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1430 2009
Abstract
Combination between the structural geology and engineering geology is useful to
get a wide view to solve many problems in rock mechanics. Utility of study the
discontinuities and all other geological structures to understand the elastic theory
of rock material as well as mass. This report provides and instructions for
performing and documenting field work. The applications of geology to solving
engineering problems is emphasized, rather than academic or other aspects of
geology. The report provides the guidance for geologic classification and
description of rock and rock discontinuities. Applications of standard indexes,
.descriptors, terminology, sampling, testing and performing discontinuity survey
:Introduction .1
Structural breaks or discontinuities generally control the mechanical behavior of rock masses.
In most rock masses the discontinuities form planes of weakness or surfaces of separation, including
foliation and bedding joints, joints, fractures, and zones of crushing or shearing. These
discontinuities usually control the strength, deformation, and permeability of rock masses. Most
engineering problems relate to discontinuities rather than to rock type or intact rock strength.
.(Discontinuities must be carefully and adequately described (Throner, 2001
Civil and mining engineers have been building structures on or in rock for centuries and the
principles of engineering in rock have been understood for a long time. Rock mechanics is merely a
formal expression of some of these principles and it is only during the past few decades that the
theory and practice in this subject have come together in the discipline which we know today as rock
mechanics. A particularly important event in the development of the subject was the merging of
elastic theory, which dominated the English language literature on the subject, with the discontinues
approach of the Europeans. The gradual recognition that rock could act both as an elastic material
and a discontinuous mass resulted in a much more mature approach to the subject than had
.(previously been the case (Hoek, 2007
Knowledge of the rock mass behavior in general, and the failure process and the strength in
particular, is important for the design of foundations, slopes, quarrying and underground excavation.
A better potential understanding of the failure process and a better rock mass strength prediction
:(make it possible to (Edelbro, 2003
.Reduce stability problems by improving design of the underground excavations•
Improve near surface tunneling and ore extraction to avoid or minimize the area over which•
.subsidence occurs due to tunneling and mining
.Reduce waste rock extraction•
Stability in rock is controlled principally by discontinuities in the rock mass. The role of
discontinuity data collection is primarily to aid identifying the possible modes of failure. Rock
outcrop mapping is the best field way to obtain discontinuity data. The degree of rock exposure is
.usually the controlling factor in determining the accuracy of the data collected (Yu, et. al, 2003)
Jointed rock masses comprise interlocking angular particles or blocks of hard brittle material
separated by discontinuity surfaces which may or may not be coated with weaker materials. The
strength of such rock masses depends on the strength of the intact pieces and on their freedom of
movement which, in turn, depends on the number, orientation, spacing and shear strength of the
discontinuities (Hoek, 1983).
:(There are four principal ways of determining the rock mass (Edelbro, 2003
Mathematical modeling: the strength of rock masses is described theoretically. The rock•
substance and the properties of the discontinuities are both modeled. A mathematical model
requires determination of a large number of parameters and is often based on simplified
.assumptions
Rock mass classification: is often used in the primary stage of the project to predict the rock •
mass quality and the possible need for support. The result is an estimate of the stability
quantified in subjective terms such as bad, acceptable, good, very good rock conditions. During
the excavation, more information about the rock mass is received and the classification can be
continuously updated. The values obtained by some of the classification systems are used to
.estimate or calculate the rock mass strength using a failure criterion
Large scale testing: proved data on the true strength of the rock mass at the actual scale of the•
construction, and, indirectly, a measure of the scale effect that most rocks exhibit. As large scale
tests are often neither practical nor economically feasible, most researchers have studied the
scale dependency of rock mass strength in a laboratory environment. The scale thereby very
.limited
Back analysis of failure: back analysis of previous failures is attractive, as it allows more•
representative strength parameters to be determined. Obviously, failure must have occurred and
the failure mode must be reasonably well established. There are relatively few data available on
.rock mass failure that can be used for back analysis and even fewer data for hard rock masses
:Aim of Study .2
This study is aimed to establishment the basement of rock mass classification, which can be
use in Iraq. Combination between engineering properties of intact rocks and discontinuities,
nowadays used for rock mass classification systems to utilize rock mechanics researches. Before
eighteenth many engineering geologists were used the intact rock properties for studying the
problems of foundations, underground opening and slope stability. The objective of the entire project
is to develop a methodology, for different geological structures and rock types in North Iraq, that can
be used to estimate the suitability for engineering structures. Figure (1) shows the three paths of the
field and laboratory investigations, which conjugate to produce the design and support of
.engineering structures
σz = ρgz
.(where ρ is the density of the overburden, g is gravity (9.8 m/s2) and z is the depth (Suppe, 1985
There are two ways in which the initial stresses may give rise to difficulties in tunneling.
Firstly, the material in the vicinity of the opening often reacts to the changes in the stress field by
failure and creep processes, which may lead either to the closure of the opening or, if it is hindered,
to the development of rock pressure. Secondly, in hard rock at great depths the much feared
phenomenon of rock burst may occur. This is characterized by the explosive-like separation of plate-
shaped pieces of rock often of considerable size, which may endanger the lives of the people
working in the tunnel. The mechanism of rock burst has not, as yet, been adequately investigated.
All that is known with certainty is that the orientation of the tunnel axis in the relation to the
directions of the principal stresses of the initial state of stress plays an important role. The stress
tensor in the rock cannot be determined theoretically because of the changing topographical
conditions, the generally complex structure of the rock mass and its nonlinear stress-strain
.(relationship, and the tectonic forces which may still active today (Kovari, 1979
Hydrogeolog
Data
Engineering
Intact
Structural
Discontinuitie
Groundwater
Laboratory
Field
Rock
Numerical
Engineering
Statistic
Samplin
Surface
Stress
Collections
Blocks
Rock
mass ofstructure design and
Geomechanic
classification
geology
distribution
Description
conditions
modeling
testing
water
yRock
gs Classifications
supporting
ε = α ∆T
where ε is the strain, α is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion and ∆T is the temperature
.(change (Suppe, 1985
:c) Displacement loading
A third major mechanism by which rocks are loaded in the earth is the forced displacement of
.(there adjacent surroundings, which is of major importance in tectonic deformation (Suppe, 1985
.Figure (5): Different construction sizes in the same kind of rock mass
The illustration in Figure (6) shows the six binary interactions of in situ stress, rock structure
.(and water flow (Hudson and Harrison, 1997
.Rock structure/ stress-stress field affected by discontinuities :1
.Rock structure/ water flow-water preferentially flows along discontinuities :2
.Stress/water flow-high normal stresses reduce discontinuities :3
Water flow/stress-water pressure in discontinuities reduces :4
Water flow/rock structure-water flow causes discontinuity :5
.Stress rock structure-high stress can alter the rock structure :6
The following discussions provide a brief summary of the engineering significance associated
.(with the more important field rock description (Throner, 2001
a. Unit designation: Unit designation is usually an informal name assigned to a rock unit that does
not necessarily have a relationship to stratigraphic rank (e.g. Al-Fat'ha limestone or Injana
.(sandstone
b. Rock type: Rock type refers to the general geologic classification of the rock (e.g. marl,
sandstone, limestone, etc.). Certain physical characteristics are ascribed to a particular rock type with
a geological name given according to the rocks mode of origin. Although the rock type is used
primarily for identification and correlation, the type is often an important preliminary indicator of
.rock mass behavior
c. Degree of weathering: The engineering properties of a rock can be, and often are, altered to
varying degrees by weathering of the rock material. Weathering, which is disintegration and
decomposition of the in-situ rock, is generally depth controlled, that is, the degree of weathering
.decreases with increasing depth below the surface
d. Hardness: Hardness is a fundamental characteristic used for classification and correlation of
.geologic units. Hardness is an indicator of intact rock strength and deformability
e. Texture: The strength of an intact rock is frequently affected, in part, by the individual grains
.comprising the rock
:For bedding most researchers used the following classification for expressing
.Flat: 0 to 20 degrees (1)
.Dipping: 20 to 45 degrees (2)
.Steeply dipping: 45 to 90 degrees (3)
:Discontinuities 4.2.3
The in-situ rock, or rock mass, is comprised of intact blocks of rock separated by
discontinuities such as joints, bedding planes, folds, sheared zones and faults. These rock blocks may
.vary from fresh and unaltered rock to badly decomposed and disintegrated rock
Intact rock refers to the un fractured blocks which occur between structural discontinuities in a
typical rock mass. These pieces may range from a few millimeters to several meters in size and their
behavior is generally elastic and isotropic. Their failure can be classified as brittle which implies a
sudden reduction in strength when a limiting stress level is exceeded. In general, viscoelastic or
time-dependent behavior such as creep is not considered to be significant unless one is dealing with
.evaporates such as salt or gypsum
:Joints 4.2.3.1
Joints are a particular type of geological discontinuity but the term tends to be used generically
in rock mechanics and it usually covers all types of structural weakness. Strength, in the context of
.(these notes, refers to the maximum stress level which can be carried by a rock specimen (Figure 3
Decomposed
Grade Term Description
(%) rock
Ia Fresh - No visible weathering
Ib Fresh - Slight discoloration of walls
II Slightly weathered 10 > General discoloration
Moderately Part of rock is decomposed. Fresh rock is a
III 10-50
weathered continuum
General decomposition of rock. Some fresh rock
IV Highly weathered 50-90
appears
Completely
V 90 < All rock is decomposed. Original structure remains
weathered
All rock is converted to soil. Original structure is
VI Residual soil 100
destroyed
.(appropriate term is width (ISRM ,1978
.i) Close. Opening <0.1 mm, which is cannot be resolved by naked eye)
.ii) Moderately open. Opening < 1 mm. Walls come into contact with a small shearing movement)
.iii) Open. Opening 1-5 mm. Walls come into contact after a shearing movement)
iv) Very open. Opening > 5 mm. Walls can remain separated until a big shearing displacement has)
.happened
The separation of joints governs the displacement necessary to mobilize the joint shear stress.
.Moreover, open or very open joints can show nondilatant behavior
:Roughness (4 )
:Bieniawski (1979) has proposed a roughness scale which is very easy to check in the field
.i) Very rough. Near vertical steps and ridges occur on the joint surface)
.ii) Rough. Some ridges are visible. Asperities happen. Joint surface feels very abrasive)
.iii) Slightly rough. Some asperities happen. Joint surface feels asperous)
.iv) Smooth. No asperities. Smooth feeling of a joint surface)
.v) Slickensided. Visual evidence of polishing exists)
The most important consequence of joint roughness is the display of dilatants behavior when
close, coupled joints are subject to shearing stresses. The natures of fillings govern the shearing
.stress of open, uncoupled joints and are a related parameter to roughness
:Spacing (5 )
Spacing of discontinuities is the distance between them, measured along a line perpendicular lo
discontinuity planes. The ISRM (1978) suggest the use of minimum, modal and maximum values of
spacing to characterize a set of joints. This procedure has been superseded in practice by the use of
mean spacing. Bieniawski (1979) defines the spacing as the ‘mean distance’. Spacing is measured
with a tape along the rock outcrop, counting the number of joints in a fixed distance and multiplying
.by the corresponding cosines of angles between the normal to joints and the plane of rock outcrop
In practice the relationship between the span of the opening and the average joint spacing is
decisive, in many cases, for stability considerations (Figure 7). With increasing span D, or D/d
respectively, the influence of the jointing becomes more marked and the probability of an
.(unfavorable joint combination, which could give rise to a rock fall, increase (Kovari, 1979
It is an easy task for set of joints with vertical dip and strike not parallel to the slope. But many
times the dangerous set of discontinuities for slope stability happens to be composed of joints with
strike parallel to slope. In these cases systematic tape measurements are seldom possible. It is
suggested to assess visually the model value of spacing of dangerous joints and measure it carefully
.afterwards
The classification of discontinuity spacing proposed by the ISRM (1978) and presented in
.Table (4). Bieniawski (1979) has added a description of rock mass conditions
.(Table (4): Classification for Joints Spacing (ISRM, 1978 and Bieniawski, 1979
:Infilling (6 )
Source, type, and thickness of infilling; alterated rock, or by deposition; clay, silt, etc.; how
thick is the filler. Anyway, for practical purposes it is necessary to distinguish between gouge and
soft gouge: (i) ‘gouge’ is no filling or filling with a material of high friction (calcite, sand, crushed
rock, etc.); and (ii) ‘soft gouge’ is filling with a material of low friction (clay, mica, platy minerals,
etc.).
:Persistence (7 )
.ISRM (1978) classifies the joints as follows
.i) Persistent. Continuous)
ii) Sub persistent. Not continuous but several joints can coalesce to form a continuous separation)
.surface
.iii) Not persistent. Not continuous)
:Field Estimates of JRC 4.2.3.3
The joint roughness coefficient JRC is a number that can be estimated by comparing the
appearance of a discontinuity surface with standard profiles published by Barton and Choubey
.((1977) and is reproduced in Figure (8
The appearance of the discontinuity surface is compared visually with the profiles shown and
the JRC value corresponding to the profile which most closely matches that of the discontinuity
surface is chosen. In the case of small scale laboratory specimens, the scale of the surface roughness
will be approximately the same as that of the profiles illustrated. However, in the field the length of
the surface of interest may be several meters or even tens of meters and the JRC value must be
.estimated for the full scale surface
:Groundwater 4.2.5
Groundwater conditions can be estimated in classifications in three different ways: (i) inflow of
water; (ii) pore pressure ratio; and (iii) general conditions. For slopes the general conditions are
usually sufficiently adequate. The ISRM (1978) have proposed a seepage classification which has
.)been adapted to surfacing joints in order to estimate groundwater conditions (Table 5
E
= Vs
ρ . 2 (1 + µ )
:Numerical Modeling .6
RocLab is a software program for determining rock mass strength parameters, based on the
latest version of the generalized Hoek-Brown failure criterion (Figure 9). RocLab provides a simple
and intuitive implementation of the Hoek-Brown failure criterion, allowing users to easily obtain
reliable estimates of rock mass properties and to visualize the effects of changing rock mass
parameters on the failure envelopes. The rock mass properties determined by RocLab can be used as
input for numerical analysis programs such as Phase2 (Examine2D) (finite element stress analysis
and support design for excavations) or Slide (limit equilibrium slope stability analysis). Examine2D
is a 2-dimensional plane strain indirect boundary element program for the elastic stress analysis of
underground excavations. The program (Figure 10) is interactive and easy to use, and is ideal for
performing quick parametric analysis, preliminary design and as a teaching tool for numerical stress
.analysis in a geotechnical context
.Figure (9): Roclab program
.Table (6): Some rock mass classification systems and there applications
.Table (7): Parameters included in different numerical and functional classification systems