Average Stresses & Component Design

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Lecture 2: AVERAGE STRESSES & COMPONENT DESIGN

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

2.1. 2.2. 2.3.

2.4. 2.5. 2.6. 2.7. 2.8. 2.9.

Introduction Average Stress And Its Uses Safety Factor 2.3.1. Design Related Denitions . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2. Critical Safety Factor . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3. Why is Component Design Important? . . . . . . 2.3.4. Simplied Strength Design . . . . . . . . . Ex.1: Axially Loaded Brittle Bar Ex.2: Axially Loaded Ductile Bar Ex. 3: Bar with Pin Connectors, Failure by Tension Break at Pin Ex. 4: Bar with Pin Connectors, Failure by Pin Shear Off Ex. 5: Truss Bolt Connection With Single Shear Area Ex. 6: Truss Bolt Connection With Double Shear Area

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

23 23 23 23 23 24 25 25 26 26 27 28 29

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2.3 2.1. Introduction

SAFETY FACTOR

This lecture describes a highly simplied form of the 3D stress concept, in which the objective is to get average stresses over a nite area instead of point stresses. This is applied to some simple problems in component design. The concept of strength safety factor is discussed in some detail, rst in general terms and then in conjunction with examples. 2.2. Average Stress And Its Uses The previous lecture emphasized that stresses vary from point to point inside a body (structure). Thus x x = x x (x , y , z ), and likewise for all other components. Mathematically, stresses form a tensor eld within the body. Although the eld viewpoint is rigorous, it may be too elaborate for practical use if its determination requires expensive and time-consuming computations, even with the help of the computer. Often the time-pressed engineer compromises by using a simplied stress analysis process based on average stresses. The key idea is not to pass to the limit as done in Lecture 1 to dene stresses at a point. After appropriately cutting the body to manifest internal force(s) of interest, divide those resultants by the nite area on which they act. This shortcut is especially useful in preliminary design of 1D structural components when internal force resultants can be quickly determined from statics by a Free Body Diagram (FBD). Several illustrative examples are given in Section 2.4 and following ones. 2.3. Safety Factor A safety factor characterizes the margin for bad things to happen to the structure. Some actual instances of such events are shown in Figure 2.1. 2.3.1. Design Related Denitions To quantity the foregoing statement, two denitions are introduced. Failure mode. The structure experiences something that renders it disfunctional. Mode identies what. Failure may be catastrophic: a bridge or dam collapses, an airplane wing breaks in ight, a submarine hull buckles under pressure. Or something less drastic: a building foundation settles and cracks appear. Design Load. A load system used for designing the structure and its components. For real structures there may be many such systems, identied as design load cases. For example, the design of a commercial jet aircraft may involve hundreds of load cases. Design scenarios may include normal events while in service, as well as abnormal ones that the structure is supposed to survive without catastrophe (e.g., total collapse) when there are lives at stake. Examples: earthquakes, hurricanes, emergency landings, ...

2.3.2. Critical Safety Factor Assume we have a design load case with forces P1 , P2 , . . ., and that under the given load values the structure is ne. (Load cases may include applied moments, distributed loads, temperature changes, etc., but for simplicity think for now of point forces.) Suppose that the loads are proportionally increased to s P1 , s P2 . . . , where s > 1 is a magnication factor, and that the rst failure mode triggered by 23

Lecture 2: AVERAGE STRESSES & COMPONENT DESIGN

Figure 2.1. Bad things can happen.

Figure 2.2. The Challenger disaster.

this increase happens at s F . This s F is called the safety factor for that load case with respect to that failure mode. If, as generally happens, there are several load cases, the process is repeated for each one. The smallest s F encountered in this sweep is the critical safety factor, which should meet design specications. Obviously it should not be less than a certain target. The foregoing description oversimplies actual practice. For example, some loads, such as own weight, should be kept xed. Furthermore, statistical and cost considerations come into the picture. Not all load cases may be equally probable (how often is an aircraft hit by a meteorite?), while the cost of achieving adequate safety against all possible events may be prohibitive. A detailed safety analysis that includes statistical and cost data generally requires the use of sophisticated computer programs. For preliminary component sizing, however, a shortcut based on back-of-theenvelope stress analysis may be sufcient. 24

2.4 2.3.3. Why is Component Design Important?

EX.1: AXIALLY LOADED BRITTLE BAR

The failure of a component may trigger that of the whole structure (For want of a nail the shoe was lost ...) For instance, the well known 1986 disaster of the Challenger space shuttle, which cost $6.7 billions in 1971 dollars to build, was triggered by a malfunctioning $25 O-ring. See Figure 2.2. 2.3.4. Simplied Strength Design A simplied strength design based on average stresses and given safety factor proceeds as follows. A structural component such as a bar or beam is subject to known loads that come from an analysis of the whole structure. A failure mode of the isolated component is assumed. In the ensuing examples, that mode will represent a failure of the material when a stress level is reached. But which stress? Here a distinction should be made between brittle and ductile materials. Brittle materials such as berglass or cast iron fail by the maximum tensile normal stress reaching a f ail level. Ductile materials such as metals or alloys fail by the maximum absolute shear stress reaching a f ail level. Using FBD statics compute the average normal stresses a vg or the average shear stress a vg over the area of an appropriate cut affected by the failure mode. The strength safety factor is the ratio f ail f ail sF = or s F = (2.1) a vg a vg as appropriate to the material type and failure mode. More complicated failure criteria do exist, but will not be covered in this course; they are studied in ASEN 4012. For strength design s F is picked by practice, design codes, or experience, and inserted into (2.1), in which either a vg or a vg is expressed in terms of the data. Design variables are solved for, and the component sized accordingly. Several examples of this procedure follow. 2.4. Ex.1: Axially Loaded Brittle Bar

P = 30 kips

Circular cross section of diameter d & area A

Figure 2.3. Axially loaded ductile bar: failure by yield due to crystal slip at 45 .

;; ;; ; ;; ; ;;
P d=?

cut normal to bar axis

The rst design example is pictured in Figure 2.3. A bar of solid circular cross section, fabricated with brittle material, is subject to axial load P . Recall that a brittle material such as cast iron or berglass fails (breaks apart) when the maximum normal stress (here the axial stress) reaches a limit value. Material data: cast iron, which fails by normal stress reaching f ail = 40 ksi (kilopounds/sqin). Failure mode: cross section breaks when f ail is reached Safety Factor: s F = 8 against failure. Load case data: axial load P = 30 kips (kilopounds) Find: design variable is bar diameter d in inches. 25

Lecture 2: AVERAGE STRESSES & COMPONENT DESIGN

Solution. Make the normal cut shown on the right of Figure 2.3. From FBD statics, the resultant internal force is F = P , aligned with +x . The area of the cut, a.k.a. resisting normal-stress area or d 2 . The average normal stress is simply resisting area, is the bar cross section A = 1 4 a vg = P F 4P = 1 = . 2 2 A d d 4 (2.2)

The design condition is a vg f ail /s F . Substituting for a vg and solving for d yields d+ 4 P sF = f ail 4 30 kips 8 = 2.76 in 40 kips/in2 (2.3)

2.5. Ex.2: Axially Loaded Ductile Bar

P = 30 kips

x
Circular section of diameter d & area A

Figure 2.4. Axially loaded ductile bar: failure by yield due to crystal slip at 45 .

;; ; ;; ;
P d=?

n P

x
skew cut at 45o from x

o 45 45o

F t

The next example is pictured in Figure 2.4. The conguration is identical to the previous example: a bar of solid circular cross section under axial loads, but the material is now ductile. Failure occurs by yield when the maximum shear stress reaches a limit value f ail . Material data: ductile Al alloy, which fails by maximum shear at f ail = 20 ksi (kilopounds/sqin). Failure mode: crystal slip at 45 from longitudinal bar x axis. Why 45 ? This will be the subject of one problem in Recitation 1. Safety Factor: s F = 5 against shear failure. Load case data: axial load P = 30 kips = 30, 000 lbs as in last example. Find: design variable is again diameter d in inches. Solution. Make the skew cut shown on the right of Figure 2.4. From FBD statics, internal the resultant F cos 45 = F / 2 = P / 2. The area force is F = P , aligned with +x . Project on cut plane: Ft = 2 1 of the skew cut, a.k.a. shear area, is As = A / cos 45 = A 2 = 4 2 d . The average shear stress is Ft P/ 2 P/ 2 P = = 1 = 1 . (2.4) a vg = 2 2 As As d 2 d 2 4 The design condition is a vg f ail /s F . Solving for d : d+ 2 P sF = f ail 2 30 kips 5 = 2.19 in 20 kips/in2 (2.5)

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2.7

EX. 4: BAR WITH PIN CONNECTORS, FAILURE BY PIN SHEAR OFF

Figure 2.5. Axially loaded ductile bar with pin connectors: failure by tension break at pin

; ;; ;;
P P
t h =?

zoom

P/2

pin diameter P/2 is dpin

P/2 P/2

cross section

cut plane

2.6. Ex. 3: Bar with Pin Connectors, Failure by Tension Break at Pin This example is pictured in Figure 2.5. A ductile bar member (Al alloy) of rectangular cross section h t is linked to other bar members though pin connectors. The bar transmits a tensile axial force P . Two failure modes at the pin are possible: tension break at minimal cross section area weakened by hole, or pin shear-off. This example considers the rst possibility. Material data: Al alloy, may fail by either maximum tensile normal stress at f ail = 268 MPa (megaPascal) or by shear at f ail = 165 MPa. Failure mode: tension break at minimal cross section weakened by pin hole; see Figure 2.5. Safety Factor: s F = 6 against tension break at minimum cross section. Load case data: axial load P = 5 kN = 5, 000 N applied to pins Geometric data: cross section thickness t = 5 mm; pin diameter d pin = 12 mm. Find: design variable is cross section height h in mm. Solution. Make a transverse plane cut at the pin center as shown. The bar cross section at the cut (obviously the minimum one) is called the corrected area Acorr = A A pin = h t d pin t . Average normal stress over corrected area is a vg = P / Acorr = P /((h d pin ) t ). Design condition: a vg f ail /s F . Solving for h : h P sF 5000 N 6 + d pin = + 12 mm = 34.4 mm f ail t 268 N/mm2 5 mm (2.6)

2.7. Ex. 4: Bar with Pin Connectors, Failure by Pin Shear Off

; ;

Figure 2.6. Axially loaded ductile bar with pinhole connectors: failure by pin shearing off.

; ; ; ;
zoom

ds

P/2 P/2
cut planes

pin shears off

cross section

; ;

ds =?

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Lecture 2: AVERAGE STRESSES & COMPONENT DESIGN

The structural conguration for this example is the same as in previous one. We now consider the other possible failure mode, in which a pin shears off as depicted in Figure 2.6. Material data: same as in previous example: fails by maximum tension stress at f ail = 268 MPa or by shear at f ail = 165 MPa. Failure mode: shear failure with a pin shearing off, see right of Figure 2.6. Safety Factor: s F = 6 against shear failure. Load case data: axial load P = 5 k-N = 5,000 N applied to pins, as before Geometric data: cross section thickness t = 5 mm, pin diameter not needed. Find: design variable is distance ds dened in the gure, expressed in mm. (Actually h and d pin are not needed in this case.) Solution. Make two cuts because the force P is transmitted through the two interfaces shown in the gure. Total shear area is As = 2ds t . Resultant shear force over shear area, from FBD: Fs = 1 P+ 1 P = P . Average shear stress a vg = Fs / As = P / As = P /(2ds t ). Design condition: 2 2 a vg f ail /s F . Solving for ds : ds P sF 5,000 N 6 = = 18.2 mm 2 f ail t 2 165 N/mm2 5 mm (2.7)

2.8. Ex. 5: Truss Bolt Connection With Single Shear Area

Figure 2.7. Bolt connection with single shear area: overall sketch.

This example deals with the design of the bolt for connecting between two truss members as shown in Figure 2.7, using the average shear stress approach. The axial force transmitted through the bolt is P .

(a)

(b)
P P P

(c)
P

(d)
P Fs = P a a

d bolt avg

cut plane

Figure 2.8. Bolt connection with single shear area: FBD procedural details.

Figure 2.8(a)(d) shows a set of FBDs to help understand the concept of a shear area through which the total axial force P is transmitted (ows) from one member to the other. The cut plane is displayed in (c). The resultant tangential force on that plane is called Fs for shear force. From axial equilibrium, Fs = P . The shear area is colored red in (d). 28

2.9

EX. 6: TRUSS BOLT CONNECTION WITH DOUBLE SHEAR AREA

Remark 2.1. It should be noted that the actual stress distribution in the vicinity of the shear area may be quite

complicated because of high stress gradients near contact zones as well as bending due to member centerline eccentricity (more about this later). To get a realistic picture of that distribution one would need to carry out a time-consuming 3D nite element analysis. By assuming that in the place of the bolt section a uniformly distributed shear stress develops, however, a simple solution is readily found. Approximations involved in this assumption are supposed to be covered by the safety factor.

Material data: metal bolt (ductile); fails by maximum shear at f ail . Failure mode: average shear stress over shear area, colored red in (d), reaches f ail . Safety factor: s F would typically be 4 or more to compensate for ignoring stress concentrations as well as transfer eccentricity effects. In the derivation below s F is kept symbolic. Load case data: axial load P to be transmitted by bolt. Find: design variable is bolt diameter d Solution: make the cut shown in (c) and assume that the shear stress over the shear area As = Abolt = d 2 /4 is uniform, as discussed above. That average is given by a vg = Fs / As = P / Abolt = 2 ). The design condition is a vg f ail /s F . Solving for the bolt diameter gives 4 P /( dbolt dbolt + It only remains to plug numbers. 2.9. Ex. 6: Truss Bolt Connection With Double Shear Area 4 P sF f ail . (2.8)

(a)
P
t1
t1

t2

(b)
P/2 P/2 P/2 P/2

(c)
P P
P/2
t1

(d)
P

t2

cut planes P/2

d bolt avg

Figure 2.9. Bolt connection with double shear area.

One aw of the bolt connector studied in the foregoing example is load eccentricity caused by member centerline offset. The resulting moment may cause additional bending stresses as well as alignment problems. A better design that avoids that problem is shown in Figure 2.9, in which congurational symmetry aligns inter member load transmission whence bending is eliminated. To get the effective shear area, make two cuts as pictured in Figure 2.9(c). The effective shear area doubles to As = 2 2 /2 and the average shear becomes a vg = P /(2 Abolt ) = 2 P /( dbolt ). With the same 2 Abolt = dbolt design criteria of the previous example, the bolt diameter is now given by dbolt + 2 P sF f ail . (2.9)

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Lecture 2: AVERAGE STRESSES & COMPONENT DESIGN

If P , s F and f ail stay the same, this dbolt is about 30% smaller than that given by (2.8) Furthermore s F could be cut since the lack of bending reduces stress distribution uncertainties. On the other hand, this kind of connection is likely to be costlier to fabricate. Figure 2.10 shows a well fabricated instance of a double shear area connector. This would be typical, for example, of a quality car suspection device.

Figure 2.10. A well fabricated connector with double shear area. Note that axial loads are nicely aligned.

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