About the Lecturer

JointComprehensiveCertificateCourseon HVAC&RSystem,2012
2012

Dr. Sam C. M. Hui

PhD, BEng(Hons), CEng, CEM, MASHRAE, MCIBSE, MHKIE, MIESNA, LifeMAEE, AssocAIA ASHRAE Distinguished Lecturer (2009-2011) CEng = Chartered Engineer CEM = Certified Energy Manager LifeMAEE = Life Member, Associatn of Energy Engineers Worked in 1998 as a visiting researcher in the Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre, Japan Research interests: energy efficiency in buildings and sustainable building technologies

FundamentalsofHVAC&RPart1
Presentedby:

Ir Dr.SamC.M.Hui
February28,2012

Joint Comprehensive Certificate Course on HVAC&R System, 2012 Feb-Apr 2012

Contents
Introduction Psychrometry

Fundamentals of HVAC&R Part 1

Dr. Sam C. M. Hui
Department of Mechanical Engineering The University of Hong Kong E-mail: cmhui@hku.hk

Thermal comfort Load and energy calculations

Introduction
Terminology
Heating, ventilating, air-conditioning and refrigerating (HVAC&R) Heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) Mechanical ventilating and air-conditioning (MVAC or ACMV) Air conditioning and refrigeration (AC&R) Environmental control systems (ECS)

Introduction
Definition (from ASHRAE*) Air conditioning is the process of treating air so as to control simultaneously its temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and distribution to meet the requirements of the conditioned space.
Basic processes: Cooling and Heating

Misused word in HK:

Air cond. (= cold air)

Comfort air conditioning

To meet comfort requirements of occupants
(*ASHRAE = American Society of Heating, Refrigerating & Air-conditioning Engineers, Inc.)

(Source: www.howstuffworks.com/ac.htm)

See also: How Air Conditioners Work (1:07) http://youtu.be/nKZ2DPvvua8

(Source: www.howstuffworks.com/ac.htm)

Refrigerant cycle A typical air conditioner

What are the major components?

Chilled water system Multiple chiller variable flow chilled water system
(Source: ASHRAE HVAC Systems and Equipment Handbook 2004)

Air conditioning with a chilled water system

(Source: www.howstuffworks.com/ac.htm)

Introduction
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration
No. 10 on the list of the [Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th Century] http://www.greatachievements.org
These cooling technologies have altered some of our most fundamental patterns of living Buildings are climate-controlled & comfortable Fresh foods & milk are kept in refrigerators/freezers Building designs are changed completely Environment for industrial processes are controlled

Introduction
The History of Air Conditioning
www.air-conditioners-andheaters.com/air_conditioning_history.htm
1830: Dr. John Gorrie (ice for cooling hospital rooms) 1881: James Garfield (device w/ melted ice water) Late 19th century: manufactured air (controlling humidity in textile mills) Early 1900s: Willis Carrier (designed modern A/C systems for offices, apartments, hotels, hospitals) 1917-1930: movie theatres were kept cool by A/C

Introduction
Common types of air conditioning systems
Centralised air systems
Constant volume (CV), variable air volume (VAV), Displacement ventilation

Partially centralised air/water systems

Fan coils, chilled beams, chilled ceilings, room based heat pumps

Local systems
Split units, variable refrigerant flow (VRF) or variable refrigerant volume (VRV) [??]

Individual room air-conditioning system

Primary air fan coil unit (PA-FCU) system

(Source: EnergyWitts newsletter, EMSD)

Variable-air volume (VAV) package system

Psychrometry
Psychrometry
The study of atmospheric air and its associated water vapour Dry air and moist air

Daltons law of partial pressures Standard atmospheric pressure = 101.325 kPa Saturated vapour pressure
Max. pressure of water vapour that can occur at any given temperature
Psychrometric Chart Wet-bulb temperature

Psychrometry
Psychrometric Chart: parameters
Moisture content (g), or absolute humidity (w) Relative humidity (rh or RH) Percentage saturation () Wet-bulb temperature (twb) Specific volume (v)

Can you read them from the chart?

Enthalpy Dew-point temperature

Relative humidity

Humidity ratio Dry-bulb temperature Specific volume

(See the illustration on psychrometric chart)

Basic psychrometric processes

Psychrometry
3

Common processes:
Sensible cooling / sensible heating Cooling and dehumidification / heating and humidification Humidification / dehumidification Evaporative cooling / chemical dehydration
2

5 1

6 4

Typical devices:
Cooling/heating coils Humidifiers / dehumifiers

Process 0-1: Sensible heating Process 0-2: Sensible cooling Process 0-3: Humidifying Process 0-4: Dehumidifying Process 0-5: Heating and humidifying Process 0-6: Cooling and dehumidifying Process 0-7: Cooling and humidifying Process 0-8: Heating and dehumidifying

Psychrometric processes

Cooling coil

Sensible cooling/heating

Cooling and dehumidification

Entering air

Leaving air

Adiabatic dehumidification

Evaporative cooling

Cooling and dehumidification

Simple air conditioning cycle

Can you draw such a cycle for Hong Kong summer conditions?
- Outdoor: DBT = 33 C; WBT = 28 C; flow = 20% of supply air - Indoor: DBT = 25 C; %RH = 50% - Air leaving cooling coil: DBT = 13 C; %RH = 95%

What is Thermal Comfort? Psychrometry

Further reading & learning:
Air Conditioning: Psychrometrics [www.bsenotes.com]
www.arca53.dsl.pipex.com/index_files/psy1.htm

CIBSE Journal CPD Programme: The psychrometrics of air conditioning systems (Mar 2010), www.cibsejournal.com/cpd/2010-03/ Daikin's Free Psychrometrics tool
www.daikin.eu/binaries/Psychrometric%20diagram%2 0viewer%20V210_tcm24-133157.zip

- That condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment.

ISO 7730

Body Temperature
37 oC 34 oC

Perception of Thermal Environment

Heat sensor in Hypothalamus send impulses when temperature exceeds 37 oC. Cold sensors sends impulses when skin temperature below 34 oC. The bigger temperature difference, the more impulses. If impulses are of same magnitude, you feel thermally neutral. If not, you feel cold or warm.

Normal body core temperature: 37 oC. We have separate Heat- and Coldsensors.
Heat sensor is located in hypothalamus. Signals when temperature is higher than o 37 C. Cold sensors are located in the skin. Send signals when skin temperature is o below 34 C.

Heating mechanism:
Reduced blood flow. Shivering.

Cooling mechanism:
Hot Cold

Increased blood flow. Sweating (Evaporation).

Warm impulses

Cold impulses

Activity

The Energy Balance

Thermal comfort
General heat balance

Heat Produced

Heat Lost

S = M - W - E - (R + C) where
S = rate of heat storage of human body M = metabolic rate W = mechanical work done by human body E = rate of total evaporation loss R + C = dry heat exchange through radiation & convection

Thermal Comfort can only be maintained when heat produced by metabolism equals the heat lost from body.

Conditions for Thermal Comfort

o

The Comfort Equation

C.

34 33 32 31 30 29 0 W/m2 Sweat prod. 100 80 60 40 20 0 1 2 3 4 Metabolic Rate 1 2 3 4 Metabolic Rate

Two conditions must be fulfilled to maintain Thermal Comfort:

Heat produced must equal heat lost Signals from Heat- and Coldsensors must neutralise each other

The sweat production is used instead of body core temperature, as measure of the amount of warm impulses. Relation between the parameters found empirically in experiments. No difference between sex, age, race or geographic origin.

The Comfort Equation (contd) Thermal comfort

Environmental factors:
Dry-bulb temperature (also related to humidity) Relative humidity (or water vapour pressure)
Influences evap heat loss and skin wettedness Usually RH between 30% and 70% is comfortable

Air velocity (increase convective heat loss)

Preferable air velocity

Mean radiation temperature

Radiation has great effect on thermal sensation

Mean Radiant Temperature

0.8 Met

Metabolic Rate
R
8 Met 1 Met

Actual room R

t4

Imaginary room tr

t1

Heat exchange by radiation: R=R t

2

t3

The Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT) is that uniform temperature of an imaginary black enclosure resulting in same heat loss by radiation from the person, as the actual enclosure. Measuring all surface temperatures and calculation of angle factors is time consuming. Therefore use of Mean Radiant Temperature is avoided when possible.

4 Met

Energy released by metabolism depends on muscular activity. Metabolism is measured in Met (1 Met=58.15 W/m2 body surface). Body surface for normal adult is 1.7 m2. A sitting person in thermal comfort will have a heat loss of 100 W. Average activity level for the last hour should be used when evaluating metabolic rate, due to bodys heat capacity.

Calculation of Insulation in Clothing

1.2 Clo 1.0 Clo 0.5 Clo 0,15 Clo

Comfort Temperature, tco (typical)

1 Clo = Insulation value of 0,155

m2 oC/W

1.7 clo 2.5 Met RH=50% tco=6oC

0.8 clo 2.2 Met RH=50% tco=18oC

0.5 clo 1.2 Met RH=50% tco=24,5oC

Thermal comfort
- +3 Hot

Predicted Mean Vote scale

The PMV index is used to quantify the degree of discomfort - +2 Warm - +1 Slightly warm - +0 Neutral - - 1 Slightly cool - -2 Cool - -3 Cold

Predicted mean vote (PMV)

A complex function of six major comfort parameters Predict mean value of the subjective ratings of a group of people in a given environment

Predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD)

Determined from PMV as a quantitative measure of thermal comfort Dissatisfied means not voting -1, +1 or 0 in PMV Normally, PPD < 7.5% at any location and LPPD < 6%

PMV and PPD

Thermal comfort
Comfort zones
Defined using isotherms parallel to effective temperature (ET) or standard ET (SET) ASHRAE comfort zones for summer and winter (for typical indoor and seated person) Proposed comfort zones
Within 5 to 16 mm Hg water vapour pressure For summer, 22.8 oC SET 26.1 oC For winter, 20.0 oC SET 23.9 oC

PMV-index (Predicted Mean Vote) predicts the subjective ratings of the environment in a group of people.
0 = neutral (still 5% people are dissatisfied)

PPD-index predicts the number of dissatisfied people.

ASHRAE Comfort Zones (based on 2004 version of ASHRAE Standard 55)

Local Thermal Discomfort

Radiation Asymmetry Draught

Vertical Air Temperature Differences.

Floor temperature

Acclimatisation/Adaptation!

Load & energy calculations

Thermal load
The amount of heat that must be added or removed from the space to maintain the proper temperature in the space

When the air condition system fails you can adapt by adjusting your CLO value

When thermal loads push conditions outside of the comfort range, HVAC systems are used to bring the thermal conditions back to comfort conditions

Load & energy calculations

Purpose of HVAC load estimation
Calculate peak design loads (cooling/heating) Estimate likely plant/equipment capacity or size Specify the required airflow to individual spaces Provide info for HVAC design e.g. load profiles Form the basis for building energy analysis

Cooling load is our main target

Important for warm climates & summer design Affect building performance & its first cost
Cooling load profiles

Load & energy calculations

Typical HVAC load design process
1. Rough estimates of design loads & energy use
Such as by rules of thumb & floor areas See Cooling Load Check Figures See references for some examples of databooks

Cooling Load Components

External
1. Heat gain through exterior walls and roofs 2. Solar heat gain through fenestrations (windows) 3. Conductive heat gain through fenestrations 4. Heat gain through partitions & interior doors

2. Develop & assess more info (design criteria, building info, system info)
Building layouts & plans are developed

Internal
1. People 2. Electric lights 3. Equipment and appliances
Components of building cooling load

3. Perform detailed load & energy calculations

Cooling Load Components

Infiltration
Air leakage and moisture migration, e.g. flow of outdoor air into a building through cracks, unintentional openings, normal use of exterior doors for entrance
External loads Internal loads

System (HVAC)
Outdoor ventilation air System heat gain: duct leakage & heat gain, reheat, fan & pump energy, energy recovery
+ Ventilation load & system heat gains

Load & energy calculations

Cooling load calculation method
Example: CLTD/SCL/CLF method
It is a one-step, simple calculation procedure developed by ASHRAE CLTD = cooling load temperature difference SCL = solar cooling load CLF = cooling load factor

Load & energy calculations

External
Roofs, walls, and glass conduction
q = U A (CLTD) q = A (SC) (SCL) U = U-value; A = area SC = shading coefficient

Solar load through glass

For unshaded area and shaded area

See ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals for details

Tables for CLTD, SCL and CLF

Partitions, ceilings, floors

q = U A (tadjacent - tinside)

Load & energy calculations

Internal
People
qsensible = N (Sensible heat gain) (CLF) qlatent = N (Latent heat gain)

Load & energy calculations

Ventilation and infiltration air
qsensible = 1.23 Q (toutside - tinside) qlatent = 3010 Q (woutside - winside) qtotal = 1.2 Q (houtside - hinside)

Lights
q = Watt x Ful x Fsa (CLF)
Ful = lighting use factor; Fsa = special allowance factor

System heat gain

Fan heat gain Duct heat gain and leakage Ceiling return air plenum

Appliances
qsensible = qinput x usage factors (CLF) qlatent = qinput x load factor (CLF)

Load & energy calculations

Definitions
Space heat gain: instantaneous rate of heat gain that enters into or is generated within a space Space cooling load: the rate at which heat must be removed from the space to maintain a constant space air temperature Space heat extraction rate: the actual rate of heat removal when the space air temp. may swing Cooling coil load: the rate at which energy is removed at a cooling coil serving the space

Conversion of heat gain into cooling load

(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2005)

North

Cooling loads due to windows at different orientations

West

East

South Block load and thermal zoning

(Source: D.G. Stephenson, 1968)

Load & energy calculations

From load estimation to energy calculations
Only determine peak design loads is not enough Need to evaluate HVAC and building energy consumption
To support design decisions (e.g. evaluate design options) To enhance system design and operation To compile with building energy code

Load & energy calculations

Two categories
Steady-state methods
Degree-day method Variable base degree-day method Bin and modified bin methods

Energy calculations
More complicated than design load estimation Form the basis of building energy and economic analysis

Dynamic methods
Using computer-based building energy simulation Try to capture dynamic response of the building Can be developed based on transfer function, heat balance or other methods

Heating degree-day:

Weather data

Cooling degree-day:

Only take the positive values

tbal = base temperature (or balance point temperature) (e.g. 18.3 oC or 65 oF); Qload = Qgain + Qloss = 0 to = outdoor temperature (e.g. average daily max./min.) * Degree-hours if summing over 24-hourly intervals Degree-day = (degree-hours)+ / 24

Building description
- physical data - design parameters

Simulation tool (computer program)

Simulation outputs

- energy consumption (MWh) - energy demands (kW) - environmental conditions

Building energy simulation process

HVAC air systems Energy storage HVAC water systems

Load & energy calculations

Further reading & learning:
Comfort [www.bsenotes.com] www.arca53.dsl.pipex.com/index_files/science1.htm Thermal comfort Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_comfort ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2009, Chps. 14-19 (on load and energy calculations)

Thermal Zone

Systems (air-side)

Plant (waterside & refrig.)

Energy input by appliance

Energy input by HVAC air/water systems

Energy input by HVAC plant