SOCIO- EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE: IDENTITY, GENDER & MEDIA

Socio-emotional development in adolescence: Identity, Gender & Media Duy Nguyen Charles Sturt University

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SOCIO- EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE: IDENTITY, GENDER & MEDIA

Socio-emotional development in adolescence: Identity, Gender & Media Adolescence marks the period of transition from childhood to adulthood. The age range of adolescents is approximately beginning at ten to thirteen years to concluding in the late teens (Santrock, 2013). It is stressed that adolescence refers to more than chronological age and relate to the individual development. Santrock (2013) defines development as the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life span (p. 15). Development is influenced by biological, cognitive and socioemotional changes (Santrock, 2013). Socio-emotional changes relate to the changes in an individuals personality, emotions, relationships with other people within social contexts (Santrock, 2013). Socio-emotional changes in adolescence include development of identity, the role of genderand conflict with parents. The proliferation of media available to adolescence has an impact on the socio-emotional development of adolescents. As a student transitions through high school, the individual moves from early adolescence (year seven/eight students) to mid-adolescence (year nine/ten students) to late adolescence (year eleven/twelve students). The Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (AITSL, 2012) require teachers to know their students and how they learn. As such, a high school teacher must adopt strategies to accommodate the socio-emotional needs of adolescent students in a mixed ability classroom. The development of personality is a socio-emotional process encountered in adolescence. Personality can be viewed as "encompassing the self and identity" (Santrock, 2013, p. 153). The concept of self refers to all the characteristics of a person (Santrock, 2013, p. 129). Identity broadly refers to "who a person is, representing a synthesis and integration of self-understanding (Santrock, 2013, p. 140). In the selfportrait, the boy reflects that he feels that he does not "have a personality (Pollack, 2000). He describes himself as "just whatever I do" which is characterised by "school, soccer or music." This apparent lack of personality is encountered as the boy attempts define who he is and relates to the concept of identity.

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The work of Erik Erikson is considered to be a prominent theory of adolescent development (Santrock, 2013). According to Erikson (as cited in Kamptner, 1988; Klimstra, Hale III, Raaijmakers, Branje, & Meeus, 2010; Santrock, 2013) one of the key developmental tasks encountered in adolescence is identity formation. Individuals go through eight developmental stages in their lifespan which involve a conflict and crisis to be resolved (Rosenthal, Gurney, & Moore, 1981; Santrock, 2013). The fifth developmental stage occurs during the adolescent years whereby the conflict is between identity and identity confusion. This conflict can be described along a continuum, ranging from "role confusion" to "identity synthesis" (Klimstra, Luyckx, et al., 2010). In resolving the cristis, a core part of identity development is role experimentation. Before reaching a stable sense of self, adolescents "try out different roles and personalities" (Santrock, 2013, p. 141). The boy in the self-portrait reflects on how he and his peers "act" because "everyone is watching" and "you just want to be cool" (Pollack, 2000). This personality experiment is considered to be an intentional effort in the development of identity and is illustrated in the self-portrait where the boy comments that it is "easier to figure out who you are if you're someone else for a bit" (Pollack, 2000). The identity status model proposed by Marcia (1980, 1994, 2002 as cited in Santrock, 2013) states that Eriksons theory implies four identity statuses as ways of resolving the identity crisis. The identity crisis refers to the period of identity development (or exploration) by which the individual is still considering alternatives. A commitment is made when a personal investment is made on what the individual will do. Identity diffusion refers to where the adolescent has not experienced identity crisis nor made a commitment. Identity foreclosure is the state where a commitment has been made yet the adolescent did not encounter the identity crisis. Identity moratorium occurs when adolescent is in the midst of identity crisis and have not made a clear commitment. An adolescent who has encountered the identity crisis and made a clear commitment is considered to be in a state of identity achievement. The boy in the case study is likely to be exhibiting identity moratorium in terms of his vocation as he notes he is unsure of what he will do when he finishes school.
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Contemporary theories of identity suggest that the development is a gradual process and neither begins nor ends in adolescence as indicated by Eriksons lifespan development theory (Cot, 2009; Kroger, 2007; McAdams, 2011 as cited in Santrock, 2013). The general trend of identity development is progression as the adolescent moves from early through to late adolescence (Meeus, Schoot, Keijsers, & Branje, 2012). In examining identity formation, research have used Marcias identity status model to explore the process (Klimstra, Hale III, et al., 2010; Klimstra, Luyckx, et al., 2010; Meeus et al., 2012). It has been proposed that during adolescence, individuals manage commitment through in-depth exploration and reconsideration (Meeus et al., 2012). Indepth exploration requires the individual to monitor present commitments. Reconsideration involves comparing present commitments with alternatives and deciding if they need to be changed. In early adolescence, the primary identity statuses faced are diffusion, foreclosure and moratorium (Santrock, 2013). Klimstra, Hale III, et al. (2010) report that early and middle adolescence is characterised by low levels of in-depth exploration. Typically, the commitment-formation process is established in middle to late adolescence. By late adolescence, vocational roles become central to identity development (Santrock, 2013). It was predicted by Waterman (1982, p. 343 as cited in Meeus et al., 2012) that there is a higher prevalence of achievers and lower prevalence of diffusions in late adolescents compared to early adolescents. This was supported by Kroger, Martinussen, & Marcia (2010). Therefore, it is purported that the general trend from early to mid-adolescence to late adolescence is where a gradual formation of identity occurs. It should be noted that there is some research consensus that the key changes in identity do not occur in adolescence but rather, in emerging adulthood from age eighteen to twenty five (Santrock, 2013). A central aspect to the formation of identity is gender (Santrock, 2013). Gender can be defined as "the characteristics of people as males and females" (Santrock, 2013, p. 163). Gender role refers to the set of expectations that prescribes how females and males should think, act and feel (Santrock, 2013, p. 163). The development of gender role in
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adolescence has been examined by Blakemore, Berenbaum, & Liben (2008 as cited in Santrock, 2013) where it was typified that boys usually show less self-regulation in controlling emotions and girls are better at better at reading emotions ad more likely to show empathy. General impressions and beliefs about females and males are referred to as gender stereotypes. Research suggest that gender stereotypes are prevalent in the lives of children and adults (Best, 2012; Matlin, 2012; Wood, 2011 as cited in Santrock, 2013). In the self-portrait, the boy discusses how he gets really angry (Pollack, 2000). To cope, he resorts to punching objects and venting on his own. He mentions that he can just talk to female friends as he can say a lot of stuff and theyll just listen (Pollack, 2000). Whilst adolescence conflict and moodiness can be conceptualised by the storm-andstress view proposed by Hall (1904 as cited in Santrock, 2013), it is suggested that the contrast between the boys anger and the girls ability to listen illustrates the socioemotional differences typified by gender role and stereotypes. As an adolescent transition through high school, the development gender role is expected to be aligned with their general identity formation. Gender role development commences in early adolescence as a function of biological and social changes (Alfieri, Ruble, & Higgins, 1996; Eccles, 1987; Feiring, 1999; Galambos et al., 1990; Hill & Lynch, 1983; Rebecca, Hefner, & Oleshansky, 1976 as cited in Bartini, 2006). Research suggest an intensification of the expectations of gender-related role, particularly in females in early adolescence (Hill & Lynch, 1983; Huston & Alvarez, 1990). As the adolescent progresses through high school, research has found that gender stereotyping becomes less flexible, thus denoting the continued formation of gender-related behaviours and attitudes (Alfieri, Ruble, & Higgins, 1996). By late adolescence, the formation of identity has been demonstrated to be an important contributor to coping strategies employed (Renk & Creasey, 2003). The relationship with parents is an important aspect of adolescent development. Socio-emotional influences on the adolescent-parent relationship include relationships with peers, new definitions of socially acceptable behavior and the push for autonomy (Kenny, Dooley, & Fitzgerald, 2013; Santrock, 2013). As the adolescent spend more time
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with peers and seek independence, conflicts can arise. It has been argued that such conflict in the parent-adolescent relationship is considered normal and argued to be an integral part of adolescent development (Ashraf & Najam, 2011; Kenny et al., 2013). The self-portrait illustrates the adolescent-parent conflict. The boy notes that disagreements arise and he feels pressure from his parents. From his account, there is an expectation to perform academically as well as partaking in house chores. The boy demonstrates frustration in his relationship with his parents. This is consistent with research by Kenny et al. (2013) which suggest that dissatisfaction and distress in the adolescent-parent relationship arise from high levels of criticism, lack of understanding and communication. There is a large body of research on effective parenting styles and means to aid adolescent development (Garai, McKee & Forehan, 2012; Parke & Clarke-Stewart, 2011; Phares & Rojas, 2012 as cited in Santrock, 2013). Diana Baumrind (1971, 1991 as cited in Santrock, 2013) discusses four main parenting styles adopted towards adolescents authoritarian parenting, authoritative parenting, neglectful parenting and indulgent parenting. Authoritarian parenting is inhibitive and pressures the adolescence to follow directions and to respect work and effort (Santrock, 2013, p. 260). Authoritative parenting encourages independence in adolescence. When parents are uninvolved in the adolescents life, they are exhibiting a neglectful parenting style. Indulgent parents are highly involved in the adolescents life yet place few demands or restrictions. In the selfportrait, it appears that the boys parent is likely to be exercising an authoritarian parenting style. This exemplified in the self-portrait through the pressure placed on the boy in to study and chores and little verbal exchange. Studies have shown that the impact of parenting style on socio-emotional development is that adolescents of authoritarian parents are often anxious on social comparison, dependent, conforming and likely to experience anxiety (de Haan, Dekovi, & Prinzie, 2012; Rivers, Mullis, Fortner, & Mullis, 2012; Santrock, 2013).

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Despite the parenting style employed, the parent-adolescent conflict is purported to serve a developmental function as the high school student moves through adolescence. There is no general consensus as to when the peak in conflict occurs (Ashraf & Najam, 2011). There is indication that the typical the parent-adolescent conflict escalates in early adolescence (McKinney & Ren, 2011; Zeiders, Roosa & Tein, 2011 as cited in Santrock, 2013). This was confirmed by Laursen, Coy, & Collins (1998) where it found where the rate of parent-adolescent conflict increases in early adolescence, remains relatively stable during middle adolescence an declines in late adolescence. In contrast, Steinberg (1988, as cited in Santrock, 2013) contend that conflict with parents is most stressful during the mid-adolescence. It is concluded that the parent-adolescent conflict lessen in late adolescence. Although the conflict with parents fluctuate, studies suggest that the overall emotional closeness in the relationship with parents remain stable throughout adolescence (Mayseless et al., 1998; Smetana, Metzger, & Campione-Barr, 2004 as cited in Kenny et al., 2013). Media plays a prevalent role in the socio-emotional development of adolescents. Studies have explored the influence of media in a range of socio-emotional aspects including identity, relationships and gender stereotypes (Ferguson, Salmond, & Modi, 2013; Pasquier, 1996). Although there are individual variances in adolescent media use, the pervasiveness of medias influence is indicated by the time spent consuming media. It was predicted that on average adolescents were using some form of media for more than 7.5 hours a day in 2009 (Rideout, Foehr, & Roberts, 2010). The boy in the case study is remarks that his preference for after school activity is using the computer or watching television His attitudes to television have not been explored in the self-portrait, however, he discusses that some of his peers try to imitate Sonny Bill Williams (SBW). It is inferred that this celebrity impersonation is a result of media as it is unlikely that the adolescents in the case study have a direct relationship with SBW. From a social cognitive perspective this can be rationalised by Bandura (1986, 1994 cited by Eggermont, 2006) via the cognitive information processing model which implies learning though observation. However, this does not necessarily predict that the viewer would
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automatically replicate the observed behaviours. Rather, information is compiled as a behaviour script to be revoked and utilised when appropriated (Huesmann, 1988 as cited in Eggermont, 2006). The impact of media on socio-emotional development in adolescence has typically focused on media influence on specific aspects such as violence and aggression with few studies examining the role of media in adolescent development and sexuality (Brown, Halpern, & LEngle, 2005). Brown et al. (2005) examined the impact of media on early adolescence and found that media may serve as super peer especially for early maturing girls where the information and models are unavailable via the peer group. Further, it was found that through use of chronological age as a measure of development, younger adolescents are reported to be more embarrassed and confused by their exposure to sexual media than older adolescents (Brown et al., 2005). With focus on the development of romantic scripts, Eggermont (2006) suggest that early adolescence television viewing give adolescence to become acquainted with the preference of the opposite sex. Further, research support lends evidence to the assumption that the impact of media is stronger among adolescence with lower levels of maturity (Peterson et al., 1991; Ward & Rivadeneyra, 1999 as cited in Eggermont, 2006). Consequently it would be expected that as an adolescent moves through high school, the impact of media would decrease as maturity increases. It is emphasised however, that chronological age is not sufficient for understanding the impact of media exposure of development due to the large individual variances in maturity (Brown et al., 2005). The socio-emotional needs of adolescent students can be accommodated in a mixed ability classroom through evidence-based practice. According to Csikzentmihalyi, Rathmunde, and Whalen (1997 as cited in Tieso, 1999) teachers can impact on the lives of adolescence through serving as role models morally and professionally, motivating students by ensuring that that students are being challenged but not overwhelmed, being perceptive of the needs of their students and passion for subject matter. Research suggests that there are a number positive youth development programs aimed at promotion and prevention which are reported to be effective (Greenberg et al., 2003). The strategies
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deal with socio-emotional issues such as antisocial behaviour including aggression, violence and drug taking (Gorski & Pilotto, 1993). For example, it suggested that employing behaviour and behavioural instructional methods was effective in reducing high school dropout, non-attendance, substance use and conduct issues (Wilson, Gottfredson, and Najaka, 2001 as cited in Greenberg et al., 2003). These methods include behaviour modelling and rehearsal, feedback and behaviour goal setting within a variety of settings over a period of time. Identity as a component of personality forms part of a socio-emotional change experienced in adolescence. Identity is a gradual process and neither forms nor ends in adolescence. The formation of identity requires exploration of gender and consideration based on gender stereotypes. Trends in gender formation are considered to be aligned with the development of identity. Relationships with others are an important aspect of adolescence development. As part of the socio-emotional changes in adolescence is the adolescent conflict with parents. Influences on the adolescent-parent relationship include peers and increased push for autonomy. The adolescent-parent conflict escalates during adolescence and typically decreased by late adolescence. The socio-emotional influence of media is pervasive on identity, gender stereotypes, emotion and relationships due to the amount of media consumed by adolescents. Although there are limited studies on the impact of media on adolescent development, research on the impact of media exposure on aggression, violence illustrates the influence of media. Through examination of media on sexuality and romance, it is evident that media influence is stronger in early adolescence due to possibility of information and models being unavailable by the peer group and lower levels of maturity. Socio-emotional needs of adolescent students in a mixed-ability class can be accommodated through a variety of evidence based teaching strategies including, but not limited to role modeling, motivation, demonstrating passion and behavior setting.

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