WHAT IS PVC?

Poly(vinyl chloride), commonly abbreviated PVC, is the third-most widely producedplastic, after polyethylene and polypropylene. PVC is used in construction because it is more effective than traditional materials such as copper, iron or wood in pipe and profile applications. It can be made softer and more flexible by the addition of plasticizers, the most widely used being phthalates. In this form, it is also used in plumbing, electrical cable insulation, inflatable products and many applications in which it replaces rubber. Pure poly(vinyl chloride) is a white, brittle solid. It is insoluble in alcohol, but slightly soluble in tetrahydrofuran. PVC is a thermoplastic made of 57% chlorine (derived from industrial grade salt) and 43% carbon (derived predominantly from oil / gas via ethylene). It is less dependent than other polymers on crude oil or natural gas, which are nonrenewable, and hence can be regarded as a natural resource saving plastic, in contrast to plastics such as PE, PP, PET and PS, which are totally dependent on oil or gas. This chlorine gives to PVC excellent fire resistance.

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HISTORY
Man has worked hard from the earliest times to develop synthetic materials which would offer benefits not found in the natural products around him. PVC is one of the oldest synthetic materials with the longest history in industrial production. Its early history is of multiple and accidental discovery in different places at different times as well as unsuccessful quests for commercial application.

Alchemists tried to develop new materials

Early researchers accidentally discovered PVC on at least two occasions in the 19th century. The first, in 1838, was by the French physicist and chemist Henri Victor Regnault and the second in 1872 by the German Eugen Baumann. On both occasions, the polymer appeared as a white solid inside flasks of the newly discovered vinyl chloride gas that had been left exposed to sunlight. The material was difficult to work with and no one mastered the challenge of commercial applications. In 1913, German inventor Friedrich Heinrich August Klatte took out a patent on PVC. His method used polymerization of vinyl chloride with sunlight. The most significant breakthrough occurred in the United States when the company BFGoodrich hired the industrial Henry Victor Regnault discovered PVC scientist Waldo Semon to develop a synthetic replacement for the increasingly costly natural rubber. His experiments again produced polyvinyl chloride. However, the material was threatened by the recession in the 1920s and it was under threat of abandonment that Semon conceived the idea of PVC as a water resistant coating for fabrics. Sales took off quickly with a rapidly expanding product range. Demand accelerated again during the Second World War, when PVC quickly replaced traditional material to insulate wiring on military ships. During the 1950's many more companies started to produce PVC and volumes increased dramatically around the world. Developers quickly found further, innovative uses through the decade and refined methods to enhance durability, opening the door to applications in the building trades. By the middle of the 20th century, five companies were producing PVC, and groundbreaking uses for PVC, or vinyl as it is also known, continued to be found during the 1960s. A vinyl-based latex was used on inflatable structures and fabric coatings, and at the same time, methods for improving PVC's durability were developed, allowing applications in the building industry. PVC products rapidly became essential to the construction industry; the plastic's resistance to light, chemicals and corrosion made it the best option for building applications. Improvement made to the materials resistance to extreme temperatures, allowed for PVC to be transporting water to thousands of homes and industries. By the 1980s, twenty companies were producing PVC. Today, PVC is the third largest-selling commodity plastic in the world after polyethylene and polypropylene. PVC's low cost, excellent durability and processability, make it the material of choice for dozens of industries such as health care,IT, transport, textiles and construction.

HOW IS PVC MADE ?

The chemical process for making PVC involves taking the simplest unit, called the monomer, and linking these monomer molecules together in the polymerisation process. Long molecular chains are formed called polymers (which are also called macromolecules). This is the case for PVC, which is made from vinyl chloride monomer known usually by its initials VCM through polymerisation. Some monomers exist in the form of reactive gaseous chemical substances, and some of these may cause health hazards when in direct contact with humans. In these cases they are manufactured and processed under strict control for health, safety and environmental protection. On the other hand, polymers such as PVC, which are manufactured from monomers through polymerisation, are solid and chemically stable substances, therefore do not affect human health. VCM, which is the raw material for PVC, is a gas at ambient temperature but is usually stored in liquid form under pressure. Ethylene and chlorine are raw materials for PVC. Upstream industries are those that provide these materials and include producers of basic petrochemicals (sometimes known as feedstocks), which supply eth ylene, and the chlor-alkali (caustic soda) industry, which supplies chlorine.

By thermal cracking of naphtha or natural gas, the basic petrochemical industry manufactures ethylene and propylene, etc. Naphtha is mainly supplied from the petroleum refinery industry, which uses crude oil as raw material. The chlor-alkali industry produces caustic soda, chlorine and hydrogen via electrolysis using industrial grade salt as main raw material.

At a first stage in the PVC production process ethylene and chlorine are combined to produce an intermediate product called ethylene dichloride; this is then transformed into vinyl chloride, the basic building block of polyvinyl chloride or PVC. The process of `polymerisation' links together the vinyl chloride molecules to form chains of PVC. The PVC produced in this way is in the form of a white powder. This is not used alone, but blended with other ingredients to give formulations for a wide range of products. Most commodity plastics have carbon and hydrogen as their main component elements. PVC differs by containing chlorine (around 57 per cent by weight) as well as carbon and hydrogen. The presence of chlorine in the molecule makes PVC particularly versatile because it makes it compatible with a wide range of other materials. The chlorine content also helps to make PVC flame retardant. It can also be used as a `marker' to distinguish PVC in automatic sorting systems for plastics recycling. PVC formulations can be shaped by a variety of techniques and, using very little energy, made into the final product form. PVC polymer is chemically stable, neutral and nontoxic. PVC formulations have a wide range of applications including the most sensitive, such as medical equipment, plus construction, automotive and electrical cabling.

THE PVC PRODUCTION PROCESS

How PVC is manufactured? The suspension polymerisation process is most widely used process to manufacture PVC.

First, the raw material VCM is pressurised and liquefied, and then fed into the polymerisation reactor, which contains water and suspending agents in advance. Through highspeed agitation within the reactor, small droplets of VCM are obtained. Next, the initiator for polymerisation is fed into the reactor, and PVC is produced by reaction under a few bar at 40 60C. PVC obtained through suspension polymerisation is suspended in water as particles of 50~200 m diameter (in slurry form). Thereafter the slurry discharged from the polymerisation reactor is stripped of residual monomer, dehydrated, dried and the particle size controlled by screening to yield PVC in the form of a white powder. The un-reacted VCM is entirely recovered through the stripping process, and after purification, recycled as raw material for reuse in this process. PVC resin produced via this suspension process is referred to within th e industry using the abbreviation S-PVC. Emulsion polymerisation and bulk polymerisation are alternative, much less extensively employed, technologies to manufacture PVC. Emulsion polymerisation produces finer resin grades having much smaller particles, which are required by certain applications. This type of resin is sometimes called paste PVC and referred to within the industry using the abbreviation P -PVC to distinguish it from S-PVC. USES OF POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC)

PVC, or polyvinyl chloride, is a type of plastic used in numerous industries. It is durable, inexpensive and resistant to heat, water and chemicals. Additives such as lubricants, heat stabilizers, plasticizers, impact modifiers, fillers, biocides, smoke suppressors and UV stabilizers enhance its durability and make it suitable for a variety of construction applications.

Clothing PVC plastic is manipulated to create a leatherlike material called rexine. This type of imitation leather is used to make jackets, shoes, trousers and upholstery. PVC clothing is cheaper than latex, leather and rubber, and is widely available. PVC fabric is waterproof, resistant to chemicals, long-lasting and flexible, and has a natural sheen to it--allowing designers to create new and innovative styles at highly affordable prices.

PVC fabric is waterproof, making it suitable for scuba-diving gear. (two scuba divers image by Janet Wall from Fotolia.com)

Pipes According to "PVC Pipe & Fittings: Underground Solutions for Water and Sewer Systems in North America," approximately half of all PVC plastic is used in the manufacture of pipes, which are employed in industrial and municipal applications. PVC pipes are strong, lightweight and low-reactive, making them well-suited in sanitary, underground-wiring and water-distribution applications. PVC water pipes do not wear, rot or rust, and are a dependable and affordable material for potable-water piping. There are different types of PVC pipes, including
PVC water pipes don't rot or rust. (pvc image by pearlguy from Fotolia.com)

Schedule 40, Schedule 80, Schedule 120, CPVC (chlorinated polyvinyl chloride) and Gray Schedule 40.

Electrical Wires PVC plastic is commonly used to form the insulating material on electrical wires. It is affordable and resistant to heat, and it offers excellent abrasion and solder resistance. A PVC conductor jacket insulates electrical wires and offers additional protection to unshielded cables. PVC is fire retardant, chemical- and oil-resistant, mechanically stable, impact resistant, and elastic and, because of its biocides, prevents the growth of microbial (harmful, disease-causing pathogens). Single-core flexible wires are copper conductors that are coated with a thin jacket of insulating PVC plastic. PVC is also used as a coating for tinned copper, bare copper, aluminum and fiberoptic wires.
PVC is an excellent way to insulate electrical wires. (electricity wire image by jeancliclac from Fotolia.com

Bottles PVC plastic is used to manufacture bottles that have applications in a wide range of industries. PVC is strongly resistant to harmful organic solids, strong bases and strong acids. Bottles made from PVC are an excellent choice for vinegar, mineral oil, shampoo, salad dressing and cosmetics, all because of their resistance to chemicals, heat, oil and grease.

PVC's resistance to chemicals makes it a good choice for food or toiletry bottles. (plastic bottles image by Oleg Ivanov from Fotolia.com)

Other Uses Other uses of PVC include medical tubing, vinyl fencing, and railing and decking, PVC window frames, meat/deli wrap, shrink wrap, flexible packaging, blood bags, resilient flooring, vinyl paneling, phonograph records, carpet backing, traffic cones, garden hoses and vinyl gutters.

Remember vinyl records? (vinyl record image by Warren Millar from Fotolia.com)

POLYVINYL CHLORIDE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

1. The effects of Vinyl and dioxin Among the most important by-products of the PVC lifecycle are dioxin and a large group of structurally and toxicologically related compounds, collectively called dioxins. Dioxins are never manufactured intentionally but are formed accidentally whenever chlorine gas is used or chlorinebased organic chemicals are burned or processed under reactive conditions. Dioxins are true global pollutants, now found in the tissues of whales in the deep oceans, polar bears in the high Arctic, and every human being on earth. Human infants receive particularly high doses orders of magnitude greater than those of the average adult because dioxins cross the placenta easily and concentrate in breast milk. Dioxin is the most potent synthetic carcinogen ever tested in laboratory animals and is a known human carcinogen. Human development, reproduction, and the immune and endocrine systems are highly sensitive to dioxin, which causes health damage and functional impairment at infinitesimally low doses (in the low parts per trillion, or ppt). Toxicological studies have not been able to establish a threshold dose below which dioxin has no biological impact.

2. Effects of Phthalate plasticizers In its pure form, PVC is rigid and brittle. To make flexible vinyl products, such asfloor tiles, roofing materials, and wall coverings, plasticizers must be added to PVC in large quantities up to 60 percent of the final product by weight. The dominant group of plasticizers used in vinyl is a class of compounds called phthalates, which pose considerable health and environmental hazards. Vinyl is the7 only major building product using phthalates extensively, accounting for about 90 percent of total phthalate consumption. More than 5 million tons of phthalates are used in vinyl every year. Phthalates have become global pollutants that are moderately persistent and moderately bioaccumulative under some conditions. They can be found in the water of the deep oceans, air in remote regions, and the tissues and fluids of humans. Body burdens of some phthalates have recently been found to be surprisingly high in the bodies of the general U.S. population. Infants and toddlers are subject to exposures several times higher than those of the average adult. Millions of pounds per year of phthalates are released into the environment during the formulation and molding of vinyl products. Phthalates are also released when vinyl is disposed of in landfills or incinerators or when PVC products burn accidentally. More than 80 million tons of phthalates are estimated in the stock of PVC products now in use in buildings and other applications. Phthalates are not chemically bonded to the plastic but are mixed with the polymer during formulation. They therefore leach out of the plastic over time into air, water, or other substances with which vinyl comes in contact. Phthalates cause a range of health effects. Phthalates used in PVC have been found to damage the reproductive system, causing suppressed ovulation, infertility, reduced sperm count, testicular damage, and abnormal development and function of the testes and male reproductive tract in laboratory animals, in which they are also carcinogens. 3. Effects of Lead and other stabilizers Because PVC catalyzes its own decomposition, metal stabilizers are added to vinyl for construction and other extended-life applications. Common PVC additives that are particularly hazardous are lead, cadmium, and organotins, with global consumption of each by vinyl estimated in the thousands of tons per year. Because metals do not degrade in the environment, all three of the major PVC stabilizers have become global pollutants.

 Lead is a highly potent developmental toxicant, damaging brain development and reducing the cognitive ability and IQ of children, even in infinitesimal doses. Cadmium is a potent neurotoxin and carcinogen, and organotins can suppress immunity and disrupt the endocrine system. Metal stabilizers are released from vinyl products when they are formulated, used, and disposed. Releases of lead stabilizers from interior vinyl building products have been documented. Metals cannot be destroyed by incineration but are released entirely into the environment via air emissions or ash residues. Trash incinerators are a dominant source of lead and cadmium pollution, and PVC contributes a significant portion of the feed of these metals including an estimated 45,000 tons of lead each year to incinerators. Accidental fires are also major potential sources of lead, cadmium, and organotins releases. In a fire, metals in PVC will be released to the environment. An astounding 3.2 million tons of lead are present in the current stock of PVC in use. Potential lead releases from this stored PVC must be viewed as a major potential health hazard. 4. Effects to Indoor air quality Flexible vinyl products appear to contribute to the health hazards of poor indoor air quality by releasing phthalates and facilitating the growth of hazardous molds. The phthalates in PVC are released into the building environment. Phthalate levels in indoor air for buildings with PVC are typically many times higher than those for outdoor air. Phthalate accumulation in suspended and sedimented indoor dusts is particularly high, with concentrations in dust as high as 1,000 parts per million (ppm). Preliminary evidence indicates that PVC-related phthalate exposure may be linked to asthma. In laboratory animals, metabolites of phthalates used in vinyl cause asthma-like symptoms through a well-described inflammatory mechanism. Three separate epidemiological studies have found that human exposure to PVC in buildings causes significantly elevated risks of asthma and other pulmonary conditions, including bronchial obstruction, pneumonia, prolonged cough, wheezing, and irritation of the nasal passages and eyes. Metal stabilizers particularly lead, cadmium, and organotins can also be released from vinyl products. Lead has been found to be released into air from vinyl window blinds and into water from PVC pipes. Toxicological effects of these substances include developmental, neurological, and reproductive damage. Because vinyl wall coverings form a barrier impermeable to moisture, they encourage the growth of molds on wall surfaces beneath the vinyl particularly in buildings where air conditioning or heating systems produce significant temperature and humidity differentials

between rooms and wall cavities. Some molds that grow beneath vinyl produce toxic substances that are released into indoor air. Numerous liability suits are active on the link between vinyl-produced molds and respiratory and neurological symptoms among exposed populations. Vinyl has been cited as the interior building material most likely to facilitate the growth of these molds. 5. Effects Ethylene Dichloride (EDC) It is an intermediate chemical in the production of PVC resin. Because EDC possible/probable human carcinogen, exposure to high levels is also known to damage the heart, central nervous system, liver, kidneys and lungs in humans. Health effects from repeated exposure to low doses of the chemical are not known. Ethylene dichloride is persistent in both air and water, it may travel long distances once it is in the air and has been found in urban and rural air samples, in indoor samples taken near hazardous waste disposal sites and in surface water, ground water and drinking water. Ingestion of contaminated drinking water is thought to be a significant route of exposure for 4 to 5% of the US population. 6. Effects on Vinyl Chloride Monomer (VCM) Vinyl chloride is a colourless flammable gas, made by subjecting ethylene dichloride to a cracking process. It is the basic building block of PVC. It is transported in liquid form either under pressure or refrigerated, by road rail and sea. Vinyl chloride is classified as a human carcinogen by both the International Agency for Research on Cancer and the US EPA. It is one of the top twenty hazardous substances on the EPA/ATSDR priority list. Liver cancer is a well established risk from chronic exposure and it has also been found to affect immunological, neurological, reproductive and development systems. The primary routes of potential human exposure to vinyl chloride are via inhalation and contact with the skin. People living in the vicinity of emission sources mainly PVC factories - are potentially exposed by breathing contaminated air. According to the US Department of Health and Human Services new car owners are potentially polymers in the car interior. In the United States vinyl chloride has been found in concentrations as high as 380 g/l in ground water and 10g/l in drinking water. This figure for drinking water is five times the maximum contaminant level for vinyl chloride determined by the US EPA under

the safe drinking water act. Workers in the PVC industry face additional risks. Occupational exposures generally occur as vinyl chloride monomer is piped to storage or transportation, during maintenance or during polymerisation to form PVC when vinyl chloride escapes into the air. As well as being highly toxic in its own right, VCM production causes other toxic emissions and residues. For example, for every 100,000 tonnes of vinyl chloride output at the Norsk Hydro plant in Stenungsund, Sweden, by-products include more than 2,700 tonnes of organochlorines (including dioxins).