Food Research International 37 (2004) 477488 www.elsevier.

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Heat and mass transfer in par-baked bread during freezing

Nasser Hamdami
b

a,b

, Jean-Yves Monteau

b,*

, Alain Le Bail

a Department of Food Science and Technology, The University of Tabriz, 51664 Tabriz, Iran UMR GEPEA (UA CNRS 6144 SPI), ENITIAA, Rue de la G eraudi ere, BP 82225, F-44322 Nantes Cedex 03, France

Received 9 November 2003; accepted 23 February 2004

Abstract To understand the phenomena governing the heat and mass transfers during the freezing of par-baked bread, simulation of freezing in an innite two-layer cylinder was performed. A xed grid nite dierence method was used in the solution of simultaneous heat and moisture transfer (SHMT) equations according to Lees three-level scheme. The model accommodates the eects of temperature dependent variables such as apparent specic heat, enthalpy, thermal conductivity, and water activity, and predicts the temperature proles and weight losses. The model was veried by freezing of par-backed breads with cylindrical shape within an experimental freezer. The RMSE between experimental results and model predictions is 0.505 C for surface temperature, and 1.8 C for center temperature. The precision on the loss water is 10%. These results indicate that the method could be successfully applied to SHMT operations in foods freezing. 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Freezing; Porous media; Heat and mass transfer; Modeling and bread

1. Introduction Freezing is one of the important refrigeration processes widely applied in food preservation. One important type of the frozen breads is the par-baked bread that represents half of the volume of frozen breads exported by the French industry towards Northern Europe (Millet & Dougin, 1994). The par-baked bread is a semi-nished product of suciently rigid structure so that its preparation for consumption is easy and rapid. The objective of the partial baking is to carry out the gelatinization and the coagulation of gluten, without reaching to the formation of the reactions of coloring on the crust (Roussel & Chiron, 2002). Many studies on bread baking are available in the literature. Sablani, Marcotte, Baik, and Castaigne (1998) reviewed published experimental and mathematical studies on heat and water transport during baking process. When dough is exposed to a high temperature in an oven, the temperature of the dough surface rises and water from the outer layer evaporates. The moisture content of
*

Corresponding author. Fax: +33-2-51-78-54-67. E-mail address: monteau@enitiaa-nantes.fr (J.-Y. Monteau).

bread dough will thus change with time during baking and the crust will contain less water than the interior, i.e. the crumb (Rask, 1989). Another characteristic change is the increase in volume of the product. This occurs in the initial stage of pre-baking and is mainly due to the expansion of the gas enclosed in the porous dough structure. As a result, the crust has a more dense structure than the crumb. Accordingly, the thermal properties and the heat and mass transfer mechanisms are dierent in the crumb and the crust, and this should be appreciated when measuring thermal properties of bread and when modeling its freezing (Rask, 1989; Zanoni & Peri, 1993; Zanoni, Peri, & Gianotti, 1995). De Vries, Sluimer, and Bloksma (1988) proposed mathematical models for heat and mass transfer in dough and crumb during baking. Thorvaldsson and ldebrand (1998) studied water transport in bread Skjo during baking and showed two main mechanisms. Near the surface, where the temperature was high, water evaporated and so it moved towards the center in the vapour state. Coming near the centre, where the temperature was lower, some water vapor condensed. Thus, the water content in the centre is approximately constant. Understanding of the simultaneous heat and moisture transfers (SHMT) during freezing in porous media is

0963-9969/$ - see front matter 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2004.02.011

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Nomenclature aw Cp D Dv fevacon H Hfw hm kg L L0 ~ L Le M N O P r R RH t T x W water activity specic (sensible) heat, J kg1 K1 moisture diusivity (liquid and vapor) within product, m2 s1 diusivity of water vapor in air, m2 s1
resistance factor against vapor transport

frozen water, kg liquid water/kg dry matter

enthalpy, J kg1
enthalpy of fusion (DSC data), J kg1

average convective heat transfer coecient at surface, W m2 K1 mass transfer coecient at surface, s m1 latent heat of fusion of water at 0 C, J kg1 latent heat of evaporation, J mol1 in Eq. (12), in J kg1 in Eqs. (18) and (25) latent heat of evaporation or sublimation, J kg1 Lewis number molecular mass, g number of nodes for the crumb section discretization number of nodes for the crust section discretization pressure, Pa radius, m perfect gas constant, 8.314510 J mol1 K1
relative humidity, %

Greek letters Drcb space step in the crumb, m Drct space step in the crust, m k thermal conductivity, W m1 K1 e emissivity or volume fraction in m3 m3 product ea porosity q density, kg m3 r StefanBoltzmann constant, 5.67051 108 W m 2 K 4 Subscripts a ambient or correspond of pores (voids) air air app apparent atm atmospheric b bound (unfreezable water) or bread c continuous cb crumb ct crust d dispersed evacon evaporationcondensation f frozen point ha harmonic i ice or component i or ith node s solid or surface sat saturated tw total water w unfrozen water 0 initial

time, s temperature, K mass fraction, kg/kg product unfrozen water (liquid and vapor), kg liquid water/kg dry matter

important to optimize the process of par-baked bread. However, very few studies on bread chilling are available in the literature. However, Van Der Sluis (1993) and Grenier, Monteau, Le Bail, and Hayert (2002) can be quoted. Since the moisture diusion coecients in the frozen zone are signicantly smaller than those in the non-frozen zone, most theoretical models neglect the eect of mass transfer in the frozen regions. In the case of high porosity products, mass transfer cant be neglected. Heat and moisture transfers in wet porous solid foods during freezing are coupled in a complicated way. In most of the published works, semi-empiric models were used. Sukhwal and Aguirre Puente (1983) presented a detailed description of the heat and mass balances that characterize the system, but without solving them numerically. Van Der Sluis (1993) proposed a software for cooling and freezing simulation of bakery products. The program was able to predict the temper-

atures and moisture contents in bakery products during cooling and freezing. Numerical modeling of meat chilling has been conducted in the past (Davey & Pham, 1997). Hu and Sun (2000) simulated the air-blast cooling of cooked meats using CFD package. The theoretical modeling of heat and mass transfer in wet porous media in the presence of evaporationcondensation was also conducted by Bouddour, Auriault, Mhamdi Alaoui, and Bloch (1998) and Sun and Hu (2003). This research is part of a study on freezing modeling of the par-baked breads to provide a better understanding of the mechanism of freezing and an aid in the improvement of design and operation. The aims of current work are: (a) to develop the model for parbaked bread freezing to allow simultaneous prediction of temperature prole and weight loss, and (b) to validate the theoretical model against experimental data.

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center Polystyrene Polyethylene Pol rcb 1 rcb/2 rcb 0

479

H iOld

sample

crust

crumb

N rct rct rct/2

H iNew

surface

rb

Fig. 1. Schematic description of the system model.

Ti

New

(T )
New i

corrected

Ti

Old

Fig. 2. Temperatureenthalpy correction method.

2. Theoretical model The bread sample is modeled as an innite two-layer cylinder (two composites: crumb and crust) of radius rcb and rb (rcb < rb ; rct rb rcb ) (Fig. 1). The radial crosssection of the innite cylinder is divided into a xed grid system with dierent radial volume elements Drcb rcb =N 1; Drct rct =O N . The sample, at uniform temperature T0 and moisture Wcb;0 and Wct;0 is placed into the air blast freezer with a temperature Ta and a known relative humidity (RH). The sample surface, directly exposed to air, is cooled by convection, radiation and evaporation or sublimation. The cooling of the surface results in a conductive heat ux in the product toward the surface of the sample. Heat transfer inside the material can be treated as heat conduction with phase change. The phase change takes place over a wide range of temperatures and the food properties change considerably over this temperature range. This gradual phase change can be incorporated in the heat conduction process by means of the apparent specic heat formulation (Pham, 1985). With the apparent specic heat formulation, it is easy to miss the latent heat peak when a nodal temperature crosses the freezing point quickly (to jump over the latent heat peak). To avoid this problem, the temperatureenthalpy correction method, suggested by Pham (1985), is used: at each time step, the conduction equation (expressed in terms of oTi =ot) is solved by one of the nite dierence methods such as Leess three-level method (Lees, 1966) in the usual manner. The heat gained by the node is assumed correct, hence the new nodal enthalpy is HiNew qCp i TiNew TiOld HiOld 1

and the resulting nodal temperature array is corrected according to TiNew corrected T HiNew : 2

This correction is illustrated in Fig. 2. Conduction in the crumb is not the only mechanism for heat transport. Evaporationcondensation in the crumb seemed to be a signicant mechanism for heat

transport in bread in comparison with conductive heat transfer. Thus, an apparent thermal conductivity for pores (conduction and evaporationcondensation eect) is applied in the estimation of the total apparent thermal conductivity of crumb (De Vries et al., 1988). Nevertheless, this transport might not to be applied to bread crust, because the formation of crust might restrict the diusion of internal vapor in bread to the outside (Hamdami, Monteau, & Le Bail, 2003a; Zanoni et al., 1995). On the other hand, when unwrapped bread are frozen, weight losses take place due to: rstly, evaporation during pre-cooling and then, sublimation during freezing. During freezing, the food surface has a higher temperature than the circulating air, and thus the surface water vapor pressure, Pva , is also higher than that of air. The lower the freezing speed, the slower the decrease in surface temperature, and this results in greater dierence of vapour pressure between food and air. In addition, the duration of the freezing process will be longer. Both factors increase the weight loss. Ice sublimation has been surveyed by several authors during the freezing of different products: lamb (Pham & Willix, 1984), tylose and beef (Sukhwal & Aguirre Puente, 1983), and beef and pork (M endez Bustabad, 1999). The evaporation from the surface results in moisture diusion toward the product surface. In addition, formation of an ice layer creates a water concentration gradient, which is at the origin of another driving force behind the moisture diffusion process, and causes moisture and temperature proles redistribution in both the frozen and non-frozen regions (Bronfenbrener & Korin, 1997; Hoekstra, 1996). Thus, there are four major assumptions used in this work: (1) Moisture diusion (liquid and vapor) is due to the concentration gradient resulted from evaporation/ sublimation on surface and from ice formation. These eects are strongly dependant of unfreezable water content, water activity, temperature, and relative humidity in ambient cold air. (2) Moisture transport is continued (kept) in frozen zone even in bound water level during freezing. Indeed, in porous media diusion continues in the frozen zone, even if the coecient is signicantly

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smaller than in the non-frozen region (Bronfenbrener & Korin, 1997). (3) Heat transfer is carried out by conduction and evaporationcondensation mechanisms due to the temperature gradient resulting from convection, radiation and evaporation/sublimation on surface. (4) The total apparent volume remains constant during freezing (material shrinks is ignored). The heat and mass transfer equations (3)(17), with the boundary conditions (18)(22) form a complete mathematical model for the above-mentioned system. 2.1. Governing equation Heat balance equation   oT 1 o oT qCp rk : 3 ot r or or The temperature dependence of apparent specic heat, enthalpy (Eq. (1)) and thermal conductivity are expressed by the following methods: (a) The method of resolution used requires an interpolation table (HTW). This table is calculated using the apparent specic heat: Cpapp T Cps T xs Cpw T xw T dxi T ; dT   Tf 273:15 xi T xtw xb 1 T 273:15 Cpi T xi T L 4 if T < Tf ; 5 xi T 0 if T P Tf ; 6 7

phase and water the continuous one. In a second stage this system constitutes the dispersed phase, and the continue one is dry matter. In a third and last stage the continue phase is formed by the previous part, and the dispersed phase is air. Thermal conductivity for crust was dened by a parallel model that is written as kct T ea T ka T es T ks T ew T kw T ei T ki T : 9 The volume fraction of each component is given by Eq. (10): qapp xi ei : 10 qi Thermal conductivity expressions for ice, water and solid (carbohydrate) are from Singh (1992), and for air from Ozisik (1985). Air conductivity is modied to account for evaporationcondensation (Sakiyama, Akutsu, Miyawaki, & Yano, 1999): ka T kair T kevacon T fevacon ; 11 where kevacon is the equivalent thermal conductivity due to the latent heat transport (evaporationcondensation): kevacon T D v T Patm dPsat L0 T aw T ; RT Patm aw Psat T dT 12 where Dm T is the diusivity of water in air, and L0 T , the latent heat of evaporation, are from Ozisik (1985). aw is water activity on surface calculated according to the sorption curves (Hamdami et al., 2003a). (ii) Mass balance equation   oW 1 o oT oW D T r T ; 13 ot r or or ot where if T > Tf ;   Tf 273:15 W T W W b 1 T 273:15 W T 0 14 if T 6 Tf : 15 Eq. (13) is based on the assumption that: (i) the unfrozen water diusion continues in the non-frozen and frozen zones throughout freezing and (ii) the measured diusion coecient at positive temperatures can be used at negative temperatures. The diusion coecient of the unfrozen water (liquid and vapor) is considered temperature dependent, but independent of moisture. The mass diusivity D for crumb and crust were modeled by the Arrh eniuss equations, respectively (Hamdami et al., 2003a)   16:97 103 6 Dcb T 2:441 10 exp ; 16 RT

xw T xtw xi T ;

with L, latent heat of fusion. Polynomial expressions for the Cp functions are drawn from Singh (1992). H T is then calculated through integration of Cp between 40 C (reference temperature) and T , for dierent moisture contents. H or T is calculated by interpolation from the values of this table. (b) The thermal conductivity used in this model was an eective thermal conductivity of harmonic type that includes evaporationcondensation phenomenon. It is described with a Maxwell type model in three steps for crumb, which considers a dispersed phase in a continuous one in each step (Hamdami, Monteau, & Le Bail, 2003b). The eective thermal conductivity in crumb is written kcb kc 2kc kd 2e d kc kd ; 2kc kd e d kc kd 8

where kc stands for the continuous phase, kd for the dispersed, and ed for the voluminal ratio of the dispersed phase. Four constituents are considered: ice, liquid water, dry matter and air. In a rst stage, ice is the dispersed

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3

481

 exp

Dct T 1:15 10

 34:9 103 : RT

17

2.2. Boundary conditions The heat conducted to the surface is balanced by forced convection, radiation and evaporation or sublimation:   oT kct W ; W ; T rb ; t or ~T Ps Ts Pa Ta : hm Ts Ta erT 4 T 4 kg L
s a

Di1=2 -value by the following equations (Patankar, 1980): 2kTi ; Wi ; Wi kTi1 ; Wi1 ; Wi 1 ; 23 kha;i1=2 kTi ; Wi ; Wi kTi1 ; Wi1 ; Wi 1 2DTi DTi1 : 24 DTi DTi1 The procedure outlined above was implemented using a computer program written in MATLAB language. Dha;i1=2 4. Parameters used during calculations The inputs to the mathematical model are: temperature, pressure and relative humidity of air, initial product dimensions, crust emissivity, crumb and crust densities, solid and bound water mass fractions, freezing temperature, surface heat transfer coecient, initial product moisture and temperature, number of nodes in the half-thickness space, total time of freezing. The thermophysical properties and operation conditions used in the simulation are shown in Table 1. Based on these inputs, the model will determine: values of moisture and temperature at each node for each time step, water activity variation on surface and total weight loss. 5. Materials and methods 5.1. Par-baked bread preparation

18 Emissivity was xed to 0.9, average value of literature data (Roberts, Tong, & Lund, 2002; Sablani et al., 1998). ~T is L0 T , the latent heat of water vaporization if L T P Tf , or the latent heat of water sublimation if T < Tf . This last value is from Perry and Chilton (1973). hm is determined using the transient temperature method (Creed & James, 1985). kg is calculated by (Ozisik, 1985): hm Mair 2=3 Patm Cpair Le ; kg Mw 19

Ps and Pa are calculated by Ps aw Psat Ts and Pa RH Psat Ta . The water diusing to the surface can be balanced by evaporation or sublimation: Dct Ts qs oW rb ; t kg Ps Ts Pa Ta ; or at the crumbcrust interface: kcb oT oT kct or or at the center: and oWcb oWct ; or or 20

The tests were carried out on par-baked wheat bread of French type. Flour, of type 55, was purchased from a 21
Table 1 The estimated sample thermophysical properties and the conditions of the freezing operation Parameter Freezing time (s) qapp;cb (kg m3 ) qapp;ct (kg m3 ) qapp;s;cb (kg m3 ) qapp;s;ct (kg m3 ) e (emissivity) rcb (m) rct (m) hm (W m2 K1 ) fevacon Patm (Pa) Ta (K1 ) T0 (K1 ) Tf ;cb (K1 ) Tf ;ct (K1 ) Wb;cb (kg liquid water/kg dry matter) Wb;ct (kg liquid water/kg dry matter) W0;cb (kg liquid water/kg dry matter) W0;ct (kg liquid water/kg dry matter) N O Value 5460 180.61 321.31 99.42 241.76 0.9 0.028 0.003 17.53 1 105 233.15 293.95 267.75 258.15 0.413 0.336 0.8165 0.3497 15 20

oT oW 0 and 0: 22 or or Temperature was supposed constant and uniform in the product but moisture was supposed dierent in the two parts (crumb and crust) at time zero. 3. Numerical method The numerical method used for the dierentiation was proposed by Pham (1985). This method is based on the Lees three-level scheme (Lees, 1966). It should be noted that the heat and mass transfer equations are coupled by the transport properties that are functions of both moisture and temperature. At each time step, the values of W and T were calculated at each node. After each time step, the thermal properties were estimated according to the new local moistures and temperatures. The harmonic means were estimated for ki1=2 -value and

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Experimental temperature (C)

local milling plant (Nantes, France). The chemical composition of the wheat our on a dry basis was 15.3% moisture, 10.8% proteins, and 0.6% ash (data given by the supplier). The dough ingredients in percent of our weight were: 60% water, 3% yeast, 2.2% salt and 0.7% improving additive. Mixing was done in a spiral mixer (VMI, Montaigu, France) and comprised two steps: a low-speed mixing step (4 min, 100 rpm), and a highspeed mixing step (11 min, 200 rpm). The temperature of the dough after kneading was 23 0.5 C. Dough was let to rest for 30 min at ambient temperature and was then formed into a 27 cm long and 3 cm radius cylinder. The cylindrical dough were placed on the steel moulds and placed in a proong cabinet for 90 min at 27 C and a relative humidity greater than 90% (nal proong). After the dough scarication, pre baking and chilling were performed in a forced convection electric oven and in a cabinet with controlled temperature and humidity (baking: for 12 min at 150 C; chilling: 10 C, RH > 85%), respectively. Chilling of bread was considered nished when the temperature at the bread geometrical center reached 20 C. The nal diameter of the bread cylinder was approximately 57 2 mm. Finally, after packaging the par-baked breads in two moisture impermeable lms, they were frozen at 30 C and stored at 20 C for experiments. The packaged samples were thawed at 20 C for 2 h before the experiments. This manufacturing method deviates from the industrial way, but enables to get homogenous sample. 5.2. Freezing processes and temperature measurements Air-blast freezing was carried out in a blast air freezer (Servathin, France) at 40 C with an air owed perpendicular to the product surface at a velocity of 1 m/s. The freezer used was equipped with a PID temperature controller (0.1 C). The cylindrical bread samples after thawing were used in freezing process. Dimensions (height and diameter) and weight of each roll were measured immediately after thawing. The sample mean
0,3 cm 1,2 cm

diameters were 57 2 mm, respectively. Then, K-type thermocouples with 0.3 mm diameter (Omega, Stamford, USA) were placed in center and right under surface of the sample. Two discs in polystyrene (thickness 3 cm) and polyethylene were attached to both ends of the cylindrical samples to prevent heat and moisture exchanges from the ends, and to promote one-dimensional heat and mass transfer (Fig. 1). Then the sample was placed in the freezer and the temperature data acquisition was started.
30 20 10

center (exp) surface (e xp)

center (model) surface ( model)

Temperature (C)

0 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Time (s)

Fig. 4. Comparison of predicted surface and center temperatures with experimental results.

30 20

y = 1,04x -0,8852x R2= 0,9952

10 0

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50

10

20

30

center temperature regression line

Simulated temperature (C)

Fig. 5. Regression line for comparing experimental and simulated central temperature.

crust outer crumb air flow

Experimental temperature (C)

30 20

y = 0,9682x -1,1477 R2= 0,9966

-50 -40 -30 -20 -10

10 0 0 -10 ll -20 -30 -40 10 20 30

2 cm

inner crumb

surface temperature regression line

1,2 cm
-50

0,3 cm

Simulated temperature (C)

Fig. 3. Location of the sampling area for determination of bread moisture distribution at the end of freezing.

Fig. 6. Regression line for comparing experimental and simulated surface temperature.

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The temperature data were collected by a digital recorder (Datalog 20, AOIP, Evry, France) during freezing. The initial freezing point, Tf , was determined from the temperature history of the sample. The air relative humidity was logged throughout the experiment with an hygrometer (Hygrolog, Rotronic, Swiss), and the data were used for the simulations.
Unfrozen moisture content (g/(100g DM))
0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0 1000 2000

5.3. Measurement of weight loss and moisture distribution The total weight loss of the sample was measured during freezing by weighing the sample before and immediately after freezing. The determination of bread moisture distribution at the end of freezing was achieved by sampling according to Fig. 3. The bread samples

centre interface surface

3000

4000

5000

6000

(a)
0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0. 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0 1000 2000

Time (s)

Frozen moisture content (g/(100g DM))

3000

4000

5000

6000

(b)
0.9

Time (s)

Total moisture content (g/(100g DM))

0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

(c)

Time (s)

Fig. 7. Typical graphs of the simulated (a) unfrozen water, (b) frozen water, and (c) total moisture contents in the crumb core, crumbcrust interface and the crust surface during freezing at 40 C for 5460 s.

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were divided in three portions, and their moistures were determined by a gravimetric method (AOAC, 1996): the water mass of the samples is calculated by dierence between the mass before and after desiccation at 110 C during 2 h. 5.4. Unfreezable water weight fraction Bound water weight fraction, xb was determined from DSC data as the dierence between total water weight fraction and the amount of water detected by the total enthalpy of fusion Hfw (Ross, 1978): the sample is cooled at )40 C, the temperature is increased at a constant rate in the calorimeter. The fusion of ice is detected as an endothermic peak with area proportional to the amount of ice present. xb xtw Hfw : 25 L The total water content of samples was determined in triplicate by drying 5 g of sample in a forced convection oven at 103 C for 16 h. The samples were cooled in a dessicator and weighed by an analytical balance (sensitivity 0.01 mg).

in Fig. 4. When the bread sample is placed in the freezer, the surface temperature decreases quickly, while the temperature decrease in the centre is slower. In the bread sample core, temperature rstly decreases with the freezing time up to 1200 s and then stays on a plateau at 5.4 C (Tf ;cb ) until 1400 s, and nally decreases up to the cold air temperature. As could be seen, the correlation between experimental and predicted values on the surface is very well (Figs. 5 and 6). The root mean square of errors is 0.505 C for the surface temperature and 1.8 C for center temperature. However, the prediction of the center temperature agrees with the experimental values only up to the freezing time of 2300 s. Between the freezing time of 23004500 s, the predicted temperatures were underestimated compared with the experimental values (max SD 3 C). Then, the predicted core temperature approaches the experimental values (38.6 C after 5460 s compared with the experimental temperature of 39.4 C in the same freezing period). Finally, the results show good agreement between simulation and experimental data. 6.2. Moisture prole Fig. 7 shows the typical graphs of the simulated unfrozen, frozen and total moisture content in the crumb core, crumbcrust interface and the crust surface during freezing at )40 C for 5460 s. The moisture content at the crust surface decreases (lower than Wb;ct ) rapidly a little time as the temperature decreases due to the evaporation during precooling (Fig. 7(a) and (c)). Thus, the frozen water cannot be observed at the surface (Fig. 7(b)). Then a balance settles between the evaporation and diusion toward the surface from the near layers. The moisture content consequently remains constant (between 1200 and 2500 s). Finally, it starts to increase because the diusion

6. Results and discussion 6.1. Temperature prole Four experiments of model validation were carried out. The samples and the initial and environmental conditions were not the same for each test, but the differences experiment/simulation were similar. The curves presented are a typical example of the obtained results. The experimental center and surface temperatures and the values predicted by the simulation are presented

9.00E-05 8.00E-05

0.6 0.5

7.00E-05 6.00E-05 5.00E-05 0.3 4.00E-05 3.00E-05 2.00E-05 1.00E-05 0.00E+00 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 0.2 0.4

weig loss rate weight a accumulated weight loss

0.1 0 6000

Time (s) (s
Fig. 8. Predicted weight loss rate and accumulative weight loss throughout the freezing process.

Accumulated weight loss (%DM)

Weight loss rate (kg s -1 m-2)

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485

becomes dominant compared to evaporation (Fig. 7(a) and (c)). In the crumbcrust interface and crumb core, the simulated unfrozen water content rst remains approximately constant on initial plateau until the freezing front approaches to them up to 300 and 1200 s, re-

spectively (Fig. 7(a)). Then, there is an important fall of the unfrozen water content to bound water content because the unfrozen water changes to ice (Fig. 7(a) and (b)). Finally, unfrozen water content stays constant on two dierent plateaus in the crumbcrust interface and crumb core (Fig. 7(a)). As can be seen, there is a

1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85

3000

saturated water vapor pressure

2500

Water activity

2000

0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 1000 1500

500

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

0 6000

(a)
68 67

Time (s)
200 180 160 66 140 65 64 63 62 61 60 120 100 80

relative humidity saturated water vapor pressure

60 40 20

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

0 6000

(b)
400

Time (s)
cold air
350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

(c)

Partial water vapor pressure (Pa)

surface

Time (s)

Fig. 9. Typical graphs of (a) saturated vapor pressure and water activity on the bread surface, (b) saturated vapor pressure and relative humidity in the circulating cold air, and (c) vapor pressure in the ambient air and on the bread surface during freezing process.

Saturated water vapor pressure (Pa)

Relative humidity (%)

Saturated water vapor pressure (Pa)

water activity

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dierence between the simulated frozen water contents in the crumbcrust interface and crumb core (Fig. 7(b)). This dierence can be explained by the fact that the freezable water contents at the interface and in the crumb are dierent because of the longer time for the diusion before freezing in the crumb core compared to the crumbcrust interface. Another reason is that the accumulated frozen water content in the crumbcrust interface due to the ice formation eect is probably important. The moisture transfer in liquid and vapor form continues at the sub-freezing period in the frozen zone. However, since its value is not very important, the unfrozen water content decreases slowly in the crumb crust interface and crumb core (Fig. 7(a)). The weight loss rate and accumulative weight loss obtained from simulation during freezing are shown in Fig. 8. It is clear that the weight loss rate is highest at the beginning of the freezing process. This is a result of the large temperature gradient in the beginning of the simulation. The higher the surface temperature, the higher the saturated water vapor pressure, and this results in greater dierences of vapor pressure between bread surface and cold air. As the surface temperature rapidly decreases with the freezing time, the saturated water vapor pressure and water activity on the surface of the bread decrease (Fig. 9(a)). This results in lower vapor pressure on the surface (Fig. 9(c)). In the other hand, relative humidity of ambient air increases with the

freezing time, and this results in the increase of partial vapor pressure in the circulating cold air (Fig. 9(b) and (c)). The result of these two causes is a decrease of the partial vapor pressure dierence between the air and the bread surface. Consequently, the evaporation rate gradually decreases with the freezing time (Figs. 8 and 9(c)). For a typical experiment, the experimental and predicted values of the accumulative weight loss during freezing (5400 s) are shown in Table 2. The mean difference experiment/simulation of four tests is 0.064% DM, for a mean loss of 0.65% DM. Thus, the precision of the computed loss water is 10%. A dierence in moisture of 3.7% DM is observed for the crust. It can be explained by experimental diculties: the samples are not perfectly cylindrical, and the thickness of the crust is not exactly 3 mm. Also, Fig. 9(a) shows that the water activity on the bread surface after the decreasing and balance periods increases, because diusion becomes dominant compared to evaporation, and thus the moisture content at the surface increases. Fig. 10 shows the comparison of the simulated moisture content distribution within the bread after a freezing time of 5460 s with and without considering the ice formation term oW =oT . As could be seen, the difference between them is more important about the crumbcrust interface. The experimental bread moisture distribution at the end of freezing compared with the

Table 2 The experimental and predicted values of the moisture content distribution of a partly baked bread sample according to Fig. 2, and total weight loss at the end of freezing Moisture content distribution (% DM) Inner crumb Experimental value Predicted value (with ice formation term) Simulated value (without ice formation term) 80.97 81.24 81.65 Outer crumb 79.69 80.78 81.65 Crust 38.91 35.22 32.57 0.50 0.52 0.52 Total weight loss (% DM)

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Moisture content (g /100g DM)

without ice formation term with ice formation term

Radius (cm)

Fig. 10. Comparison of the predicted moisture content distributions with and without considering the ice formation term (oW =oT ) at the end of freezing.

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initial one, shows that the moisture content in the crust increases while it decreases in the inner and outer crumbs at the end of freezing (Tables 1 and 2). As could be seen, the model with the ice formation eect is able to predict the moisture content distribution in the porous structure of bread better than the model without this eect. It conrms the ice formation eect during freezing the porous product. It can be concluded that the simulated water content and temperatures follow the measured values well on the validity domain: )40 to 25 C, and 2085% DM. This shows that the evaporation and condensation eect with conduction, and ice formation eect with diusion describe the heat and mass transfer mechanisms within a porous food well. However, there are some dierences between the simulated and measured values. This is probably due to the accuracy of the physical properties determination of the partly baked bread. Also, it was assumed that the geometry of the bread was a regular cylinder with diameter of 60 mm in the developed model, however, the diameter of the bread was actually not always a constant along its length: the diameter of sample slightly reduced towards its two ends. Therefore, the inaccuracy setting of the geometry may result in errors on the predictions, especially in over-estimation of the temperature. Furthermore, the initial temperature of the sample was assumed uniform in the simulation, however it is very dicult to achieve in practice. A few minutes were needed to insert the thermocouples before the freezing started, to remove the sample from the freezer, and to take measurement of weight. During this period, natural convection occurred between the sample and air at room temperature; hence, some cooling of the surface occurred, giving a slightly uneven temperature distribution in the sample.

Work will continue on freezing process optimization of the partly baked bread by application of the developed model.

Acknowledgements Acknowledgements to Jacques Laurenceau, Luc Guihard and Olivier Rioux for technical support.

References
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7. Conclusions A numerical model was developed to simulate the coupled heat and mass transfer simultaneously in an innite two-layer cylinder (two composites: crumb and crust) during freezing. This approach is based on the introduction of two terms in the energy and mass balance equations: (i) the evaporationcondensation eect in the eective thermal conductivity estimation, and (ii) the ice formation rate in the mass balance equation. The predicted results showed good agreements with experimental results in terms of temperature and weight loss: the RMSE between experimental results and model predictions is 0.505 C for surface temperature, and 1.8 C for the center temperature, and the precision on the loss water is 10%. The model used is simple. The porous nature is taken into account with the thermophysical properties. It can be concluded that this approach is appropriate for analysis of SHMT, in porous media.

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