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Aristotle (385-322 B.C.) and his teacher Plato (427-347 B.C.) were the most central
figures in early communication study. Both regarded communication as an art or craft to be
practiced , and as an area of study. As Aristotle noted in the opening paragraph of his
classicwork on rhetoric;
To a certain extent all men [and women] attempt to discuss statements and to maintain them, at
random or through practice and from acquired habit Both ways being possible, the subject can
plainly be handled systematically, for it is possible to inquire the reason why some speakers
succeed through practice and others spontaneously; and everyone will at once agree that such
inquiry is the function of science.
[R]hetoric exists to affect the giving of decisions... the orator must not only try to make the
argument of his [or her] speech demonstrative and worthy of belief; he [or she] must also make
his own character look right and put his hearers, who are to decide, in the right
frame of mind. (Emphasis added)
For Aristotle, communication was primarily a verbal activity through which speakers
tried to persuade-- to achieve their own purposes with a listener through skillful construction of
an argument and delivery of a speech.
Lasswell's view of communication, as had Aristotle's some two thousand years earlier,
emphasized the elements of speaker, message, and audience, but used different terminology.
Both scholars viewed communication as a one-way process in which one individual influenced
others through messages.
Lasswell offered a broadened definition of channel that inclueded mass media along with
speech as part of the communication process. His approach also provided a more generalized
view of the goal or effect of communication than did the Aristotelian perspective. Lasswell's
work suggested that there could be a variety of outcomes or effect of communication, such as to
inform, to entertain, to aggravate, as well as to persuade.
Shannon and Weaver's Model
About a year after the introduction of the Lasswell perspective, Claude Shannon
published the results of research he had undertaken for Bell Telephone to study the engineering
problems of signal transmission. The results of his study provided the basis for what came to be
known as the Shannon and Weaver model of communication.
Shannon and Weaver described the communication process in this way:
Communication include(s) all the procedures by which one mind may affect another.
This, of course, involves not only written and oral speech, but also music, the pictorial arts, the
theatre, the ballet, and in fact all human behavior.
The Shannon and Weaver concept represented an important expansion of the idea of
communication from the act of speaking or writing in a public setting or through mass media, to
activities such as music, art, ballet and the theater—in fact, all human behavior.
Like Lasswell, Shannon and Weaver saw communication in terms of a one-way process by
which a message was sent from a source through a channel to a receiver. Their model was
somewhat more detailed, however, because Shannon and Weaver made several distinctions that
the other models had not. Specifically, they differentiated between a signal and a message, an
information source and a transmitter, and a receiver and destination. They described the
workings of the model as follows:
The information source selects a desired message out of a set of possible messages... The
selected message may consist of written or spoken words, or of pictures, music, etc.....The
transmitter changes the message into the signal which is actually sent over the communication
channel from the transmitter to the receiver.
If one considers the example of a dramatic series carried by cable television, the channel
is the cable; the signal is the varying electrical current carried by the cable; the information
source is the performers, their backdrop, and so on; the transmitter is the set of devices (camera,
audio and video amplification system, and so on) that converts the visual and vocal images of the
performers into electrical current.
In this example, the receiver is the television set and cable converter equipment. The
receiver's purpose is to change the signal back into a message that can be received and
interpreted at the destination (a cable viewer, in this case).
Shannon and Weaver introduced the term noise as the label for any distortion that
interferes with the transmission of a signal from the source to the destination. In our example, an
illustration of noise would be electrical interference, leading to audio or video distortion, in the
cable line. They also advanced the concept of correction channel, which they regarded as a
means of overcoming problems created by noise. The correction channel was operated by an
observer who compared the initial signal that was sent with that received; when the two didn't
match, additional signals would be transmitted to correct the error.
Schramm's Models
In an article published in 1954 entitled, "How Communication Works " Wilbur Schramm
provided several additional models of communication, including the one shown in Figure 3.4
Describing the model, Schramm said
A source may be an individual (speaking, writing, drawing, gesturing) or a
communication organization (like a newspaper, publishing house, television station or motion
picture studio). The message may be in the form of ink on paper, sound waves in the air,
impulses in electric current, a wave of the hand, a flag in the air, or any other signal capable of
being interpreted meaningfully. The destination may be an individual listening, watching, or
reading; a member of a group, such as a discussion group, a lecture audience, a football crowd,
or a mob; or an individual member of a particular group we call the mass audience, such as the
reader of a newspaper or a viewer of television.