orientation Do you think that what you learned in this board is useful in the future? 4.26 4.26
R3: Motive matching Do you want to acquire skills from this board? 4.03 4.26
Average 4.00 4.23


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The questionnaire items were set up by the ARCS model, which is proposed by J ohn Keller, and is a
theory to explain the motivation. In order to enhance the educational effect by stimulating the motivation, it is
necessary to pay attention to the following four elements of ARCS: attention, relevance, confidence, and
satisfaction. We have created the first questionnaire focusing on attention and relevance, because
educational materials should have these pointes. Confidence and satisfaction are evaluated after completing
all the classes, because it needs a series of educational processes. Table 3 shows questions on the A
(attention) and R (relevance). They evaluate each of the proposed material E+ and the previous material
Easy PIC.
Both materials scored the same value in the question of R2 (goal-orientation) Do you think that what you
learned in this board is useful in the future? For all the other questions, E+ obtained more points than Easy
PIC.
The average value of Easy PIC is 4.00, while that of E+ is 4.23.
Evaluation on Class
In this class, students are required to create an original system using several modules for three to five
weeks. After studying input and output items, such as switches, LEDs, AD converts, and an interrupt
processing, students work on the exercise using the E+ of their own. When students want to use other
modules other than those installed in the E+, they can order the necessary modules through Websites of
electronic components. Students tend to start to create a program from the beginning without thinking.
Therefore, after we give a lecture about program developments, we have students create a manual and
specifications first. Then, students develop their own system, considering the whole system in their minds.
The goal of this exercise is to have the students acquire practical skills of embedded development. The
instructors do not give advice until the students study well by themselves and check manuals thoroughly.
At the end of this exercise, students give a presentation of a few minutes. They provide a demo of the
developed system and tell the points they devised. Some of the students works are shown below:
(1) Breakout game;
(2) MP3 player remote control;
(3) Spectrum analyzer of music players;
(4) Electronic organ piezoelectric buzzer;
(5) Drawing software using the touch panel;
(6) Photo viewer with touch panel operation;
(7) LED colour changing illumination at a distance.
Utilizing rich sensors installed in the E+ and the peripheral devices, students have developed a wide
range of applications in a short period of time. It is not easy to make it by using the previous material, and
students were able to learn practical contents of development in an efficient manner by using E+.
Evaluation After Teaching
The second questionnaire survey was conducted after all the classes. The questionnaire items are about
confidence and satisfaction of ARCS. Question C3 is added to ask whether the student was able to achieve
the class goal.
Table 4 shows the questionnaire items and evaluation results. Because we have not done a survey in the
previous year, we cannot compare the proposed material with the previous material Easy PIC in these aspects.

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Table 4
Evaluation Results in the E+ on Confidence and Satisfaction
C and S Question items Average
C: Confidence Are you now confident with the developing embedded systems? 2.30
C1: Learning requirement Was the goal of this course clear? 2.79
C2: Success opportunities Were you able to work on the development and your study step by step? 2.47
C3: Personal control Were you able to devise your project of your own? 2.93
S: Satisfaction Are you satisfied with the learning in this educational material? 3.80
S1: Natural consequences Was this exercise helpful to improve your general technical capabilities of making things? 3.54
S2: Positive consequences Are you and others satisfied with your work? 2.59
S3: Equity Were the instructors evaluations fair? 3.05

The average score of the question Are you satisfied with what you learned by using this board? of S
(satisfaction) is high 3.80. This shows that students are satisfied to have received this education by using E+.
However, the average scores of items concerning C (confidence) are less than 3.0. We guess from the
written comments that students might have lost their confidence. The contents of E+ are advanced and
students could not understand all of them. However, we also received many comments saying that It was very
difficult, but I found how that equipment can be familiar. The new material has given a positive effect for their
future learning.
Table 5 shows the students answers of a question Do you think you are now more familiar with
controlling method of the electronic devices by what you learned with the E+? The average score of the
answers is 3.9/5.0.

Table 5
Question Do You Think You Are Now More Familiar With Controlling Method of the Electronic Devices by
What You Learned With the E+?
Answer Percentage (%)
5: Absolutely 20
4: Mostly 46
3: Moderately 28
2: Somewhat 3
1: Not at all 3

One of the objectives to introduce E+ has been to have the students study multimedia processing. Table 6
shows the level of understanding of programming and controlling method for 12 students who used the LCD
and MP3 decoder for their own work. We could not explain how to control the LCD and MP3 decoder in the
class. However, a total 58% of the students understand them mostly or moderately, even though they are
difficult contents. Two students (17%), on the other hand, answered that they could not understand them at all.
In order to have more students understand multimedia processing, we need to prepare the documents and
explain how to use them in the class.
One of the features of E+ is that we prepared documents and samples. Table 7 shows the answers of the
questions in Please tell us which documents are useful. The score of Start-up manual is 35%. The one of
the basic manual is 79%. The application manual score is 51%. More than half of the students used the basic
and application sample projects. The average value of the question Is it easy to understand the manuals? is
3.56. This result shows that the manuals and sample programs of E+ can be good enough to support learners.

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Table 6
Understanding Level of the Color LCD and MP3 Decoder
Understanding level Number of students Percentage (%)
5: Perfect 0 0
4: Mostly 3 25
3: Moderate 4 33
2: Somewhat 3 25
1: Not at all 2 17

Table 7
Useful Documents and Sample Projects
Contents Number of students Percentage (%)
Start-up manual 14 35
Basic manual 31 79
Application manual 20 51
Basic sample project 28 71
Application sample project 24 61
Note. Multiple answers were allowed.
Conclusions
In this study, we developed practical educational materials for embedded systems to motivate learners. We
also developed documentations and sample programs for the learners to study the subject in an efficient manner.
We have introduced those materials into our school classes, and demonstrated that they enhanced the interest of
learners motivation compared to traditional materials by questionnaire surveys using the ARCS model. We
solved several problems of traditional learning materials and improved the students understanding of the
multimedia processing.
In the future, we would like to continue the improvement of E+ and to add further documents with
Companys cooperation, based on the survey results and student comments.
References
Keller, J . M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional design. Journal of Instructional Development,
10(3), 2-10.
Keller, J . M. (2010). Motivational design for learning and performance: The ARCS model approach. Springer.
Yamada, Y., Kanedera, N., Komura, R., & Okano, S. (2011). Improvement of learning process through project-based learning and
repetitive learning. ISATE 2011 International Symposium on Advances in Technology Education, Singapore.
May 2013, Vol. 3, No. 5, 314-319

High School Technical EducationHigh
Prerequisite for Getting a J ob
Anna Papokov
University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic

The paper is theoretically based on the concept of postindustrial (information) society (Bell, 1973) where the
importance of education is emphasized and caused by changes in the structure of employment rate, growing
intellectual labor exigence as well as higher unemployment rate of individuals of the lowest educational category.
Therefore, higher secondary and tertiary education are becoming frequently the basic prerequisite for entering in
new technological spheres and labor market in the information society where both service and production are more
and more complicated. The attained education leveltheoretical knowledge, professional specialization and
understanding of inter-disciplinary relationships, thus, playing the key role in furnishing the individuals with
knowledge and skills necessary for a successful integration in social and economic life.
Keywords: post-industrial society, primary, secondary, tertiary education, theoretical observations, special
knowledge, position, branch bound employment, unemployment
Introduction
The high school technical education means a long-term theoretic preparation for the profession especially
by systematic theory and special knowledge of the branch. The performance of a profession or a job within the
studied branch depends on the opportunities of applying the attained knowledge and on the proportion of
socially useful activities given by the division of labor and applicable in the job market which are performed by
specially prepared professionalsengineering education graduates. This view is applied upon the aspects of the
tertiary technical education and its application in the job market.
The empirical data show how the technical education attained by the VB-TUO (High Moutenous
School-Technical University in Ostrava) graduates helped them in entering the job market, i.e., in getting the
adequate position, in getting the possibility of performing a job in the graduated branch and of applying the
attained theoretical and special knowledge and other methods.
High schools strive for preparation of high qualified experts who will be able to assert in the labor market,
and their potential acquired through learning and retroactively will favorably appreciate their education in their
practical job positions. The study at a technical university encompasses both a broad theoretical basis and
special knowledge of the branch as well as other pieces of knowledge from social sciences, including learning
of foreign languages. The following aspects of education with respect to their importance for the practice were
offered for evaluation to the graduates from VB-TUO who had graduated since 1995. They expressed their
satisfaction with their educational training in a range from 1 (Very bad) to 5 (Very good).

Anna Papokov, Faculty of Social Studies, University of Ostrava.
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Theoretical and Special Knowledge of the Graduates
The theoretical knowledge together with special knowledge of the branch unambiguously belong among
the best appreciated areas of school preparation.
Theoretical Knowledge
After merging of all answers of satisfied graduates, we find out that prevailing majority of graduates (94%)
after 2000 were generally satisfied with their theoretical training at the school. Above-average satisfied with
their theoretical knowledge, there were graduates who were employed in the branch which they studied
(average 4). Dropping portion of those employed in the branch corresponded also with the lowering level of
satisfaction (3.7) in a related branch, out of branch (3.4). The theoretical preparation was above-average
assessed by graduates from all faculties, however, most strikingly by the graduates of FEI (Faculty of Electrical
Engineering and Informatics) (3.9) and EkF (Faculty of Economics) (3.9).
The quality of the preparation for practical employmentspecial knowledge of the branchshows as well
the best average for the whole university. The school training in special knowledge was best appreciated by
those who were employed in the branch (average 3.5). The satisfaction of the graduates with that unexploited
potential of school education was decreasing with shrinking possibilities of making use of this knowledge. Men
were more satisfied (3.4) than women (3.2). The most satisfied with the branch education were the graduates
from the FEI (Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics) (3.5), FMMI (Faculty of Metallurgy and
Material Engineering) (3.4), and Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (FS) (3.3), their assessments were better
than the average of the university as a whole (3.25).
It is interesting that those graduates who immediately after graduation entered leading positions
retrospectively assessed their theoretical (average 3.9) as well as special knowledge (average 3.4) attained
during their school preparation. These findings confirm the correctness of revaluation of concepts and curricula
of the lines of study and the proportionality of the contents of education. Approximately, four fifths of
graduates from the VB-TUO Ostrava were markedly satisfied with their special knowledge attained.
Differences between the levels of satisfaction with theoretical and special knowledge are shown in Figures 1
and 2.

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
branch out of branch relative
job in the graduated branch
theory
special
management

Figure 1. Evaluation of education acc. to branch bound job.

316
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
FEI EkF FMMI FS FAST HGF
evaluation of education acc.to faculties
theory
special

Figure 2. Evaluation of education acc. to faculties.
The observed results thus confirm correspond with results achieved at other technical universities in the
Czech Republic (Data Institute for Education Information, 2010).
The Influence of Education Upon Graduates Job Opportunities
The presentation will also show the fact how is the attained level of education important for working in
highly qualified positions and for employment opportunities. This fact is confirmed both by the demands of the
employers and by the data on low unemployment rate of tertiary education graduates. It has resulted from an
analysis of requirements of large size and small size companies that the most accented reason for accepting a
high school graduate are his/her personality prerequisites: his/her willingness to adapt to the company culture,
willingness and ability of rapid learning and flexibility. Another significant group is presented by special and
general competences: newer theoretical knowledge, knowledge of new technologies, and language skills
(Balcar, 2008).
Also, the data collected by us on the potential of graduates as their prerequisite for getting a job in the
labor market correspond with the requirements of the employers. Nearly, one half of the graduates start
working in the branch studied, others in a related branch and only approximately 15% find job out of branch
they graduated in. To the branches, the graduates traditionally find jobs belong subsequently: engineering,
building industry, public and state administration, transport and telecommunication, trade, services for
companies, and power engineering. Since 2000, a great influx of graduates has been witnessed in secondary
industry, IT (information technologies), and real estate industry (Papokov, 2008).
The context of the level of education attained and its effect upon the unemployment rate is shown in Table 1.
The distinctive decrease in all education categories that had persisted until 2008 was relieved by an increase
caused by the economic crisis and the following economic recession. However, it still holds that the higher the
level of education the lower the unemployment rate.
The unemployment rate of graduates from high schools in Czech Republic has had a long term share in the
total unemployment rate of 3% as average since 1997 (3.1% in 2001, 2.9% in 2003). These data also confirm
the situation in EU (European Union) where the unemployment rate of highly qualified persons in Czech

317
Republic with 2.7% share on total unemployment rate in 2001 nearly copied the EU average of 2.1% (Eurostat,
2002). The unemployment rate of master degree graduates respected the general trend of growing
unemployment rate, however, with relatively low figures. It was 3.6 in April 2008 (before the start of the
economic crisis) and 4.3 % one year later. In 2009, the rate of unemployment of freshly graduated masters was
4.3%, in April 2010 amounted to 6.4% and in April 2011 climbed up to 7.1% (Studie, 2011).

Table 1
Rate of Unemployment of Graduates in the Czech Republic Within 2008-2011
Standardized rate of unemployment 2008 2009 2010 2011
Lower secondary education with apprentice certificateE 12.75% 25.28% 32.14% 31.34%
Secondary education with apprentice certificateH 6.21% 11.98% 17.75% 17.11%
Secondary professional education with GCE (General
Certificate of Education), advance educationL/0, L/5
7.79% 11.81% 19.35% 18.17%
Secondary professional education with GCEM 5.67% 7.85% 10.62% 11.45%
Higher professional educationN 5.52% 6.79% 8.91% 9.39%
High school master education T 3.60% 4.29% 6.42% 7.11%

The data on the unemployment rate of VB-TUO graduates show their long termed low unemployment
rate. Due to the adverse economic development, the unemployment rate of the VB-TUO graduates has
increased since 2009, however, has not reached the average for the Czech Republic (see Table 2).

Table 2
Development of Unemployment Rate of the VB-TUO Graduates in 2009-2011
Standardized rate of unemployment 2009 2010 2011
Bc. (bachelor degree) 5.5% 8.8% 6.9%
Mgr. (master degree) 3.3% 5.8% 5.6%
Ph.D. (doctoral degree) 0.0% 3.6% 1.3%

The data show unambiguously that the unemployment rate significantly decreases with the higher degree
of education, however, it depends on the line of study and on the region. This finding is of general validity.
This is confirmed also by the data on the unemployment rate of young people of the 15-24 age group (without
relation to the education attained), which reached 16.6 % in the Czech Republic in 2009 and already 18.3 % in
2010 (OESD average 16.7 %, EU average 20.3 %).
Interesting is also the look at the educational structure of the employed which increased as compared with
2000. There are more people among the employed with completed high school or higher professional education.
Their total number in the population increased from 11% in 2000 to 14.5% in 2008. Despite this, the portion of
persons with tertiary education is in the Czech Republic still below the EU 27 average (24%). The educational
structure of young employed people in the Czech Republic is with regard to EU as follows:
(1) Persons with primary education in EU 14.4%, in Czech Republic 4.2%;
(2) Persons with secondary education in EU 48.9%, in Czech Republic 69.1%;
(3) Persons with tertiary education in EU 36.4%, in Czech Republic 26.5%.
The center of gravity of the educational structure in the Czech Republic are secondary school graduates,
there are still reserves in the tertiary education (like AT (Austria), RO (Romania) a.o.), and contrary to all EU
countries, there is the lowest portion of persons with primary education only (6%) in the Czech Republic. The
distribution according to education is in other EU countries more balanced and that in both directionsboth in

318
favor of the greater portion of the high school educated UK (United Kingdom), DK (Denmark) (a.o.) and in
favor of the group of the employed who attained primary education as maximum (DK).
It applies both for the Czech Republic and Slovakia the chance of getting employment increases
proportionally to the level of education. Here, there is significantly less job opportunities for young people
without education as compared to other EU member states. Young people in Czech Republic and Slovakia are
used to devote long years to school preparation, they enter the labor market in higher age and then they
complement or extend their qualifications. The Czech labor market is relatively technologically more
sophisticated and the employers demand qualified labor force, prefer completed secondary education or
bachelor degree education (Vojtch & Chamurov, 2011). The developments of the share of persons on the
tertiary education in selected EU countries are presented in Table 3 (Kouck & Lepi, 2008).

Table 3
Portions of the Employed Acc. to Tertiary Education in Selected EU Countries
Standardized rate of the employed with tertiary education 1995 2000 2005 2010
AT (Austria)
8.54% 15.84% 19.92% 20.92%
BE (Belgia)
31.72% 34.24% 37.54% 40.46%
BG (Bulgaria)
24.70% 23.42% 24.68% 25.76%
CR (Czech Republic)
14.20% 15.52% 17.80% 20.62%
DE (Germany)
24.42% 25.09% 25.79% 26.77%
DK (Denmark)
27.51% 27.21% 32.62% 33.12%
EE (Estonia)
40.00% 32.84% 35.60% 40.54%
FI (Finland)
24.79% 31.83% 36.18% 39.55%
FR (France)
23.03% 27.86% 30.86% 34.95%
HU (Hungary)
17.59% 18.99% 22.96% 27.64%
NL (Netherlands)
23.52% 23.90% 29.51% 32.91%
PL (Poland)
21.72% 22.69% 24.85% 30.16%
RO (Romania)
14.98% 13.89% 17.14% 18.90%
SE (Sweden)
30.10% 29.01% 29.23% 32.96%
SL (Slovenia)
18.21% 20.79% 26.34% 30.97%
SK (Slovakia)
16.45% 17.63% 21.55% 24.65%
UK (United Kingdom)
23.02% 27.81% 30.86% 34.54%
Conclusions
The VB-TUO graduates enter the job market equipped with wide range of both theoretical and special
professional knowledge which help them to attain the desired flexibility. If we relate the employer requirements
to the profile of graduates, we can see the conformity of their preparations with the needs of the employers and
higher chances of the graduates to enter the job market.
Higher education provides apart from the cultural capital also the economical profit in times when the
qualification demands of professions and a chance of being successful have those who are prepared, i.e.,
those equipped with certain knowledge, abilities, and skills. In the framework of development trends, less
qualified job positions die away which limits the employability of persons with low education. As jobs and
investments asking for lower level of working skills are moved to countries outside both EU and OECD and as
the global competition shifts to new territories, the highly qualified labor force is becoming the only way to
preservation of the standard of living in long term horizon (astnov, 2011). Thus, education and application

319
of skills present the main power that can be competitively explored by the knowledge and the post-industrial
societies.
References
Balcar, J . (2008). Analza vsledk z dotaznkovho eten uplatnitelnosti absolvent kol z let 2004-2007 v podnicch a
organizacch MSK. Rojekt equalKompetence pro trh prce, financovanm ESF a rozpotem R. Ostrava: RPIC-ViP
s.r.o.
Bell, D. (1973). The coming of postindustrial society. New York: Anchor Books.
Data Institute for Education Information (2010). Praha: IV.
Kouck, J ., & Lepi, M. (2008). Podly zamstnanch podle stupn vzdln ve sttech EU. Vvoj kvalifikanch poadavk na
pracovnm trhu v R a zahrani. Praha: NOV.
Papokov, A. (2008). Profesn drhy absolvent VB-TUO. Praha: Univerzita Karlova, Filosofick fakulta.
astnov, P. (2011). Economic context of educational attainment in the Czech Republic and abroad. Praha: IV.
Studie. (2011). Nezamstnanost absolvent. Nezamstnanost absolvent kol se stedokolskm a vym odbornm vzdlnm.
Praha: ISA.
Vojtch, J ., & Chamurov, D. (2011). Vvoj vzdlanostn a odborn struktury k a student ve stednm a vym odbornm
kolstv v R a postaven mladch lid na trhu prce ve srovnn se stavem v EU-2010-2011. Praha: NOV.
May 2013, Vol. 3, No. 5, 320-324
The Case for Blended Instruction: Is It a Proven

Better Way to Teach?
Michael V. Pregot
Long Island University, Brooklyn, New York

This study of empirical research investigates four specific questions on blended instruction: Is there compatibility
of blended instruction with accepted learning constructs? Should there be any consideration of program audience
that are better suited for this teaching method? and Is there evidence on the effectiveness of the pedagogy of
blended learning itself and finally how are planned learning outcomes affected by this instructional method? In
reviewing the empirical studies of others, it was found that the use of blended instruction is in fact very compatible
with most of our commonly accepted practices of learning theory. In examining the factor of the audience in terms
of successful learning results, there are noticeable differences that materialize, such as a generational demograph,
the component of a students intuitive learning quotient, and the pre-existing attitudes of the student on blended
instruction. As far as the overall effectiveness of the pedagogy goes, it was found that this teaching method will
lead to higher-level and higher-order thinking skills, a deeper appreciation of an academic community and an
increase in self-regulated skills, such as time management. Finally, there is some evidence that suggests that in
blended instruction, the use of concrete-sequential learning modules, the integration of greater visual imagery, and
access to customized time allotment, there will be a positive impact on overall student outcomes. In summation, we
can infer that when an instructor takes the effort and integrates well-constructed blended teaching principles aligned
with individual students needs, the final course outcomes will be just as or even more effective for most students
compared to a direct face-to-face class environment.
Keywords: blended learning, online learning, blended instructional practices and online student audiences
Purpose and Direction of the Study
Through a review of existing research on the topic, this study examines the relative merits of using
blended learning as a viable approach to instruction. In order to arrive at a summative recommendation, four
formative research questions are asked initially: (1) Is the basic design used in the blended learning process
compatible with accepted principles of the learning process? (2) Does the success in blended learning methods
vary based on the type of the potential audience member? (3) Does the use of blended learning impact the
quality of collective learning outcomes? and (4) Does the delivery of instruction in a blended modality enrich
pedagogical practice?
This study investigates four specific elements of blended instruction: compatibility with accepted learning
constructs, a consideration of the student audience best suited for this teaching method, an analysis of the
effectiveness of the pedagogy itself, and how planned learning outcomes are directly influenced by the process.

Michael V. Pregot, Ph.D., Coordinator of Educational Leadership, Long Island University.
DAVID PUBLISHING
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THE CASE FOR BLENDED INSTRUCTION: IS IT A PROVEN BETTER WAY TO TEACH?
321
After reviewing the data on these four determinative research questions, a clearer image on the intrinsic
value of using a blended instructional technique will be discerned. Seminal perspectives will follow from the
results observed in the research.
The Rationale for Blended Instruction Based on Learning Principles
The first empirical question studied is to determine if there is a foundation for using blended learning that
can be related to how we acquire knowledge. The constructivist pedagogy proposes that learning occurs when
the student has greater control of the mental activity at hand and can shape his/her conceptualization with
concrete hands-on lessons. It would be appropriate to investigate if blended offerings veer closer to applying
knowledge than merely forming abstract impressions.
The study of how we learn is an essential ingredient of all pedagogical approaches. If we can connect what
we currently know about learning with the way we instruct, our chances for success are greatly enhanced. In
reviewing brain research data, the integration of applied technology with cognitive science indicates learning
will not only improve, it will retain learning for increasing longer intervals (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking,
2000). A heavy degree of consistent visual stimulation links well with the way in which our memory system
functions.
Creating a sense of academic community is a standard accepted as the way that educators acquire
knowledge on instructional practice. In a study of 200 graduate education students, it was determined that the
benefits of combined face-to-face instruction with online learning, affect increased learning outcomes, lower
attrition rates, and above all produce a sense of academic community among the majority of students and staff
(Dziuban, Hartman, & Moskal, 2004). Similarly, a comprehensive analysis of building community inquiry, data
suggest that an instructional model, such as blended that encompasses teaching presence, social presence, and
cognitive presence is a superior way to deliver instruction (Garrison & Anderson, 2003).
An important consideration of how we learn is natural inquisitiveness. We most often want to learn more
dramatically and rapidly about the things that gain our immediate attention and inspire our curiosity. In a pilot
study of undergraduate students at Rochester Institute of Technology, a significant number of participants
believed that the type of instruction used in blended learning offers course content which was designed to
stimulate enthusiasm and instill interest (Humbert & Vignare, 2005). A learning taxonomy is a progressive
perspective on the depth and intensity of how much we learn. In a cross-disciplinary study of collegiate
programs, it was concluded that the profundity of insight found in participants responses was consistently
higher in a blended setting in comparison to a traditional class, allowing for more creative and interactive
classwork (King, 2002).
Understanding and working with individual learning styles requiring customized instruction are an
advocated principle of learning espoused by Danielson (2009). Differentiation of instruction and developing a
scaffolding plan to meet students needs is now common practice. In a study of a core biology class, the
students offered their opinion that a wider range of students learning styles were touched corresponding with
multiple sources of blended strategies, such as visual, cognitive, social, and reflective practices (King &
Hildreth, 2001). Another study that compared two sets of students in both a traditional and a blended setting,
concluded that marketing students felt the blended course helped them develop their skills in critical thinking,
team building, and social interaction to a much higher degree (Priluck, 2004).
One of the basic tenets in adult learning declares that the learning increases when immediate application to
322
practice becomes evident (Knowles, 2008). In a longitudinal study conducted at SUNY (State University of
New York), the effectiveness of blended instruction was seen as being in direct and proportionate correlation to
being a better practitioner, as well as increasing general satisfaction of knowing how different students learn
(Shea, Pickett, & Pelz, 2003). The blended students felt, overall teacher presence was boosted in the blended
learning environment where they viewed the content as being taught in a concrete and pragmatic manner.
Studying the Audience of the Blended Learner
The second research question is to probe whether or not blended instruction is equally suited for all
students. Are there specific populations for which blended learning in not appropriate or recommended? As
frequently done in education, we wonder if one size fits all.
Given the rapid growth of various technological platforms over the past three decades, it would seem
intuitive that generational markers would correlate well with the reception of blended learning practices.
Looking through the lens of the generational markers, we might assume that interest and appreciation of
blended learning techniques would be higher with the younger generations and less popular with an older
generation set. However, if we study the generational markers suggested by Dziuban, Moskal, and Hartman, we
can identify descending generations as Matures, Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Millennials as being better
suited to blended practices (Dziuban, Hartman, & Moskal, 2006). A counter-intuitive result was found whereby
Millennials responded the least positively to blended instructional practices, while the Matures and the Baby
Boomers were more significantly attracted to its use.
Another way to differentiate the audience is to divide groups by cognitive difference styles. The researcher
found students who were typically disposed to intuitive cognitive styles demonstrated a much smaller sense of
classroom community and were wary of blended educational practice (Graff, 2003). This suggests that students
disposed to intuitive thinking operate in more of an individual context without the impetus of group consensus
or input.
In examining another psychological characteristic, it is interesting to see if there is a relationship between
self-regulation and the ability to perform well in a blended setting. It seems reasonable to assume that
individuals with a higher quotient of skills in self-regulation would perform at higher levels in this format.
Although self-regulation as a unique characteristic was not a highly correlated feature by itself, it was revealed
that higher levels of verbal ability and the concept of self-efficacy were very significant in predicting a students
success in a blended classroom (Lynch & Dembo, 2005). Those students who were confident in their abilities
to work with blended techniques were often the most successful in the class.
Attitudes and preconceptions of ease of use play a major role in a persons penchant for seeking blended
learning as a medium. Students attitude towards the favorability of the instructional method correlated highly
to select and use of blended instruction, while it plays very little part in determining how the individual would
fare in the course (Pan, Sivo, & Brophy, 2003).
Impact of Blended Learning on the Quality of Learning Outcomes
The next issue that we scrutinize is the connection between the use of blended learning and its ability to
produce superior results in relationship to other instructional methods. If we are not convinced that this specific
method has substantive advantages, why would we not want to employ it?
Research suggests that both threaded and face-to-face discussions will lead to successful outcomes.
Certain students have a preference for the direct face-to-face communication style, while others are more
323
comfortable with the anonymity that an online dialogue can provide. Through the application of a coded
analysis of cognitive processing categories, evidence was found that higher-order thinking occurs in greater
frequency with online discussion applications (Meyer, 2003).
In comparing final students achievement levels using three distinct modalities of instruction, the
instructional technique that incorporated components of both direct instruction with online assignments, proved
to be significantly higher in obtaining results than merely using a Web-based environment or just using the
lecture only instructional model (OToole & Absalom, 2003). Students using the blended modality expressed
greater confidence with grasping the content and were more satisfied with the use of visual imagery which
online-instruction can offer.
Looking at students satisfaction and perception of the depth of learning attained, the blended modality has
proven to be significantly better than the lecture method. Those students taking an environmental science
biology course assigned to the blended format indicated a higher level of student-instructor interaction and a
richer sense of learning satisfaction was reached in the hybrid course than those students participating in a
traditional lecture class (Riffell & Sibley, 2003). Students also felt that time-management skills were
heightened with this instructional approach.
Understanding How Preparing in a Blended Modality Affects Learning
If blended instructional efforts are fruitful in realizing effective student learning, what are the specific
elements within this method that tends to make it effective? Our inquiry into the overall effectiveness of
blended learning takes us to the path of cause and effect.
In the design of instructional blended materials, the instructor makes conscious decisions on the extent of
group dynamics, the structure of assigned discussions, and the overall autonomy given to students. When group
dynamics are intensified with significant anticipated group interaction, it meets the psychological need of the
concrete-sequential learner (Lynch & Dembo, 2005), which leads to increases in learning (Cox, Carr, & Hall,
2006). When student engagement with projects is less structured and is more random in nature, blended
learning tends to be on an equal basis to traditional teaching in terms of achievement level of learning.
The augmentation of visual images embedded into the materials assures higher levels of learning will
occur for those participants with a related visual learning style (Reasons, Valadares, & Slavkin, 2005). The ease
of working on asynchronous projects on a schedule that is internally geared to a learners cognitive level of
available focus of time, leads to documentable increased levels of achievement (Rheingold, 2002).
Summary Review of the Data
Based on available research into the efficacy of a blended learning approach to instruction, we can deduce
several conclusions. Firstly, many of the known paradigms that we now accept on how we learn are compatible
with blended instructional practices; and Secondly, blended learning is not equally successful for all students.
There are small but identifiable student population groups that are less suited than others in using this teaching
method.
In general, student outcomes are never lowered and usually raised with a well-planned blended teaching
modality as compared to traditional teaching. Some of the concrete applications used in blended learning, such
as a threaded discussion, use of enhanced imagery, and the influence of group dynamics, all contribute to an
enhanced student outcome.
324
In summation, we can infer that when an instructor takes the effort and integrates well-constructed blended
teaching principles aligned with individual students needs, the final course outcomes will be just as or even
more effective for most students compared to a direct face-to-face class environment.
References
Bransford, J . D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience and school. National Research
Council, Washington, D. C.: National Academy Press.
Cox, G., Carr, T., & Hall, M. (2006). Evaluating the use of synchronous communication in two blended courses. Journal of
Computer Assisted Learning, 20, 183-193.
Danielson, C. (2009). Improving professional practice: Matching student learning styles to how we teach (2nd ed.). Alexandria
Va: ASCD Press.
Dziuban, C., Hartman, J ., & Moskal, P. (2004, March 30). Blended learning: ECAR research bulletin. Retrieved from
http://educause.edu/ecar/
Dziuban, C., Hartman, J ., & Moskal, P. (2006). Higher education, blended learning and the generations: Knowledge is power: No
more 3. In J. Bourne, & J . C. Moore (Eds.), Elements of quality online education: Engaging communities. Needham: Ma.
Sloan Center for Online Education.
Garrison, D. R., & Anderson, T. (2003). E-learning in the 21st Century: A framework for research and practice. Falmer, UK,
London: Routledge Press.
Graff, M. (2003, October). Individual differences in sense of classroom community in a blended learning format. Journal of
Educational Media, 28(2-3), 203-210.
Humbert, J ., & Vignare, K. (2005). RIT introduces blended learningsuccessfully! In J . C. Moore (ed.), Elements of quality online
education: Engaging communities, wisdom from the Sloan consortium (Vol. 2 in the Wisdom Series). Needham, M. A.:
Sloan-C.
King, K. (2002). Identifying success in online teacher education and professional development. Internet and Higher Education, 5,
231-246.
King, P., & Hildreth, D. (2001). Internet courses: Are they worth the effort? Journal of College Science Teaching, 31, 112-115.
Knowles, M. (2008). Lifelong learning: A dream (4th ed.). New York City, N. Y.: Teachers College Press.
Lynch, R., & Dembo, B. (2005, August). The relationship between self-efficacy and online learning in a blended learning context.
International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(2), 87-105.
Meyer, K. (2003). Face-to-face versus threaded discussions: The role of time and higher-order thinking. Journal of Asynchronous
Networks, 7(3), 55-65
OToole, J ., & Absalom, D. (2003, October). The impact of blended learning on student-outcomes: Is there room on the horse for
two? Journal of Educational Media and Library Sciences, 41(2), 181-194.
Pan, C., Sivo, S., & Brophy, J . (2003, December). Students attitude in a Web-enhanced hybrid course: A structural equation
modeling inquiry. Journal of Educational Media and Library Sciences, 41(2), 181-194.
Priluck, R. (2004). Web-assisted courses for business education: An examination of two sections of principles of marketing.
Journal of Marketing Education, 26(2), 161-173.
Reasons, S. G., Valadares, K., & Slavkin, M. (2005). Questioning the hybrid model: Student outcomes in different course formats.
Journal of Asynchronous Networks, 9, 83-94.
Rheingold, H. (2002). Smart mobs: The next social revolution. Cambridge, M. A.: Perseus Education Publications.
Riffle, S., & Sibley, D., (2003). Student perceptions of a hybrid learning format: Can online experiences replace traditional
lectures? Journal of College Science Teaching, 32, 394-399.
Shea, P., Pickett, A., & Pelz, W. (2003). A follow-up of investigation of teacher presence in the SUNY learning network.
Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 7(2), 61-80.
May 2013, Vol. 3, No. 5, 325-331

The Effects of Chloride on Durability of Concrete
Mixed With Sea Sand
*

Do-Gyeum Kim
KICT (Korea Institute of
Construction Technology),
Goyang-Si, Gyeonggi-Do,
Republic of Korea
Myung-Sug Cho
KHNP Central Research Institute,
Yuseong-gu, Daejeon,
Republic of Korea

J ong-Suk Lee
KICT (Korea Institute of
Construction Technology),
Goyang-Si, Gyeonggi-Do,
Republic of Korea

In the supplemental manufacture of long long-term concrete specimen, durability specimens, size of 20 cm 20 cm
30 cm were manufactured with two types of water-cement ratio. Measurement periods are 1/5/10/15/20/25/30
years, for the specimens containing 0, 0.01%, 0.04%, 0.1%, 0.2%, and 0.5% chlorides contents. In the studies
conducted during the first 15 years, concrete specimens were made to investigate the effect of sea sands salt
contents on concrete. To check the compressive strength and the steel reinforcements state between 1984 and 2014
(Age: 30 years), six types of mixed concrete were manufactured. In the supplemental manufacture of long term
concrete specimen, durability specimens, size of 20 cm 20 cm 30 cm were manufactured with two types of
water-cement ratio. Measurement periods are 1/5/10/15/20/25/30 years, for the specimens containing 0%, 0.01%,
0.04%, 0.1%, 0.2%, and 0.5% chlorides contents.
Keywords: concrete, material, durability, chloride, carbonation
Introduction

The durability of concrete structures located in marine environments has been questioned. However, there
are not enough data on that. Furthermore, due to insufficient amounts of aggregates, fine aggregates are
substituted for aqueous-cleaned sea sands (Huiguang, Yan, Henglin, & Quan, 2011). However, if the sea sands
are used without special quality control, the concrete structure mixed with sea sands is possible to be
deteriorated with corrosion of reinforcing rebar. Therefore, this study aims to examine the corrosion of
reinforcing steels in concrete mixed with sea sand based on the long-term outdoor exposure test.
Experiments
Specimens
To observe the effects of concretes salt content on its property, such as corrosion of its steel
reinforcement, over long periods of time in the air, a cubic mold (size: 20 cm 20 cm 30 cm) was made

*
Acknowledgement: This work was supported by the Nuclear Research and Development of the KETEP (Korea Institute of
Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning) grant funded by the Korea Government Ministry of Knowledge Economy (No.
2011T100200161).
Do-Gyeum Kim, Ph.D., research fellow, Structural Engineering Research Division, KICT (Korea Institute of Construction
Technology).
Myung-Sug Cho, M.Sc., Plant Construction & Engineering Laboratory, KHNP Central Research Institute, Korea Hydro and
Nuclear Power Co., LTD.
J ong-Suk Lee, Ph.D., senior researcher, Structural Engineering Research Division, KICT (Korea Institute of Construction
Technology).
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326
using plywood sheets with a 10 mm thickness. The mold was made so that the steel reinforcements covering
thicknesses are 2 cm, 3 cm, and 5 cm respectively. Then, three cylindrical reinforcing bars, each with a
diameter of 19 mm, were inserted to the mold spaces in accordance with their concrete covering thicknesses.
After this, the specimens were made by tamping each of them with a tamping rod 20 times, and were naturally
cured in an outdoor curing space after 24 h 2 h. The forms of the test pieces were removed for by using the
cylindrical (10 cm, h 20 cm) steel mold for 24 h 2 h. Then, they were naturally cured in an outdoor curing
space. The test pieces were made from ordinary Portland cement and two types of rust inhibitors which passed
the quality test by the J apan Testing Center for Construction Material. Each reinforcing bar was made of a
reinforcing bar produced in Korea and with a diameter of 19 mm and a length of 33 cm. Their rust was
removed with an iron brush. The chloride content levels were set as percentages of the salt contents to the total
dry weight of the sand, with the chloride content levels into six types. Three types of reinforcing bar covers
were used. The conditions in producing the test pieces were shown in Table 1.

Table 1
Experimental Factors by Categories
Water-cement ratio (%) Chloride content Type of rust inhibitor Covering thickness (cm) Age (years)
56

62
0, 0.01, 0.04, 0.1,
0.2, 0.5
Plain 2, 3, 5 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30
Rust inhibitor 1 2, 3, 5 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30
Rust inhibitor 2 2, 3, 5 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30
Properties of the Materials
Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5 show the mixing ratios of the concrete used in this experiment, the physical and chemical
properties of the cement, and physical properties of the steel reinforcement, aggregates, and rust inhibitors.

Table 2
Mixing Ratios of Concrete
G
max
size
(mm)
Unit cement weight
(kg/m
3
)
Course aggregates
(kg/m
3
)
Fine aggregates
(kg/m
3
)
Water-cement ratio
(W/C, %)
Sand ratio
S/a (%)
Slump
(cm)
25 300 1,090 810 56 43 7
25 300 1,063 789 62 43 17

Table 3
Physical Properties of Cement (Ordinary Portland Cement)
Specific
gravity
Fineness
(cm
2
/g)
Setting time (minutes)
Stability (%)
Compressive strength (kg/cm
2
)
Initial setting Final setting After 3 days After 7 days After 28 days
3.14 3,240 220 370 0.15 194 261 325

Table 4
Chemical Components of Cement (Unit: %)
Ignition loss SO
3
MgO SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
CaO 3CaOAl
2
O
3
3CaOSiO
2
+3Al
2
O
3

0.9 2.1 1.9 21.5 4.85 4.0 63.3 6 56

Table 5
Properties of Steel Reinforcement
Nominal diameter Tensile strength (kg/mm
2
) Yield point (kg/mm
2
) Elongation (%) Bending Remarks
19 mm 51 38 26 Satisfactory Deformed bars

327
Curing Conditions of Specimens
A total of 1,296 test pieces were made for this experiment. Six hundred forty eight of these test pieces
were made to measure their compressive strengths and the other 648 were made to measure their steel
reinforcement bars corrosion progresses. All the test pieces were stored outdoors to maintain similar
conditions to actual concrete structures. For easy recognition of the test pieces, the following signs were written
on each piece:
P or R or N07 or 170.00-0.5;
P: Test pieces with no rust inhibitor added (plain);
R: Test pieces with the Rusnein added;
N: Test pieces with the NR-1900 added;
07 or 17: Slump values, offered in 7 cm (water-cement ratio: 56%) or 17 cm (W/C 62%);
0.00%, 0.01%, 0.04%, 0.10%, 0.20%, or 0.50%: Percentage weights of salt contents to the dry aggregate weights.
Results
Among the test pieces produced to study the effects of sea sands salt contents on the concrete, the
compressive strengths, carbonation depths and the steel reinforcements corrosion ratios were measured on
pieces when their material ages reached 1, 5, 10, and 15 years.
Compressive Strengths
The test pieces compressive strengths were measured, and are listed in Figure 1. Here, the compressive
strength ratio of a test piece is the ratio of its compressive strength compared to that in its first year and
assuming that the compressive strength of the test piece is 100 in its first year.
Effects of material ages on the compressive strength. Figure 1 shows the concrete test pieces
compressive strength changes in accordance with their ages. Figure 2 shows the test pieces compressive
strength ratio changes in accordance with their ages, putting that the compressive strength of the test pieces are
100 in their first year. Here, the compressive strength is the average compressive strength of the concrete of the
same age, regardless of their salt contents. In general, it is known that the test pieces compressive strength
continuously increases in ideal conditions, provided that there is no deterioration factor. The measurement
result shows that the concretes compressive strengths are similar or slightly higher than concretes standard
compressive strength (i.e., strength in the first year) until their fifth year. However, the strengths tended to
decline afterwards, falling by as much as 10% of the standard strength in 15th year.
Meanwhile, the test pieces (size: 10 cm 20 cm) used in the compressive strength measurement may be
more sensitive to deteriorating factors than actual structures, resulting in accelerated deterioration. In other
words, these test pieces are in similar settings to the actual structures corners which are the most vulnerable
parts to deterioration. Hence, the decrease in the test pieces compressive strength from their 15th year in
Figures 1 and 2 would have resulted from such size effect. As a result, these factors should be sufficiently taken
into account when making test pieces to be used in long-term tests.
Compressive strength in accordance with chloride content. Figure 3 shows the compressive strength
ratio changes in accordance with their chloride content. The standard compressive strength ratio is 100, which
is the compressive strength ratio of test pieces in 15th year and with 0% chloride content.

328

Figure 1. Compressive strength changes in accordance with ages.

Figure 2. Compressive strength ratio changes in accordance with ages.

Figure 3. Compressive strength ratios with chloride contents (Material ages of the specimens: 15 years).

The Figure 3 shows that while there are slight differences in the experiment conditions, the compressive
strength of the test pieces is generally inversely proportional to the salt content. This trend also appeared among
test pieces in their first, fifth, and 10th years. In addition, the entire experiment result on test specimens with a
water-cement ratio of 56%, which showed a sharp increase in the compressive strength ratio at the chloride
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329
content of 0.04% and a sharp decrease at the chloride content of 0.1%, should not be taken into account in
evaluating the experiment result, as such increase and decrease, which may be resulting from measurement
errors.
The results of the above compressive strength tests show that if concrete is made from unwashed sea sand,
its compressive strength declined as the concrete ages. It was discovered that this trend became more
significant with chloride content. Hence, it is necessary to examine the effects of using sea sand on the
compressive strength of concrete, by obtaining data over a long period.
Effects of Chloride Content on the Carbonation Depth
The formula for concretes carbonation speed, X, is t A X (Matsushita, Aono, & Shibata, 2000).
This means that X is directly proportional to the square root of t (time) and A (carbonation speed coefficient).
The carbonation speed coefficient is a complicated function which is determined by the concretes conditions,
such as the outdoor airs CO
2
concentration, relative humidity, temperature and pressure, as well as the
concretes conditions, such as its moisture content, cement types, aggregate types, porosity, admixtures, and
unit cement weight. This experiment only examined effects of concretes chloride concentration on the
carbonation depth, under the same condition.
The experiment on the effects of chloride content on the carbonation depth was done by using the
carbonation measurement method in accordance with the phenolphthalein method.
Effects of the material age on the carbonation depth. Figures 4 and 5 represent the relationship between
the test pieces material ages and their carbonation depths, with the test pieces having chloride contents from 0
to 0.5%. Regardless of their water-cement ratios or chloride contents, virtually no carbonation took place
(carbonation depth =0 cm) in the test pieces during the first five years. Then, the carbonation depths started
increasing rapidly, reaching up to 12 cm in the 15th year. This trend shows that carbonation will continue after
the 15th year, requiring continuous, long-term evaluation in future. It is judged that such rapid carbonation has
is because the concrete used in making the test pieces had relatively high water-cement ratios of 56% and 62%,
and contained salt from its sea sand contents.

Figure 4. Carbonation depths with ages (Water-cement ratio: 56%).

Moreover, while there may be various reasons for the absence of carbonation until the fifth material year,
typical reasons may include high or low humidity and low temperature. It is known that carbonation generally
does not take place when the relative humidity is 0% or 100% (including underwater environments), or when
the temperature is below 0 C.

330

Figure 5. Carbonation depths with ages (Water-cement ratio: 62%).

Effects of chloride content on the carbonation depth. Figures 6 and 7 represent the carbonation depth
changes in test pieces with chloride contents of 0%, 0.01%, 0.04%, 0.1%, 0.2%, and 0.5%. The test pieces in
both material age groups (10 and 15 years) show that their carbonation depths increased as their chloride
contents increase. The graphs in Figures 6 and 7 show that the carbonation depth increased by about 4.5 cm
among test pieces with material ages of 10 years, and by about further 4 cm for the next five years. Figure 8
represents the average values of these depths.
As shown above, concretes chloride content caused by its sea sand contents accelerate its carbonation
(Nishikawa, Suzuki, Ito, Sato, &Takebe, 1992). Also, the higher the chloride content, the further carbonation
will occur.

Figure 6. Carbonation depths with chloride content (10 years).

Figure 7. Carbonation depths with chloride content (15 years).

331
Figure 8 represents the carbonation depths of the test pieces with material ages of 10 and 15 years and with
different chloride content. Assuming that a test piece with the chloride content of zero has a carbonation depth of
zero, Figure 8 expresses the relative values of the carbonation depths with increasing chloride contents, and
regression lines of these values. The regression analysis formulae for the test pieces with material ages of 10 and 15
years are 9.6x +0.3074 and 7.4x +0.179 respectively. This means that the carbonation depth increased by 1 cm
every time that the chloride content increased by 0.1 cm, in the chloride content range between 0% and 0.5%.

Figure 8. Carbonation depths with chloride contents.
Conclusions
The compressive strengths of the concrete test pieces containing sea sand continuously declined from five
to 15 years of age. Also, increases in the chloride content of this sea sand content added to this decline in their
compressive strengths.
Until their 15th year, concrete test pieces containing sea sand experienced virtually no carbonation.
However, rapid carbonation took place from the five to 15 years, and the carbonation depth showed a direct
correlation with the test pieces chloride content levels. Among the test pieces with chloride contents of 0% to
0.5% (fine aggregates oven dry weight), an increase in the chloride content resulted in a 1 cm increase in the
carbonation depth.
Looking at the reinforcing bars corrosion area ratios in accordance with their material ages, virtually, no
corrosion took place in test pieces with chloride contents of 0.04% or below, and the ratio increased in test
pieces with chloride contents of 0.2% or above.
Both the test that involved test pieces with a rust inhibitor applied and the test that involved the concretes
covering thickness as a factor showed no regular trend.
Errors are assumed to be experimental errors caused by external factors that occurred in the production
and experiment processes of the test pieces. These errors include cases when test pieces with a material age of
15 years showed a lower steel reinforcement corrosion ratio than those of pieces with a material age of 10 years,
when corrosion on test pieces with a rust inhibitor actually accelerated, and so on.
References
Huiguang, Y., Yan, L., Henglin, L., & Quan, G. (2011). Durability of sea-sand containing concrete: Effects of chloride ion
penetration. Mining Science and Technology, 21(1), 123-127.
Matsushita, F., Aono, Y., & Shibata, S. (2000). Carbonation degree of autoclaved aerated concrete. Cement and Concrete
Research, 30, 1741-1745.
Nishikawa, T., Suzuki, K., Ito, S., Sato, K., & Takebe, T. (1992). Decomposition of synthesized ettringite by carbonation. Cement
and Concrete Research, 22, 6-14.
May 2013, Vol. 3, No. 5, 332-338

Mathematical Modeling of Industrial Water Systems
Pavel M. Gotovtsev
National Research University,
Moscow, Russia
J ulia Y. Tikhomirova
RCS Company, Moscow, Russia

Ekaterina I. Khizova
BWT Company, Moscow, Russia

The discharge of waste waters from industrial plants is the one of the main sources of rivers contamination. Those
waters include both waste waters from industrial processing and rain water from site. Abnormal level and frequency
of rains lead to difficulties with exploitation of rain water treatment systems and discharges of water without
treatment. It is necessary to note that rain water from industrial site may be contaminated by different impurities.
This article gives a brief introduction into ways to control discharges of industrial waste water and provide some
analysis of level of contamination for thermal power plants sites as an example.
Keywords: engineering, environmental chemistry, water pollution control, industrial waste water, rain water,
mathematical modeling
Introduction
Today, industry is the one of the most significant sources of water contamination. The different
technological processes require water and contaminate it with impurities that never observed in water naturally.
But technological processes are not the only reason of water contamination. The rain and thaw water from
industry object site is also contained different matters like oil products, synthetic organics, and so on. To
minimize negative impact on environment, most of industry objects implement waste water treatment units and
sometimes even zero discharge systems with almost full water recycle. But even in those examples, there is
next challenge for existing and future industrychanges in climate lead to abnormal high or low level of rains
and snowfalls in several regions (Solomon et al., 2007). Abnormal heavy rain leads to situation than significant
part of rainwater is discharging in the rivers or lakes without any treatment. Winters with high levels of snow
lead to high amount of thaw water that in its turn leads to the same situation as in case of abnormal high rains.
The abnormal low level of rains may cause a very different impurities concentrations in rainwater in
comparison with usual. This challenge is more significant than bigger water system in plant or factory.
Waste Water at Thermal Power Plants
Overview of Waste Water Problems at Thermal Power Plants
Power generation is the one of the biggest water consumers. For example, in the Neville A. 2012 presented
the data based on the Electric Power Research Institute researches about water consumers in the USA. The
biggest consumer is the agricultural sector that using 82% of water consumption; next is domestic consumption

Pavel M. Gotovtsev, Ph.D., associate professor, Technology of Water and Fuel Department; Moscow Power Engineering
Institute, National Research University.
J ulia Y. Tikhomirova, Ph.D., chief specialist, Department of Digital Control Systems, RCS Company.
Ekaterina I. Khizova, M.Eng, specialist, Water Treatment Department, BWT Company.
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which is equal to 7%; power generation and industry take 3% each and last 7% using by livestock, mining, and
commercial. Almost the same situations are taken place in Russian Federation. This data and environmental
problems with power plants discharges lead to developing of water management and zero-discharge systems in
power plants. Let us take thermal power plant as an example for next consideration.
There are the next systems which are linked with the environmental problems:
(1) Water purification system that produces ultrapure water for the boilers feeding; these systems also
have two types of the waste water: water with high mineralization and water with sludge after coagulation;
(2) Cooling systems with wet cooling towers: In these systems, water is cooled in the towers and used
for steam turbines condensers cooling; the difficulties in this system are related with blowdown that has from
two-to-five times higher concentration of impurities in comparison with water source;
(3) Water with oil: There are a lot of oil contained systems in the power plants, and in some cases, these
oil mixtures with water;
(4) Rain water from power plant territory also can contain oil and some specific impurities related with
technological processes, for example, coal dust in the coal-fired power plants.
All this systems also require chemistry control and monitoring to minimize the possible discharges of
waste water in the nearest water source.
Waste Water Chemistry Control at Thermal Power Plants
The waste water chemistry control highly related with the technologies of utilization of waste water and
cooling system blowdown. Next example is based on environmental requirements and economical aspects
typical for Russian Federation, but several solutions can be used in other countries. The water chemistry
monitoring for the unit with heat recovery steam generator is shown in Figure 1.
There is a typical scheme of water cycle at power plants in Figure 1. As can be seen, there are two main
streams of waste water:
(1) Waste water after water treatment systems (pretreatment and demineralization), drainage treatment and
discharges after equipment chemical cleaning to the neutralizing tank;
(2) Rain and thaw water including water polluted with oil to the waste water treatment system.
Washing water after pretreatment goes to the sludging system and then returns to the cycle, while sludge
gets to the sludge dump. Drainage treatment system is intended for plants contaminated condensate treatment.
Neutralizing site represents a tank where listed waste waters are mixed and diluted with source water to
required concentrations.
A main part of the scheme is chemistry control system. It allows detecting water chemistry failure and
avoiding unacceptable discharge. Basic points of water chemistry control around steam cycle are listed in Table 1.
All the measuring equipment works in automation mode. Collected data can be storage in database server,
which can exchange information with digital control system of power plant.
The main goals of chemistry control system are as follows:
(1) To improve efficiency of the waste water utilization system;
(2) To prevent a waste water discharges for minimization of negative influence at nearest water source
(river, sea, etc.);
(3) To minimize corrosion and scale formation in the steam turbine condensers from side of cooling water.
The improving of the efficiency of the waste water utilization system is based on continuous control of the

334
water quality after and prediction of this quality. Such mathematical models are unique for each waste water
utilization technology, and in current times, are under development. Next in this paper will show two examples
of those models application.

Figure 1. The water chemistry monitoring system for the unit with heat recovery steam generator.

Table 1
Basic Points of Water Chemistry Control
Control point
Parameters
PH Conductivity Turbidity Oil in water
Cooling system makeup (after chemicals dosing) + +
Source water + +
After waste water treatment system + +
Waste water after neutralizing site + +
Cooling system blowdown + +
Waste water right before discharge + +
Mathematical Modeling Aspects of Waste Water Discharge Prevention
Waste water discharges are one of the environmental problems of modern power plants. The reasons of
those discharges are different. For example, it may be failure of the waste water treatment systems, oil leakage
during installation, oil leakages from equipment, enormous high level of the precipitation, etc.. Enormous high
level of the precipitation became a most frequent reason of discharges, because the waste water treatment
systems are developed on the base of precipitation level of previous years. In these cases for person need to

335
know: What concentration of the impurities will be in the water draining into the nearest surface water source.
For example, let us turn our attention in the case of enormous high level of the precipitation. This effect may be
observed not only in the connection with rains, but in the period of snow thawing in the years with high level of
snow. In the both periods, the flow rate of water to the waste water treatment unit is much higher than that of
this can be treated. If the power plant does not have additional vessels or pools for water collection, this excess
water is moved directly in the cooling system without any treatment. Under these conditions, it is necessary to
know what concentration of the impurities will be in the cooling system blowdown. There is the simple
equation for determining of this concentration:

n
i
i
F
i
k t C
v
k
tr
tr
D (t)
rw
ex
D (t)
r
r
D
v
k
dt
t
Bl
dC
Bl
D
Bl
1
(1)
where: D
Bl
, D
r
, D
ex
, and D
tr
flow rate of cooling system blowdown, feeding of cooling system, excess rain
water and water after treatment, kg/sec;
C
Bl
(t)concentration of the impurity in the cooling system blowdown, ppm;
C
r
(t)concentration of the impurity in the water supply source, ppm;
C
rw
(t)concentration of the impurity in the rain water, ppm;
C
tr
concentration of the impurity after treatment, ppm;
k
v
coefficient of evaporation in the cooling tower;
k
i
constant of i
th
reaction that leads to decrease of impurity concentration;
F
i
heterogeneous area of i
th
reaction;
To simplify the model, the C
r
(t) may be allowed as a constant if time equals several hours. Also,
measurement of the impurity concentration in the water after waste water treatment can be done after mixing
with excess rain water. In this case function, C
rw
(t) will be approximately close to the behavior of the impurity
concentration in this measurement point (in case of normal operation of the waste water treatment).
The model based on equation (1) may be used for analyzing behavior such impurities as oil, particles,
some surfactants, and others.
Calculation of Impurities Concentrations in Cooling Systems With Cooling Towers by Using Artificial
Neural Networks Models
The cooling system with cooling towers is well known from the side of water chemistry. One of the main
problems of this system depends on scale deposition of CaCO
3
and CaSO
4
as it presented by Petrova and Repin
(2009). The solubility of those salts under temperatures typically for cooling system is also well known. The
understanding of scaling processes gives an ability to control water chemistry for minimization of scaling
formation. Due to possibility of CaSO
4
formation, it is interesting to know SO
4
2-
concentration in the cooling
water. With information about correlation between solubility of CaSO
4
and temperature, it is possible to make
system that can predict scaling formation. It is necessary to note that concentrations of impurities in the
blowdown of cooling system are the same as in cooling water. But the main problem is to measure
automatically the concentration of the SO
4
2-
. Also, it is necessary to note that this measurement must have a
low price. The alternative of the measurement may be a calculation of this concentration based on measuring
parameters, such as PH, conductivity, etc.. As shown in Figure 2 in the standard cooling system, there are not
enough chemical parameters, which are measured automatically for the calculations based on conductivity
equation in the way like presented by Smetanin and Voronov (2006).

336
One of the ways to calculate this concentration is using ANN (artificial neural networks). For this
calculation was used word ANN, this decision was based on our previous experience (Voronov, Gotovtsev,
& Smetanin, 2008). The input parameters were conductivity and PH in the feed water and PH in the blowdown
(see Figure 1), temperature of hot water from condenser and cold water after cooling tower.
The ANN word is perceptron with one hidden layer (more information in Haykin, 1999). The feature of
such an ANN is a hidden layer divided by three parts. Each part has a unique transfer function. There are 12
neurons in each of the part of the ANN. To control ANN results, laboratory measurement was made. Results of
calculations and measurements are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Results of calculations (calc.) and measurements (meas.) of SO
4
2-
concentration in the cooling system.

The laboratory measurements were making each hour. This model shows acceptable results. Next, it is
need to test this calculation method in the different systems with different cooling systems and different water
chemistry.
Calculation of Oil Products Concentration in Waste Water Discharge of Thermal Power Plant
The assessment of oil concentration in rain waters can be used as a next example. At present, rain water
treatment at power plants is obligatory. However, partial treatment of rain waters is implemented because of its
huge amount. The percentage of treated waste water is chosen to provide the required quality of total
discharged water according to the standards and guidelines. Nevertheless, higher volume of rainfall compared
to calculated one is still possible. Thus, it is essential to know impurities concentration in waste waters even
during the pre-project. Here, we have two variable parameters:
(1) The amount of rain water;
(2) Oil concentration in rain water.
Let us start solving this problem regarding oil concentration. The probability of oil concentrations
occurrence before treatment is presented in Figure 3. This data is based on measurements from several power
plants at Moscow region.
According to Figure 3, the most probable concentrations can be determined along with the most positive
(0.05 mg/dm
3
) and the most negative one (1 mg/dm
3
). Under the mathematical model for every concentration
before waste water treatment facilities, it is possible to calculate the same value in discharged waters. Let us
consider two of the most probable concentrations: 0.2 mg/dm
3
and 0.25 mg/dm
3
.

337

Figure 3. The probability points of oil concentration before waste water treatment system.

Figure 4. Correlation between impurity concentrations in waste waters and excess rainfall volume (compared with the
predicted one).

Supposing that 90% of rain water is treated and 10% is discharged, then 100% is that maximum water
from rain according to the standards and guidelines for design project of rain water treatment systems. The
correlation between concentrations in waste waters and excess rainfall volume (compared with the guidelines)
is presented in Figure 4. This graph shows the results for two selected cases.
Figure 4 shows that when 15% rainfall water excess the concentration in waste waters is higher than
standardized in both cases. The same assessment is possible for different water facilities. The obtained results
allow eliminating the problems of present systems.
Conclusions
The abilities of modern computer-based chemistry control systems used applications with mathematical
models can expand capabilities of industry objects personal to prevent additional discharges of waste water.
Mathematical modeling of the processes at industrial site can help to minimize negative impact on the

338
environment. Modern mathematical methods implemented in the programs for modern personal or industrial
computers can improve waste water control, and today, it is necessary to improve research and development in
this field.
The first result of ANN applications show some perspectives of this method at chemistry control systems
for the prediction of water chemistry state or calculation in concentrations of impurities. But it is necessary to
say that in all presented in this paper cases, the accuracy of ANN-based models is lesser in cooperation with
models based on equation (1). From another side, the ANN may be used in cases where such mathematical
modelling is difficult for some different reasons, such as insufficient data about chemical process or insufficient
of chemistry analyzers.
Finally, it is necessary to say that all those models require the reliable chemistry control analyzers and
representative samples for those analyzers.
References
Haykin, S. (1999). Neural networks. A comprehensive foundation. New J ersey: Prentice Hall.
Neville, A. (2012). Promoting sustainable water usage in power generation. Power, Business and Technology for the Global
Generation Industry, 156(4), 52-57.
Petrova, T. I., & Repin, D. A. (2009). Factors that have influence on the exploitation of the cooling systems. Vestnik MPEI, 1,
106-111. (in Russian)
Smetanin, D. S., & Voronov, V. N. (2006). Application of technological algorithms and mathematical modeling in cycle
chemistry monitoring system. Proceedings of ESDA 2006 8th Biennial ASME Conference on Engineering System Design and
Analysis. J uly 4-7, Toronto, Italy.
Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K. B., Tignor, M., & Miller, H. L. (2007). Climate change
2007: Working group I: The physical science basis. Technical summary. Section TS.5.3: Regional-Scale Projections. IPCC
Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007.
Voronov, V. N., Gotovtsev, P. M., & Smetanin, D. S. (2008). Analyses of water chemistry by means of artificial neural network.
Thermal power engineering. Moscow: MPEI-No.7. (in Russian)
May 2013, Vol. 3, No. 5, 339-351
Using E-portfolios and ESL Learners

Maha Alawdat
Indiana University of Pennsylvania, USA

This study examines the use of e-portfolios for ESL (English as a second language) learners. The data were
collected by reviewing 11 empirical studies from 20102012 in order to synthesize meaningful information about
e-portfolios for ESL/EFL (English as a foreign language) acquisition. The studies were coded into two main
categories: learning gains, including language proficiency and assessment, and technical skills. The findings
showed that using e-portfolios motivated and enhanced students writing, language learning, assessment, and
technical skills. The findings also revealed that there was a questionable attitude among educators about the
differences between using paper-based portfolios and e-portfolios for writing development. Finally, the review
suggested e-portfolios for ecological issues and educational purposes.
Keywords: e-portfolios, writing development, oral performance, assessment
Introduction
Learning and teaching approaches, such as behaviorism and constructivism which are intertwined into
pedagogy, take into consideration cognitive and social development of learners. This development necessitates
the need for using tools and methods that exceed the traditional paper-pencil tests for assessment and learning
(J ones & Shelton, 2006). For this need, paper-based portfolios become the alternative method to enhance
learning in a social context. Vygotsky (1978; as cited in J ones & Shelton, 2006) explained that constructivism
has an effective role in the widely spread use of paper-based portfolios in education, believing that knowledge
exists within social relationship (p. 7). In other words, learning occurs in a close social context in a classroom
or institution, where learners view their learning and personal knowledge within understanding their
surroundings.
With the wide use of Internet, learners are exposed to the wider world. This exposure permits learners to
discover new information and combine a variety of media in order to reach in-depth and broader understanding
of their literacy and the world (Cole, Ryan, Kick, & Mathies, 2000). Therefore, the paper-based portfolio needs
an equivalent of alternative electronic tool to cope with the development of the digital age in nowadays
technological classrooms.
Educational e-portfolios are one of the alternative electronic tools that are used in teaching and learning.
The e-portfolios, by its nature, motivate students to learn and become actively independent learners (Chau &
Cheng, 2010; Gebric, Lewis, & Amin, 2011; Stefani, Mason, & Pegler, 2007). It also provides learners with
opportunities to reinforce their learning skills, self-assessment, and their communication with the world. Finally,
it helps learners develop their goals throughout their learning process (Barrett, 2006). Thus, this study defines

Maha Alawdat, Ph.D. candidate, Composition and TESOL housed in the English Department, Indiana University of
Pennsylvania.
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USING E-PORTFOLIOS AND ESL LEARNERS
340
e-portfolios and highlights more purposes of their utilization in L2 (second language) literacy.
What Is an E-portfolio?
Electronic portfolio, e-portfolios, Web-based portfolios, technology-based portfolio, and digital portfolio
are names for the same tool, which rises from e-learning and becomes widely used in different disciplines (Cole
et al., 2000; Pelliccione, Dixon, & Giddings, 2005; Butler, 2006; Barrett, 2006). Butler (2006) indicated that an
e-portfolio is used for students while studying, for teachers and institutions while assessing their work, and for
graduates while searching for a job. Hence, using e-portfolios is a lifelong learning that accompanies the
individual for many years.
DiBiase (2002) from Penn State University and one of the pioneers in using e-portfolios defined them as
being personalized, Web-based collections that include selective evidence from coursework, artifacts from
extra-curricular activities, and reflective annotations and commentary related to these experiences (p. 2). In
other words, e-portfolios depend on gathering, organizing, and evaluating the best works as well as mastering
learning skills and self-assessment. A more in depth definition is by Barrett (2000) and Abrami and Barrett
(2005), who describe the e-portfolios as a digital container (that is) capable of storing visual and auditory
content including text, images, video, and sound (p. 2). In this sense, e-portfolios contain structured contexts
for learners to access and present evidence for their learning for future use. Finally, Cambridge (2010) stated
that an e-portfolio presents a theory, story, or map that articulates the relationships between the different
material included and synthesizes their meaning (p. 136). He also described an e-portfolio as a genre and
defined it as fundamentally a type of composition, an emerging genre (p. 8). This may give the notion that
e-portfolios may create a paradigm shift in assessment and self-reflection for lifelong ESL/EFL learning,
because they may become a form of genre, such as an autobiography, story, or a journal. From these definitions,
one can grasp that the purpose of e-portfolios is to allow students to collect their works and organize their
portfolios in different formats. Vygotsky (1978; as cited in Jones & Shelton, 2006) said that, The construction
of knowledge always exists within the context of past and present social relationships (p. 9).
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this significant synthesis, therefore, is to investigate the influence of e-portfolios on L2
literacy by exploring the relationship between e-portfolios, L2 literacy, and technical skills, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Model of research questions.

Upon further exploration, this study seeks to answer the following question: What effects do e-portfolios
have on students learning, writing, and teacher assessment? To answer this main question, the following minor
questions are used to specify and guide the study:
(1) Does the use of e-portfolios have an influence on students academic performance?
(2) Do technical skills impact L2 learning and academic performance while using e-portfolios?

E-portfolios

Technical skills
L2 literacy
341
To conclude this introductory part, the author attempts to answer the research questions from the selected
data. In doing so, the author will synthesize the empirical studies which are coded according to thematic
categories. The author will also discuss the findings, in terms of constructivism approach, in an attempt to
answer the research questions and explore the potential influence and challenges of using e-portfolios for
ESL/EFL.
Theoretical Framework
Using e-portfolios in ESL classroom enhances learning within social context where students cooperation
and work together. Vygotskys (1978) notion of learning through social development is one theory that
reinforces using e-portfolios. Vygotsky (1978) explained that constructivism has an effective role in the widely
spread use of paper-based portfolios in education, believing that knowledge exists within social relationship
(p. 7). In other words, learning occurs in a close social context in a classroom or an institution, where learners
view their learning and personal knowledge within their surroundings. Social constructivist theory values
collaborative learning and discussion that construct new knowledge among learners within social and cultural
context. Although it does not view student learning as a direct result of the teacher actions in the classroom, it
views students as partners in teaching-learning process and who are capable of adopting new ideas and methods
(Levin, 1999). Using e-portfolios and new technologies foster social interaction, meaningful context, and
interpersonal support with teachers and students peers. This social constructivist approach helps teachers to
build new bridges through constructivist experiences (J acobsen, 2002; Levin & Wadmany, 2006). Thus,
changes in the learning environment expand and enrich classroom practices and influence students view of
integrating learning and technology.
Synthesis of Research-Based Studies
This study, which is part of a larger project that investigates the use of e-portfolios as alternative to
paper-based portfolios, introduces e-portfolios in 11 empirical studies that are ranged from 20102012, as
summarized in Table 1. It also provides a meaningful synthesis of using e-portfolios in ESL classroom.
In the theoretical framework of this study, the following pages review 11 studies that are theoretically
distributed among three thematic categories. The first discusses the use of e-portfolios to promote L2 literacy;
The second category compares between paper-based portfolios and e-portfolios; and the third investigates the
use of e-portfolios for assessment.
Using E-portfolios Promotes L2 Learning
The purpose of this section is to answer the research question: Does the use of e-portfolios have an
influence on students academic performance? The analysis indicates that using e-portfolios has questionable
affects on writing, oral performance, and assessment. This category includes four qualitative studies and two
blended qualitative and quantitative studies that investigate the use of e-portfolios for learning gains. The plan
is to address the studies first, and then provide analysis and discussion of the studies in terms of using
e-portfolios to promote L2 learning in ESL classrooms.
First, Genc and Tinmaz (2010) conducted a qualitative study on 42 preservice teachers at Computer
Education and Instructional Technology at the University of Firat in Turkey. The study showed that e-portfolios
were more suitable for project-based courses and higher education. The study also showed that e-portfolios
342
were more personal, planned, and educational without any type of commercial concerns compared to regular
websites. Eventually, the learners developed different skills, such as portfolio preparation and presentation.

Table 1
Summary of the Studies From 20102012
Notes. St =student; Tr =teacher; sem =semester; con =control; exp =experimental; assess. =assessment; learn =learning; pb =
paper-based; Ep =Eportfolio; Qual =Qualitative; Quant =Quantitative; Dis/L =distance learning; and sem =semester.

However, four teachers reported that they did not develop any skills or abilities during the course. In an
attempt to defend a possible threat of validity, the researchers suggested to implement the study in different
departments in order to reach accurate results about using e-portfolios for instructional assessment.
In the second study, Valdez (2010) conducted a study on 43 students who enrolled in ENGLCOM
(English communication) course in De La Salle University to investigate literacy development and workload.
The study showed that students documented their growth as writers throughout the course by starting from
personal interests towards society issues. Because of this, they varied their writing styles to suit various
audiences. However, some learners resisted using e-portfolios because of time-consuming, additional effort,
and the small percentage that they contributed to their grades. Another problem was the students concern of
separating their personal online activities and school works. Valdez (2010) reported that students did not want
to get criticism from friends and families.
The third study is different from the initial ones in that it is a longitudinal study. Gerbic, Lewis, and Amin
(2011) conducted a three-year quantitative, qualitative longitudinal study on 68 students in Auckland
University of Technology at New Zealand. The study examined the influence of e-portfolios on students L2
learning experiences and the potential challenges while using them. The findings showed positive development
Study Year Country Type St/Tr
#
Aim Group Time Pb/EP Data
collection
Data
analysis
Results
Chang,
Tseng , and
Lou
2012 Taiwan Quant 72 St Assess Online 1 sem Ep Ep analysisANOVA Positive/unreliable
assess
Chang,
Tseng, Chou,
and Chen
2011 Taiwan Quant 72 St Assess Online 1 sem Ep Ep/pre-post
test
Rubric Unreliable/lack of
skills
Gebric,
Lewis, and
Amin
2011 New
Zealand
Qual
Quant
268 StLearn Online 3 yearsEp Ep analysis----- Positive
Mustafa 2011 Egypt Quant 50 Tr Assess Con/Exp.1 sem Ep Ep/essays ANOVA/
Rubric
Positive
Aliweh 2011 Egypt Qual
Quant
60 St Learn
write
eP
PBP
1 sem Pb +Ep Ep/pre-post
test/survey
ANCOVA
Pearson
No difference
Shepherd and
Bolliger
2011 USA Qual 43 St Learn Online
Dis/L
2 sem Pb +Ep Ep/survey ------ Positive/
collaborative
learning
Baturay and
Dalolu
2010 Turkey Quant 58 St Assess
learn
Con/Exp 1 sem Pb +Ep Ep pre-post
test
Checklist Positive/Ep writing
and language
Genc and
Tinmaz
2010 Turkey Qual 42 Tr Learn Online 1 sem Ep Ep analysis----- No difference
Valdez 2010 Philippine Qual 43 St Write Online 1 year Ep Ep/F2F &
interview
Rubric Positive/writing
skills/
Chau and
Cheng
2010 Hong Kong Qual 63 St Learn Online 1 sem Ep Ep
interview
----- Independent
learning
Huang and
Hung
2010 Taiwan Qual
Quant
30 St Oral Con/Exp 1 sem Ep/CD Ep/pre-post
test
ANCOVA Positive some
problems
343
and changes in students perception of using e-portfolios. It also showed that e-portfolios helped students to be
more independent, track their development, and consider their weaknesses. Gerbic et al. (2011) suggested more
longitudinal studies to investigate students perceptions on learning with e-portfolios.
Fourthly, Chau and Cheng (2010) conducted a qualitative study on an e-portfolios competition to
investigate the use of e-portfolios for enhancing independent learning and the challenges associated with them.
They conducted the study on 63 undergraduate Chinese students, who were from different academic disciplines
and who had no previous experience with e-portfolios. Although the study showed some barrier of design and
implementation, many benefits had emerged. First, a sense of ownership was increased among learners; Second,
using e-portfolios supported independent learning through commitment, purpose, and strategies; and Third,
using e-portfolios made students control their learning goals and personal planning. Like Gerbic et al. (2011),
they suggested more longitudinal studies to examine the time issue on e-portfolios.
Fifthly, Huang and Hung (2010) conducted an exceptional quantitative and qualitative study that
investigated the impact of e-portfolios on speaking skills in Taiwan. They conducted the study on 30 English
major Chinese students, who were selected into either control or e-portfolios group. The researchers examined
the effects of e-portfolios by asking two questions:
(1) Do electronic portfolios enhance the language quantity, lexical richness, and syntactic complexity of EFL students
speaking performance?
(2) What are students attitudes towards the employment of electronic portfolios in promoting their speaking skills? (p.
195).
The data collection took the form of recording orally the required tasks and electronically submitting them
to their instructor. The results showed that the e-portfolios group revealed significant oral and language
learning. Using e-portfolios improved learners oral performance in terms of language quantity, lexical richness,
but not for syntactic complexity. Huang and Hung (2010) added that using e-portfolios motivated learners to
strengthen their learning outcome. However, the findings revealed two. The first was the absence of real-time
interactions and the second was problems of uploading and website breakdown, which created a sense of
frustration (pp. 205-206). Yet, the researchers suggested using oral assessment rubrics, more participants, and
long-term studies for future researches.
The last study in this category is different from the rest of the studies, because it was an online distance
course. Shepherd and Bolliger (2011) conducted the study on 43 graduate students in USA during two
semesters to examine how e-portfolios influenced cognitive load over time. Most of the students were females
(n =25), had master degree (n =30), and aged between 23-60 years old with little or no Web publishing
experience. The results showed that using e-portfolios did not increase cognitive demands and did not influence
learning outcomes. Shepherd and Bolliger (2011) also found that technical knowledge was needed for using
e-portfolios as tools. This need was decreased with time while developing and working with e-portfolios during
the course. However, students had some difficulties that varied among unfamiliarity in developing content and
getting fonts, images, document locations, and navigation bars. Shepherd and Bolliger (2011) found out that
participants also helped each other and created collaborative learning. This showed that distance settings did
not interfere with peer communication, despite limited access to synchronous interaction (p. 147). The
researchers suggested other studies with general U.S. students to see if they would have similar results. As the
review shows in this part, there are positive effects of using e-portfolios to promote learning skills. Yet, some
344
problems emerge while using e-portfolios for ESL, as will be discussed.
These studies contribute to investigate the connection between using e-portfolios and L2 learning gains.
The first contribution of e-portfolios is that L2 learners improve their reading and writing while preparing for
their online writing. Valdez (2010) found that students construct their writing by reading and selecting suitable
sentences and words to write their essays. He indicated that using e-portfolios for writing in a structured format
helps students follow their personal growth and writing development. Similarly, Chau and Cheng (2010) found
that using e-portfolios promotes goal setting and personal planning for independent learning through assigning
purposes and strategies. One may argue that these skills are also acquired while using paper-based portfolios.
Theoretically, according to constructivism, as J ones and Shelton (2006) argued, a portfolio provokes adult
learners to look at education differentlyas integrative and ongoingreaching far beyond the confines of the
classroom and continuing throughout life (p. 23). The author does agree with this claim, because within the
technology, in the epoch students need to brainstorm their ideas by using internet search engines and Websites
when they look at education differently. Using e-portfolios, for example, helps Kai-Yu to use electronic
dictionaries when she cannot write the word in English (Hung, 2009, p. 136). Using paper-based portfolios,
therefore, may not aid her because she needs more time compared to using electronic facilities.
The second contribution of using e-portfolios for learning gains is the improvement of oral performance
and language learning, such as grammar, vocabulary, and structure. Huang and Hung (2010) examined the
impact of e-portfolios on speaking skills. The study reveals significant improvement within the e-portfolios
group, whose language quantity and lexical richness are developed. They add that e-portfolios motivate
students and improve their oral performance. In addition, Chau and Cheng (2010), Baturay and Dalolu (2010),
and Gebric et al. (2011) stated that L2 students become independent learners and gain positive self-confidence
that permits learners to trace their learning strengths and weaknesses more than a test. In this sense, the author
believes that using e-portfolios with longitudinal study, which is conducted by Gebric et al. (2011), helps
learners revise their previous writings throughout their learning process. Cole et al. (2000) stated that, A
longitudinal benefit of portfolio is for students to examine their approach to learning as well as their strengths
and liabilities; teachers should guide students in including entries that permit the benefits to happen (p. 15). In
other words, long-term studies permit validity of the results because learning development need longer time for
different learners. Stefani, Mason, and Pegler (2007) also asserted that using e-portfolios for learning is used
to document, guide, and advance learning over time (p. 13). Thus, it is proved from the studies that using
e-portfolios promotes learning and motivates learners. Learners become responsible and monitor their literacy
and personal planning for lifelong learning.
Comparing Paper-Based Portfolios to E-portfolios to Promote L2 Learning
The second category of this synthesis compares paper-based portfolios to e-portfolios to examine their
influence on ESL/EFL. The first study is by Baturay and Dalolu (2010), who conducted a study on
e-portfolios and traditional paper-based assessment group in Middle East Technical University in Turkey. The
study aimed to answer the following questions: (1) What are the learning gains of students who keep an
e-portfolios as part of an elementary-level English course? (2) What are students perceptions about the online
course, using an e-portfolio and their learning gains? (3) What are the similarities and differences in the
grammar and vocabulary development of elementary-level EFL students who keep an e-portfolio and those
who do not? and (4) How do elementary-level EFL students who keep e-portfolios develop their writing skills?
345
To answer these questions, Baturay and Dalolu (2010) adopted data collection and analysis methods from
North Carolina State University, Georgetown University, and George Washington University, as shown in
Table 1. The results showed that both groups scored higher in the post-test than in pre-test and there were
significant learning gains. However, writing and reading skills were higher for the e-portfolios group. Yet, they
found out that traditional assessment of grammar, vocabulary, and achievement test were higher than
e-portfolios group. They concluded that the e-portfolios group knew their strengths and weaknesses while
tracing their academic progress more than a test. They suggested conducting their study with larger groups and
different courses to enable generalization.
Similar to Baturay and Dalolu (2010), the second study in this category was conducted by Aliweh (2011)
on 60 students majoring in EFL at a College of Education in Egypt. The aim of the study was to enhance
students writing and learning autonomy by using e-portfolios into F2F (face-to-face) learning environment.
The findings showed that there was no significant differences between traditional paper-based and e-portfolios
on students writing competence or learning autonomy. The researcher suggested using e-portfolios for students
self-assessment and sharing authority with teachers to become more responsible for their learning. However,
some external obstacles, such as lack of technical skills and time limitations hindered students writing and
limited the benefits of using e-portfolios. The researcher cautiously concluded that short-term studies would not
create validity and reliability to generalize the findings. He also suggested long-term studies that would
combine qualitative and quantitative methods to reach deeper understanding of strategies interfered in
e-portfolios implementation. Thus, comparing paper-based portfolios and e-portfolios shows that both tools
have similar results. Yet, e-portfolios have more benefits than paper-based portfolios.
Thus, these empirical studies compare e-portfolios with paper-based portfolios in order to reach valid
results and accurate findings of the impact of using e-portfolios on L2 literacy. It is found that e-portfolios are
easier to store, access, manage, and present. In addition, they permit organizing content and adding hyperlinks,
videos, and audios in any time. These characteristics, as shown in Figure 2, also permit combining the content
of e-portfolios with other materials, records, ideas, and publications on the Web (Barrett, 2006; Stefani, Mason,
& Pegler, 2007; Cambridge, 2010). At the same time, learners have the chance for self-renewal by using
e-portfolios.

Figure 2. A comparison between paper-based portfolios and e-portfolios.

Paperbased
Portfolio
ePortfolio
Context
Audience

Accessibility
346
The empirical studies of this paper also find that using e-portfolios improves writing skills and academic
progress. Stefani, Mason, and Pegler (2007) asserted that the educational e-portfolios are used to document,
guide, and advance learning over time (p. 13). However, these benefits are not conclusively proven in the
studies of this section.
On the one hand, some studies reveal that there are no differences between paper-based portfolio and
e-portfolios. Aliweh (2011) used e-portfolios and paper-based portfolio to compare the validity of both on
writing. His findings show that e-portfolios had no significant effects on students overall writing competence
(p. 113) compared to paper-based portfolio. Similarly, Shepherd and Bolliger (2011) found that there is no
significant difference between the requirements of paper-based portfolio and e-portfolios. They also add that
there is no workload or special cognitive demands while using e-portfolios. Seldin and Miller (2009) stated that
For purposes of improvement, both electronic and paper format work well (p. 27). In other words, both
paper-based portfolio and e-portfolios reach similar outcomes and have the same learning process, such as
outlining, writing, and revising.
On the other hand, Shepherd and Bolliger (2011) found differences between paper-based portfolio and
e-portfolios. They find that using e-portfolios promotes collaborative learning among students compared to
paper-based portfolio. This collaboration emerges from learners who lack of technical skills, which encourages
them to help each other despite their enrollment in a distance-learning course. Abrami and Barrett (2005) stated
that digital portfolios have communication advantages (p. 7). In other words, using e-portfolios promotes
interaction and cooperation among students. Baturay and Dalolu (2010) also proved that using e-portfolios
improves writing skills compared to paper-based portfolio. Their study shows that students language
proficiency and writing competence have improved. Yet, there is a slight difference between the groups. This
distinction occurs from grammar and vocabulary proficiency, which is higher for paper-based users in the
post-test performance because of the multiple-choice test that the paper-based group has.
In these studies, therefore, it is proved that writing development does occur, but it is not significantly
differentiated between paper-based portfolio and e-portfolios. In other words, using e-portfolios comparing to
paper-based portfolio has positive outcomes, such as writing development, collaborative learning, and language
proficiency. Yet, the studies show inconclusive data to answer the research question about the effect of
e-portfolios compared to paper-based portfolios on ESL/EFL.
Using E-portfolios to Assess Learners Performance
The third thematic category includes quantitative studies that mostly focus on using e-portfolios as an
alternative assessment tool for paper-based portfolios and traditional tests. The first study in this category is by
Mustafa (2011) who conducted a one-year quantitative study on 400 pre-service EFL teachers from whom 50
were randomly selected for the control group in Egypt. The main premise of this quantitative study was to
investigate to what extent formal training in electronic assessment could positively develop EFL teachers
knowledge, skills, and use of e-portfolios as an assessment tool. The findings indicated that the training
program for using e-portfolios was effective in a sense that the learners kept developing and using e-portfolios
after ending the program. The results also showed high quality of design, organization, and content of
e-portfolios. Mustafa (2011) concluded that training programs provided new teachers with skills and knowledge
about integrating e-portfolios as assessment tools in their classes. Finally, Mustafa (2011) suggested more
researches and future extension of her study with more subjects to determine if they would have the same or
347
different results.
Chang, Tseng, Chou, and Chen (2011) conducted a 12-week study on 72 senior high school students, who
enrolled in a computer course in Taiwan. This study was different from the other studies that are reviewed in
this paper, because the participants were not aware that they were in an experimental study in order to gain
more accurate information and to avoid the Hawthorne and John Henry effects (p. 1308). The aim of the study
was to examine the validity and reliability of using e-portfolios for peer-assessment. The findings showed that
students lacked evaluation skills and this caused unreliable results. The researchers indicated that
peer-assessment was not also reliable to examine students learning achievements or attitudes. In addition, the
findings showed inconsistency between peer, teachers, and exam scores, which was not correlated or significant.
The researchers suggested that adding more raters and larger groups with different setting, levels, and field of
study could be used for future researches. They also suggested training programs for students to assess
e-portfolios.
Similar to Chang et al. (2011), Chang, Tseng, and Lou (2012) followed the same duration and number of
participants in the third study of this category. The study explored the consistency and differences of teacher
assessment, self-assessment, and peer-assessment in e-portfolios context. Chang et al. (2012) asked students to
perform self-assessment of their e-portfolios twice, peer-assessment for six other e-portfolios, and at the same
time, teachers assessed students e-portfolios. The findings showed that there were significant differences
between the three assessment methods. The study showed that there were various differences among the rubric
aspects, and the results were not significantly correlated (p. 309). Learning goal and e-portfolios creation, for
example, were the highest aspects compared to artifact and attitude. The study concluded that peer-assessment
was not reliable and valid. It also concluded that validity was connected to a number of elements, such as
assessment tools, learning environment, and students capabilities and skills. Chang et al. (2012) suggested
using assessment rubrics so that reliability would be ensured as well as training courses for raters consistency
and improvement. Thus, using e-portfolios for assessment is not sufficient for self-assessment among learners.
This unreliability is connected to a number of factors such as lack of experience.
The empirical studies in this section show that there is a questionable evidence about the reliability of
using e-portfolios for assessment. On the one hand, e-portfolios have the potential of being an effective
assessment tool among learners. Mustafa (2011) found that training programs guarantee effective results of
using e-portfolios. In her study, teachers develop their assessment skills while using e-portfolios as alternative
assessment tools. According to constructivism, When a learner is confronted with new ways of doing things,
(he/she is) often confounding the possibility of change (Vygotsky, 1978; as cited in J ones & Shelton, 2006, p.
13). Similarly, Aliweh (2011) found that learners use self-assessment as a strategy while writing because
e-portfolios help them to become more responsible for their learning. Becoming self-assessors makes learners
aware of their literacy and abilities while using e-portfolios. Accordingly, Cambridge (2010) pointed out, Both
authentic assessment and learning through assessment are likely to yield a more accurate account of how well
learners can apply their knowledge and skills in the academic and professional settings (p. 88). In other words,
learners evaluate the quality of their work and trace their strengths and weaknesses when they change and
utilize a new tool in assessment.
On the other hand, Chang et al. (2012) found that peer-assessment is unreliable. The evidence shows that
self- and teacher- assessment are correlated and not different while peer-assessment and teacher-assessment are
different and cause unreliability. Similarly, Chang et al. (2011) had the same results of unreliable peer-assessment
348
when they conduct their study on participants who are not aware that they are in an experiment. They find out that
peer-assessment lacked inter-rater reliability and that students lack appropriate evaluation skills, which tends to
make the assessment results dubious and ineffective (p. 1311). In this sense, students need training in order to
assess their peers accurately and effectively while using e-portfolios. However, Chang et al. (2011) asserted that
e-portfolios are more reliable for learning goals than for self- or peer- assessment. From here, one may argue that
using e-portfolios as assessment tools proves their effectiveness among teachers, whose jobs are to evaluate and
assess learners outcomes. One may also argue that using e-portfolios for assessment among students is ineffective
because students are not trained to assess their works or the works of others.
Major Findings From the Studies
The findings from 2010-2012 empirical studies reinforce the definition of e-portfolios as a collection of
learning evidence (DiBiase, 2002; Sutherland & Powell, 2007; Abrami & Barrett, 2005) and as a type of
composition and genre (Cambridge, 2010). The findings are based on L2 academic performance. Based on this
major finding, as shown in Figure 3, it includes learning gains and assessment, and this demands technical
skills to guarantee the success of using e-portfolios in L2 classrooms.
These categories embrace answers to the research questions, which investigates the influence of using
e-portfolios on ESL learning and their connection to technical skills. The data show that three studies use
qualitative and quantitative methods while eight studies are equally divided between quantitative and
qualitative research methods, as previously shown in Table 1.

Figure 3. Two main points discussed in the studies. It also categorizes the studies according to their purposes.
The Connection Between Using E-portfolios and Technical Skill
The second concern of this paper is to answer the research question of whether technical skills influence
L2 learning and academic performance while using e-portfolios. The literature in the field shows that there is
no definite answer and the connection is inconclusive.
On the one hand, using e-portfolios develops learners technical skills and provides them with
Aliweh (2011)
Valdez (2010)
Gebric, Lewis, & Amin,
(2011)
Chang et al. (2011)
Baturay & Dalolue,
(2010)
Huang & Hung (2010)
Mustafa (2011)
Chang et al. (2011)
Chang, Tseng, & Lou
(2012)
Baturay & Dalolue,
(2010)
Chau & Cheng (2010)
Valdez (2010)
Shepherd & Bolliger,
(2011)
Huang & Hung (2010)
Genc & Tinmaz
(2010)
Learninggains
Assessment
Technicalskills
349
technological knowledge (Abrami & Barrett, 2005). For example, Mustafa (2011) proved that there is a
significant relationship between using e-portfolios and technical skills. While Mustafas findings are positive,
Genc and Tinmaz (2010), on the other hand, report inconclusive results. According to Genc and Tinmaz (2010),
some learners develop technical skills, which positively affects their performance, because e-portfolios focus
on the process of learning and outcomes. The researchers also report that other L2 learners did not develop any
skills while using e-portfolios.
In addition, Shepherd and Bolliger (2011) who conducted a study on students with little or no previous
knowledge with the Web found that technical skills and knowledge are needed for using e-portfolios. They find
out that this lack of technical literacy hinders the progress of learning while using e-portfolios. Thus, the
research question about the relationship between technical skills and academic performance is not explicitly
answered. This is because the findings are not definite about the relationship between using e-portfolios for
learning development and technological skills. This result may become a basis for future research studies.
The studies also show that some challenges and barriers emerge while using e-portfolios. Huang and Hung
(2010) reported that real time oral performance is a problem emerged while using e-portfolios. This problem
appears while uploading learners previously recorded tasks. Another serious problem is learners resistance of
using e-portfolios. For example, Valdez (2010) reported that some learners in his study are against using
e-portfolios, because it is time-consuming, requires additional work, and does not equal the minimal percentage
added to their grades. Other learners resist using e-portfolios, because they are concerned about the issue of
privacy. They do not want friends, families, and other potential audiences to criticize their academic work
believing that it is only between them and their teachers. A third problem is unfamiliarity and lack of technical
knowledge that hinder utilizing e-portfolios. Shepherd and Bolliger (2011) and Aliweh (2011), for example,
found that it is important to have technical skills and knowledge of using electronic tools. This need simplifies
utilizing e-portfolios and accelerates the pace of language development and learning gains.
Conclusions and Implications for Future Research
This study is mostly confined to the influence of e-portfolios on academic performance and their
relationship to technical skills. The related literature in this paper, from 20102012, is intended for a broad
audience of learners, researchers, and curriculum designers involved in researching or contemplating the use of
e-portfolios for ESL/EFL learning and assessment. Mainly, the empirical studies show that using e-portfolios
develops L2 learners reading, writing, oral performance, and technical skills. Using e-portfolios also enhances
language development, increases learning gains, and teaches assessment for both learners and teachers.
However, some researchers are not yet certain about the benefits of using e-portfolios claiming that more
studies are needed to gain validity and reliability for using e-portfolios. Clearly, educational technology is still
ongoing and educators need to understand how e-portfolios can be integrated in learning and teaching.
Another important issue is that using e-portfolios is more ecologically sound reducing the need to use
paper-based portfolios. This means that there will not be printing out of useless papers, whenever there is a
revision for any document. Thinking towards using e-portfolios, editing, and modifications can be done easily
by changing font or layout to suit different purposes and audiences. Therefore, one way to become an
eco-friendly person is by encouraging everyone to become eco-friendly themselves and utilize e-portfolios to
save natural resources that remain on planet Earth.
To this end, academically thinking, the author would suggest a future empirical study that investigates
350
using e-portfolios to trace writing development and English language literacy. The author also suggests using
longitudinal method with such type of future studies, because, first, writing development needs enough time to
be accomplished, and second, using e-portfolios needs equivalent time to perceive the learning process and
learning outcomes in a blending e-learning.
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