Section 10 Overhead Lines and

Underground Cables
Overhead lines
Overhead lines supports (towers and poles)
Overhead lines conductors
Fittings
Representation of lines
Underground cables
Insulation, thermosetting and thermoplastic for cables
1
Overhead Lines
Overhead lines are usually suspended from insulators.
The insulators are supported by towers or poles.
The span between two towers depends upon the allowable sag
in the line.
Example: the span for steel towers with very-high voltage lines
is normally 370-460 m.
There are two main types of towers as follows:
Those for straight runs, which are designed to withstand the
stress due to the weight of line alone.
Those for changes in route also known as deviation
towers. They need to be able to withstand resultant forces
due to line changing directions.
2
Overhead Lines
Overhead lines are, in essence, air-insulated cables suspended
from insulated supports with a power transfer capacity
approximately proportional to the square of the line voltage.
The overhead lines components under IEC standards are as
follows:
conductors
fittings
vibration dampers
supports.
3
Overhead Lines
Overhead lines versus underground cables
Cables are more expensive than overhead lines, the higher
ratios being found at higher voltages. For the transmission of
equivalent power at 11 kV, a cable feeder would cost some 5
times the cost of a transmission line, at 132 kV 8 times and at
400 kV, 23 times.
Overhead lines are a lot more forgiving when it comes to
overloading than cables.
Catastrophic failures due to short circuits are rare.
Line damages can be discovered and repaired more easily than
underground cables.
Over head lines can be altered easily in situ to accommodate
change.

4
Overhead Lines
Key elements:
Transmission voltage evolution
Voltage classification according to EN 60071 and General Use
International and European standards
Technical comparison of AC and DC transmission


5
Transmission Voltage Evolution
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Year of inauguration
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)
6
Development of three-phase AC network transmission voltages
Voltage Classification According to
EN 60071 and General Use
Below 1 kV: Low Voltage (LV)
Between 1 kV and 45 kV : Medium Voltage (MV)
Between 45 kV and 300 kV : High Voltage (HV)
Between 300 kV and 75 kV : Extra-High Voltage (EHV)
Above 800 kV : Ultra-High Voltage (UHV)

7
International and European Standards for
Overhead Lines
Standard Description
IEC 60383 Insulators for overhead lines with a nominal voltage above 1000 V
IEC 60471 Dimensions of clevis and tongue couplings on string insulator units
IEC 60720 Characteristics of line post insulators
IEC 60797
Residual strength of string insulator units of glass or ceramic material
for overhead lines after mechanical damage to the dielectric
IEC 60826 Design criteria for overhead transmission lines
IEC/TR 60828 Loading and strength of overhead transmission lines
IEC/TR 61774 Meteorological data for assessing climatic loads for overhead lines
EN 12465 Wood poles for overhead lines durability requirements
EN 12479
Wood poles for overhead lines signs, methods of measurement and
densities
EN 12510 Wood poles for overhead lines strength grading criteria
EN 12511 Wood poles for overhead lines determination of characteristic values
EN 12509
Timber poles for overhead lines determination of modulus of elasticity,
binding strength, density and moisture content 8
International and European Standards for
Overhead Lines
Standard Description
EN 14229 Wood poles for overhead lines requirements
EN 12843 Precast concrete masts and poles
EN 50341 Overhead electrical lines exceeding AC 45 k V
EN 50423 Overhead lines AC 1 to 45 k V
Eurocode 1 EN 1991
Basis of design and actions on structures; 1991-1-3 covers snow loads;
1991-2-4 covers wind loads
Eurocode 2 EN 1992 Design of concrete structures 1992-3 covers concrete foundations
Eurocode 3 EN 1993 Design of steel structures
Eurocode 7 EN 1997 Geotechnical design
Eurocode 8 EN 1998 Design provision for earthquake resistance of structures
9
Technical Comparison of AC and DC
Transmission
Advantages of DC line towards AC lines
DC lines present lower power losses.
DC lines present lower switching overvoltage and therefore
lower clearance to tower.
DC lines introduce no problem of stability.
DC lines have the ability to interconnect systems of different
frequency through back-to-back converter stations.
DC lines present lower levels of short circuit.

10
Technical Comparison of AC and DC
Transmission
Disadvantages of DC line towards AC lines
DC lines cannot directly supply loads.
DC lines cannot be economically taped to supply consumers.
The converter stations need a high ratio of reactive power to
supply commutation equipments which reaches to 60% of
active power.

11
Support Types and their Applications
Definition: Towers or poles are parts of support and consist of
tower or pole body, earth wire peaks and cross arms.
Transmission voltage, the number of circuits, the height of
supports and other aspects determine the support design and
materials.
Self-supporting structures: Poles made of reinforced concrete,
solid wall steel and wood as well as steel towers and portal
structures.
12
Support Types and their Applications
Key elements:
Pole structures
Tower structures
Tasks of supports in an overhead line
Support design and application

13
Pole Structures
Pole structures are especially used for economic household
distribution at voltage levels of 380/415 V and 20/11kV where
planning permission allows such arrangements in place of
buried cables.
Pole structures are also used at the lower transmission voltage
levels, typically at up to 145 kV but also with multipole and
guyed (stayed) arrangements at voltages up to 330kV.
Low-voltage designs are based on matching the calculated
equivalent pole head load to the particular type and diameter of
wood, steel or concrete to be employed.
At higher voltages specific designs are used in order to select
optimum size and relative cost.
14
Typical Pole Structures
15
Low voltage
Wood pole
Low voltage thin
wall steel pole
Single circuit
Single circuit
Trient (no
earth wire)
Typical Pole Structures
16
Single circuit
twin earth wire
Combined 3 wires
11 kV and 380 V
Double circuit
twin earth wire
Tower Structures
In order to standardise, towers are categorized typically to fulfill the
following duties:
Suspension towers: straight line and deviation angles up to about 2
10 angle or section tower: angles of deviation up to 2 or at section
positions also for heavy weight spans or with unequal effective
negative weight spans
30 angle: deviation angles up to 30
60 angle: deviation angles up to 60
90 angle: deviation angles up to 90
Terminal tower: terminal tower loading taking full line tension on one
side of tower and none or slack span on other typically at substation
entry
17
Typical Tower Outlines
18
Single circuit
Single earth wire
Double circuit
Single earth wire
Typical Tower Outlines
19
Single circuit
double earth wire
Double circuit
double earth wire
Tasks of Supports in an Overhead Line
1. Suspension supports
2. Angle suspension supports
3. Angle supports
4. Strain and angle strain supports
5. Dead-end supports
6. Special supports
20
Tasks of Supports in an Overhead Line
1. Suspension supports:
Carry the conductors in a straight line.

2. Angle suspension supports:
Serve as suspension supports for conductors where the line
changes the direction at line angle deflection.
Important at voltages higher than 110 kV.
The angle change is 0-20 degrees.

3. Angle supports:
Carry the resulting conductor tensile forces where the line
changes direction at line angle deflections.
21
Tasks of Supports in an Overhead Line
4. Strain and angle strain supports:
Carry the conductor tensile force in line direction or in resultant
direction.
Serve as rigid points in the line.
Secure the line against cascading failures.
5. Dead-end supports:
Carry the total conductor tensile forces in line direction on one
side.
Are additionally loaded by conductors leading to the substation
portals.
Act often under large angle to the horizon over a short distance.
22
Tasks of Supports in an Overhead Line
6. Special supports:
Supports that are used for several functions of individual supports.
For example, a branch support which assumes the task of angle or
angle-strain support concerning the circuit passing through.

23
Support Design and Application
1. Selection of support design
2. Self supporting lattice steel towers
3. Self supporting steel poles
4. Steel reinforced concrete poles
5. Wood poles
6. Guyed supports
7. Cross-armless supports
24
Support Design and Application
1. Selection of support design factors:
Optimum utilization of right-of-way
Environmental impact
Prospected life time
Location
Terrain and its access
Number of circuits to be installed on the same structure
Mechanical and climetical load
Required height of structure
Land use for the line and its vicinity
Keraunic level and arrangement of earth wires
Required methods of construction and maintenance
Investment
25
Support Design and Application
2. Self supporting lattice steel towers
The most traditional overhead lines.
Suitable for local conditions demanding narrow tower locations
and right of way
Above 150 kV
All kinds of conductor configuration
Easy to be upgraded
Easy to exchange cross arms
Increasing of tower heights is possible
Easy to repair
Unnecessary towers can be scraped and recycled
They are hot-dip galvanised for corrosion protection
26
Self Supporting Lattice Steel Towers
Self supporting
lattice steel tower
27
Support Design and Application
3. Self supporting steel poles:
Used in congested urban areas
Able to accommodate insulating crossarms
Low visual impact
Suspension poles made of H-beam sections can be adopted for
medium voltage lines. H-beams: low torsional stiffness.
Seamless tubular steel poles: Section by section differing diameter
and canonical shape. Adjustable to bending momentum.
Canonical steel poles: six, eight or more sides. Shape and cross
section can be adjusted for loads. Used f or high voltage. 110 and
400 kV have been used.

28
Self Supporting Steel Poles
Self supporting steel pole
29
Support Design and Application
4. Steel reinforced concrete poles:
Steel reinforced concrete poles are used as spun concrete poles
for low and medium voltage installations, 110 and 132 kV double
circuit lines
Long service life with out any efforts for maintenance
Low visual impact for residential area
High weight is a disadvantage.
Hard to be transported and erected

30
Support Design and Application
5. Wood poles:
Wood poles are the simplest and cheapest support structures.
They have been made from larch, spruce, cedar, pine and fir
trees, selected specially for height and straightness.
They are very flexible and they can bend and give under sudden
severe loads.
Under severe forces, such as strong storm winds perpendicular to
the line, the force on the pole may be dissipated in the ground.
Usually, they can be straightened.
Have been used for 100 kV and 220kV in North America and
Australia.

31
Support Design and Application
Guyed V-tower
6. Guyed supports:
Types: H, V and Y
Frequently used for long
single-circuit lines
Suitable for agricultural
areas.
32
Support Design and Application
Crossarm-less support
Mast
Spacer cable
Cross rope
Earth wire
7. Cross-armless supports:
Used to make compact lines
First used for 735 kV line in Canada.
33
Design Spans
In order to design suitable tower dimensions for an overhead
line it is necessary to calculate the conductor sags and
tensions.
The maximum conductor tension (which will occur at minimum
temperature) is evaluated in order to ensure a sufficient
mechanical strength margin for the particular conductor.
The sag is calculated in order to fix the tower height.
The ruling condition for the conductor has to be determined
based on either the maximum working tension (MWT), the
everyday stress (EDS) or, potentially, the maximum erection
tension (MET).
34
Design Spans
Key elements:
Basic span
Wind span
Weight span
Equivalent span
35
Basic Span
36
3
O O A B C E
H C S S S S S = + + + + +
S
E
S
A
S
A
S
A
S
C
S
B
S
O
C
H
C : statutory clearance to ground

S
A
:

length of insulator suspension set

S
B
, S
C
, S
E
: vertical distances between
crossarms and conductor above or to
earth wire

S
O
: sag of conductor (proportional to
square of span)

Wind Span
The wind span is half the sum of the adjacent span lengths.
At 230 kV this might be 400 m under normal conditions and 300
m under broken wire conditions.
At 132 kV typical values are 365 m and 274 m respectively.
37
Weight Span
The weight span is the distance between the lowest points on
adjacent sag curves on either side of the tower.
The ratio of weight span to wind span is also important since
insulators on lightly loaded towers may be deflected excessively
thus encroaching electrical clearances.
A ratio of weight span to wind span of approximately 1.52 is
often considered acceptable.
38
230 kV 132 kV
Suspension
towers
750 m Normal conditions 680 m Normal conditions
565 m Broken wire Conditions 510 m Broken wire Conditions
Tension towers
750 m Normal conditions 680 m Normal conditions
750 m Broken wire Conditions 680 m Broken wire Conditions
Typical weight span values at 230 kV and 132 kV
Weight Span
39
L
1
L
2
L
3
Cold sag
temperature curve
Weight span
Equivalent Span
L
1
L
2
L
3
40
The equivalent span is defined as a fictitious single span in which
tension variations due to load or temperature changes are nearly
the same as in the actual spans in a section.
Equivalent span
3 3 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
L L L
L
L L L
+ +
=
+ +
Equivalent span :
Loads on Over-head Lines
1. Wind loading
2. Conductor loadings:
Conductor tensions
Short circuit loadings
Ice loading
Seismic loads
Combined loads
Broken wire conditions
41
Loads on Over-head Lines
Wind loading:
It is normal practice to consider wind loads on structures due to a
3-second gust that occurs over a 50-year period. The wind load is
related to the wind speed in accordance with the code of practice
applicable to the country where the work is being carried out. In the
EU the relevant information is set out in the NNAs of EN50341 and
50423. It describes procedures for calculating wind loads on both
structures and conductors, with considerable variation in detail
between individual countries.
42
Conductor Tensions
43
2
8
W g L
T N
S

=
The tension, T, in the conductor for a given sag, S, is given by the formula:
W : weight of conductor per unit length (kg/m)

L : span of the conductor (m)

G : gravitational constant (1 kgf or 9.81 N)

S : sag (m)
Short Circuit Loading
Under short circuit conditions lateral mechanical attraction or
repulsion forces will occur between the different phase conductors.
The effect of conductor movement during short circuits is erratic
and difficult to calculate. Such movement is taken into account in
the overall design by allowing adequate clearances between the
phase conductors. The conductor short circuit forces are usually
ignored in the structural design of overhead line towers or
substation gantries because of the very short durations of the
faults.
44
Loads on Over-head Lines
Ice loading
The build-up of ice on conductors will increase effective conductor
weight, diameter and wind loading. Local experience must be used
in the application of ice loads to structural design. As an example,
EN 50341-3-9 calls for a uniform ice load on all spans of 5 kN/m3
to be considered for UK designs, or 9 kN/m3 in case of wind and
ice.
Seismic loads
The acceleration due to a seismic event is categorized as a
fraction of the gravitational constant, g. This may be given for both
horizontal and vertical effects over a frequency spectrum.
45
Loads on Over-head Lines
Combined loads
The simultaneous application of individual worst case loads is
unlikely to occur in practice and the simple arithmetic addition of all
such load cases would lead to an uneconomic and over-
engineered solution. The individual loads are therefore factored to
arrive at a sensible compromise.
wind load plus ice load is often taken as full ice loading plus wind
load at, say, 50% basic wind speed. Similarly, wind load plus
seismic load is normally taken as full earthquake load plus 50%
wind load.
46
Broken Wire Condition
The towers themselves are usually designed such that no
failure or permanent distortion occurs when loaded with forces
equivalent to 2 times the maximum simultaneous vertical,
transverse or longitudinal working loadings for suspension
towers and 2.5 times for tension towers.
Under broken wire conditions the towers must be capable of
withstanding typically 1.25 times the maximum simultaneous
resulting working loadings.
47
Overhead Line Conductor and Technical
Specifications
Key elements:
Environmental conditions
Environmental effects
Connector selection
Calculated electrical rating
Conductor and earth wire spacing and clearances

48
Environmental Conditions
Temperature
Wind velocity
Solar radiation
Rainfall
Humidity
Altitude
Ice and snow
Atmospheric pollution
Soil characteristic
Lightning
Seismic factor
General loadings

49
Environmental Effects
Corrosion
Corona
50
Corrosion
Aluminum conductors have good corrosion behavior
essentially resulting from the formation of an undisturbed
protective surface oxide layer which prevents further corrosion
attack.
ACSR is known to suffer from bi-metallic corrosion which is
noticeable as an increase in conductor diameter due to corrosion
products in the steel core known as bulge corrosion.
Early problems associated with deterioration of the steel cores
used in ACSR conductors have been resolved over the years by
the use of high temperature greases.
AAAC will obviously offer superior corrosion resistance than
ungreased ACSR.
51
Corrosion
For very aggressive environments the following order of
preference is suggested:
Aluminum conductor fully greased.
Aluminum conductor with alumoweld core fully greased.
ACSR fully greased.
Aluminum alloy conductor fully greased.
Aluminum conductor with alumoweld core ungreased.
ACSR with greased core.
52
Corona
High voltage gradients surrounding conductors (above about
18 kV/cm) will lead to a breakdown of the air in the vicinity of
the conductor surface known as corona discharge.
This effect is more pronounced at high altitudes. Generally, the
breakdown strength of air is approximately 31 kV peak/cm or
22kV rms/cm.
At higher voltage levels, and certainly at voltages of 400 kV and
above, interferences due to the corona effect can be the
dominant factor in determining the physical size of the
conductor rather than the conductor thermal rating
characteristic.
53
Corona
The corona effect is more severe around small conductors and
at sharp points and corners.
Corona absorbs energy from the line.
Corona losses can be reduced by taking the following actions:
Separating conductors with spacers placed periodically along the
line.
Bundling of high voltage conductors.
54
Corona
Practical formula to calculate voltage surface gradient (V
g
)
55
( ) ( )
[ / ]
/ 2 log 2 /
p
g
e
U
V kV cm
d D d
=
U
p
: phase voltage (kV)
d : diameter of single conductor (cm)
D : distance between phases for single phase line or equivalent spacing for
three phase lines (cm)
Overhead line Conductor and Technical
Specifications
Connector selection: The selection of the most appropriate conductor
size at a particular voltage level must take into account both technical
and economic criteria as listed below:
The maximum power transfer capability must be in accordance with
system requirements.
The conductor cross-sectional area should be such as to minimize
the initial capital cost and the capitalized cost of the losses.
The conductor should conform to standard sizes already used
elsewhere on the network in order to minimize spares holdings and
introduce a level of standardization.
The conductor thermal capacity must be adequate.
The conductor diameter or bundle size must meet recognized
international standards for radio interference and corona discharge.
The conductor must be suitable for the environmental conditions and
conform to constructional methods understood in the country involved
(such as IEC61089).
56
Connector Selection
Key elements:
ACSR, AAAC, ACAR and AACSR
Aerial bundled conductor (ABC) and BLX
Conductor breaking strengths
Bi-metal connectors


57
ACSR, AAAC, ACAR and AACSR
For 36 kV transmission and above both aluminum conductor steel
reinforced (ACSR) and all aluminum alloy conductor (AAAC) are used.
Aluminum conductor alloy reinforced (ACAR) and all aluminum alloy
conductors steel reinforced (AACSR) are less common than AAAC
and all such conductors may be more expensive than ACSR.
ACSR has been widely used because of its mechanical strength, the
widespread manufacturing capacity and cost effectiveness.
Copper (BS 7884 applies) has a very high corrosion resistance and is
able to withstand desert conditions under sand blasting but it is
expensive.
At larger conductor sizes, the AAAC option becomes more attractive.
AAAC can achieve significant strength/weight ratios and for some
constructions gives smaller sag and/or lower tower heights.
AAAC is slightly easier to joint than ACSR.

58
ACSR
59
Aluminum-based conductors
have been referred to by their
nominal aluminums area. Thus,
ACSR with 54 Al strands
surrounding seven steel
strands, all strands of diameter
d = 3.18 mm, was designated
54/7/3.18; aluminum area of
428.9 mm2, steel area of 55.6
mm2 and described as having a
nominal aluminum area of 400
mm2.

54/7/3.18 ASCR
Aerial Bundled Conductor (ABC) and BLX
At low voltage levels aerial bundled conductor (ABC) is now
becoming rapidly more popular because of improved reliability
and the low installation and maintenance costs compared to
conventional open wire pole distribution.
For the 1014 kV distribution levels the use of ABC is more
problematic due to the requirement of employing underground
cable joining techniques at high level (especially difficult in
maintenance situations).
For medium voltage distribution lines, (10 kV to 25 kV) BLX
conductors are now preferred in many countries.

60
Aerial Bundled Conductor (ABC) and BLX
There are two distinct ABC systems in use:
1. One system uses a self-supporting bundle of insulated
conductors where all conductors are laid up helically and where
tension is taken on all conductors which are of hard-drawn
aluminum.
2. An alternative system is where all conductors are insulated and
the hard-drawn aluminum phase conductors are laid up around
an aluminum alloy neutral which has greater tensile strength
and acts as a catenary wire to support the whole bundle. The
insulation material may be polyvinylchloride (PVC), linear
polyethylene (PE) or cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE).
61
Conductor Breaking Strengths for ACSR
62
Calculation standard
ACSR conductor 50/8
breaking strength (kN)
ACSR conductor 380/50
Breaking strength (kN)
BS215, Pt. 2. 1970 16.81 120.96
ASTM B2 32-74(Class A) 17.45 121.62
ASTM B232-74 (Class B) 16.91 119.74
ASTM B232-74 (Class C) 16.67 114.97
NFC 34 120 1968 (R) - 144.21
NFC 34 120 1968 (N) - 118.75
DIN 48 204 (declared) 17.09 123.14
DIN 48204 (theoretical area) 16.83 120.80
DIN 48204 (calculated area) - 120.72
CSA C49 175 17.19 123.40
IEC 61089 16.87 120.71
EN 50182 16.81 121.30
Bi-metal Connectors
63
Where an aluminum conductor is
terminated on a copper terminal of
an isolator a special
copper/aluminum joint is
necessary to prevent the formation
of a corrosion cell. A termination
of this type usually comprises of an
aluminum sleeve compressed onto
a copper stalk with an insulating
disc separating the two surfaces
which are exposed to the
atmosphere
Copper pin
Anti corrosion varnish
Aluminum Ferrule
Bi-metal connectors
Calculated Electrical Rating
1. Heat balance equation
2. Power carrying capacity
64
Heat Balance Equation
65
( ) | |
2
20
1
C R S
I R t H H H o u + + = +
( )
0.448
387
C
H V d u =
( ) ( )
4 4
237 237
R C
H E s d t t t u
(
= + + +

S S
H S d o =
I : current rating, amps
R
20
: resistance of conductor at 20C
: temperature coefficient of resistance per C (for ACSR at 20C,
=0.00403)
t : ambient temperature, C
: temperature rise, C (t
1
, initial temperature and, t
2
, final temperature)
Heat Balance Equation

S
: solar absorption coefficient depends upon outward condition of the
conductor and varies between 0.6 for new bright and shiny conductor
to 0.9 for black conditions or old conductor.
S : intensity of solar radiation, watts/m
2
d : conductor diameter, mm
V : wind velocity normal to conductor, m/s. For design purposes 0.5 or 0.6
m/s wind speeds are often taken.
E
C
: emissivity of conductor differs with conductor surface brightness.
Typical values are 0.3 for new bright and 0.9 for black aluminium,
ACSR or AAAC conductor. Average value 0.6, say.
66
Power Carrying Capacity
67
100
200
300
400
500
600
100000 200000
300000
L
i
n
e

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)
Power transfer (MW.km)
Line voltages 66 kV-600 kV
10
70
20
30
40
50
60
100 200 300 400 500 600
Power transfer (MW.km)
L
i
n
e

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)
Line voltages 11 kV-66 kV
Economic power transfer capacity trends for different line voltages
based on power transfer are proportional to the square of the line
voltage.
Economical power transfer
Power Carrying Capacity
68
Line
voltage
(kV)
Conductor
equipment
configuration
spacing (mm)
ASCR
conductor
code
AAC
conductor
code
MW capacity
11 1400
Sparrow
Raven
Linnet
Iris
Poppy
Tulip
8 (km)
0.95
1.4
3.00
160 (km)
0.490
0.7
1.5
24 (km)
0.33
0.47
1.00
32 (km)
0.25
0.35
0.75
33 1500
Quail
Penguin
Linnet
Hen
Aster
Oxlip
Tulip
Cosmos
16 (km)
5.00
6.70
8.35
11.50
32 (km)
2.50
3.35
4.18
5.75
48 (km)
1.70
2.20
2.80
3.80
64 (km)
1.25
1.70
2.10
2.90
66 3000
Quail
Linnet
Hen
Aster
Tulip
Cosmos
32 (km)
12.50
16.00
18.40
64 (km)
6.25
8.00
9.18
96 (km)
4.18
5.32
6.12
128 (km)
3.14
3.99
4.59
Earth Wire Spacing and Clearances
Electrical clearances
Earth wires
Distribution voltage level clearances
Transmission voltage level clearances
69
Earth Wire Spacing and Clearances
According to EN 50314-1, there are five types if requirements to be
considered for determining the minimum of electrical clearance
distance:
1. Prevention of disruptive discharges between phase conductors
and earth during fast and slow front over voltages. This
clearance can be considered either internal clearance between
earthed tower components or external clearance between
conductor and an obstacle (Del).
2. Prevention of disruptive discharges between phase conductors
during fast and slow front over voltages. The minimum
clearance is an internal nature in this case (Dpp).
70
Earth Wire Spacing and Clearances
3. Prevention of disruptive discharges between a live conductor
and objects with earth positional at power frequency (Dpf_pe).
4. Prevention of disruptive discharges between a live conductors
at power frequency (Dpf_pp).
5. Setting of minimum air clearance distances to obstacles or
cross objects in order to prevent discharges occur inside the
overhead line.
71
Electrical Clearances
Clearances D
el
and D
pp
corresponding to fast-front withstand
voltages, of conductor-to-obstacle and conductor-to-conductor air
gaps in altitudes up to 1000m above sea level, EN 50341-1.

72
Lightning surge withstand
voltage (kV)
D
el_ff
(m) D
pp_ff
(m)
400 0.77 .85
600 1.14 1.26
800 1.50 1.68
1000 1.88 2.08
1200 2.23 2.50
1400 2.61 2.92
1600 2.98 3.33
1800 3.35 3.75
2000 3.72 4.17
2050 3.82 4.27
2100 3.91 4.38
2150 4.00 4.48
Electrical Clearances
Clearance Del and Dpp corresponding to slow withstand voltages,
of conductor-to-obstacle and conductor-to-conductor air gaps in
altitudes up to 1000m above sea level, EN 50341-1.
73
Lightning surge
withstand voltage (kV)
D
el_sf
(m)
D
pp_sf
(m)
400 0.88 1.02
600 1.44 1.67
800 2.07 2.45
1000 2.84 3.41
1200 3.71 4.57
1400 4.77 5.97
1600 6.02 7.66
1800 7.50 9.70
Electrical Clearances
Minimum clearances in air dependent on the highest voltage of
equipment, EN 50341-1
74
Highest voltage of
equipment (kV)
D
pf-pe
(m) D
pf-pp
(m)
52 0.11 0.17
72.5 0.15 0.23
82.5 0.16 0.26
100 0.19 0.30
123 0.23 0.37
145 0.27 0.42
170 0.31 0.49
245 0.43 0.69
300 0.51 0.83
420 0.70 1.17
525 0.86 1.47
765 1.28 2.30
Electrical Clearances
Empirical data for minimum clearance distances D
el
and D
pp
, EN
50341-1.
75
Highest voltage
of equipment (kV)
D
el
(m) D
pp
(m)
52 0.60 0.70
72.5 0.70 0.80
82.5 0.75 0.85
100 0.90 1.05
123 1.00 1.15
145 1.20 1.40
170 1.30 1.50
245 1.70 2.00
300 2.10 2.40
420 2.80 3.20
525 3.50 4.00
765 4.90 5.60
A Typical Overhead
Line Clearances
(based on maximum
conductor
temperature or the
load EN 50341)
Clearance (m) from line with highest system voltage of:
Clearance consideration 52 kV 145 kV 245 kV
To ground in unobstructed
countryside
5.6 6.2 6.7
To rockface or steep slope 3.1 3.2 3.7
To trees which cannot be
climbed
0.6 1.2 1.7
To trees which can be
climbed
2.1 2.7 3.2
To buildings with
fire-resistant roofs and
roofs with slope 15
to horizontal
3.1 3.2 3.7
To buildings with
fire-resistant roofs and
roofs with slope <15
to horizontal
5.1 5.2 5.7
Horizontal clearance to
buildings
2.6 3.2 3.7
To fire sensitive installations 10.6 11.2 11.7
To antennae, lamp posts, etc.
which cannot be stood upon
2.6 3.2 3.7
Line crossings of minor roads,
railways and waterways
2.66.6 depending
on nature of road,
railway (e.g.
electrified or not)
and waterway (e.g.
with structures or
not)
3.27.2 depending
on nature of road,
railway (e.g.
electrified or not)
and waterway (e.g.
with structures or
not)
3.77.7 depending on
nature of road, railway
(e.g. electrified or not)
and waterway (e.g. with
structures or not)
76
Earth Wires
Where there is a risk of a direct lightning strike to the phase
conductors, transmission lines are provided with overhead earth
(or ground) wires to shield them and also to provide a low
impedance earth return.
In the UK the original 132 kV overhead lines were designed
with a 45 angle of protection and gave satisfactory cover.
This angle was applied 400 kV overhead with the angle of 30
in order to reduce the number of strikes in UK.
77
Distribution and Transmission Voltage
Level Clearances
Distribution voltage level clearance: for open wire
construction at distribution voltage levels (380 V24 kV) the
earth or neutral wire is normally placed at the bottom (nearest
the ground) of the conductor set so as to minimize the danger
caused by poles, ladders, etc. touching the wires from
underneath.
Transmission voltage level clearance: There are no
universally agreed clearances as they depend upon insulation
level, pollution, span, type of overhead line construction, etc.
78
Overhead Line Fitting
Definition: overhead line fittings serve for the mechanical
attachment, for electric connection and the protection of
conductors and insulators.
Fittings for conductors serve to terminate, suspend or join the
conductors and are directly connected to the conductors.
Fittings for conductor include suspension and dead-end clamps,
connectors, branch-off clamps, vibration protection fittings and
bundle spacers.
Fittings for insulator sets and other attachments serve to
connect the tension or suspension components with the
attachment points at the supports such as: Yoke plates, index-
yoke plate corona protection fittings and grading rings.
79
Fittings for Conductors
1. Conductor attachment at suspension insulator sets
2. Conductor attachments at dead-end terminations
3. Turn buckles
4. Connectors
5. Spacers for bundle conductors
6. Vibration dampers for single conductors
7. Sag adjusters
8. Miscellaneous fittings
80
Conductor Attachment and Suspension
Insulator Sets
Articulated suspension clam: the most frequently used type of
suspension clamp.
Armor rod suspension (ARS)
Wedge-type dead-end clamp
Armor grip suspension
Suspended dead end arrangement: to prevent static bending
stress over long spans such as river crossing.
Saddle-type clamp: which its suspension body can reach up to
two meters.
Release suspension clams: are adopted occasionally to protect
not sufficiently proof suspension towers.
Sliding suspension clamps: enable the conductor to slide
through the clamp above a stipulated difference in conductor
tensile forces between adjacent spans.
81
Articulated Suspension Clam
82
Suspension strap
Clamp cover
Clamp body
Armor Rod Suspension (ARS)
Suspension strap
Clamp cover
Clamp body
Armor rods
83
Armor Grip Suspension (AGS)
84
Armor rods
Rubber elastic lining
Suspension strap
Clamp body
Suspended Dead End Arrangement
85
Dead end clamp
Triangular yoke plate
Turn bcuket
Saddle-type Clamp
86
Clamp body
Armor rods
Clamp cover
Suspension insulator set using saddle-type clamp cover
Conductor Attachment and Suspension
Insulator Sets
Conductors can be terminated by dead-end clamps or by performed
dead-ends.
Wedge-type clamps: simple to install and can correct line sags,
adopted for high and medium voltage lines.
Compression dead-end clamps: suitable for all standard types
of conductors in market. They are designed to achieve ultimate
terminating forces up to rated tensile strength (RTS) of
conductors, adopted for high and medium voltage lines.
Performed dead-end rods: suitable for terminating metal-
reinforced cables with optical fibers (OPGW) and other aerial
cables. They can be installed bare hand.
87
Wedge-type Clamps
Clamp body
Clamp wedge
Terminal strap
88
Compression Dead-end Clamps
Clamp body with
sleeve for steel core
Lug for
jumper loop
Outer sleeve
89
Turn Buckles and Connectors
Turn buckles: are arranged in dead-end insulator sets to
compensate tolerances in lengths of elements in parallel or sub-
conductors in bundles.
Connectors: including tension proof and non-tension proof are
fitting jointing one or more phase conductors or earth-wires to
each other or producing a branch-off.
Performed splices: are used for medium-voltage.
Protective patch rods or repair patch rods are frequently
adopted to restore the electric and mechanical function after
damage or strand failures at conductors, earth wires or aerial
cables.
90
Spacers for Bundle Conductors
Spacers keep the sub-conductors within a span and in jumper
loops at designed spacing to avoid damage caused by clashing,
twisting or entwining.
Rigid spacers: keep the sub-conductors at a constant distance
at the location of installation.
Flexible spacers: permit small relative displacements of the
sub-conductors at the location of installation.
Spacer dampers: reduce the vibration level by energy
dissipation in rubber-elastic elements.
Phase spacers: are adopted in spans of lines where
conductor galloping occurs frequently due to topographical or
climate peculiarities.
91
Rigid Spacers
Bar
Clamping jaw
92
Phase Spacer
Clamping arrangement
Central pivot
Suspension
bracket
Composite insulators
Spacer sleeves
Grading rings
93
Phase spacer for quadruple bundles
Vibration Dampers and Spacer Dampers
for Bundle Conductors
Vibration dampers: offer effective protection against vortex-
induced vibrations. The most popular is Stockbridge-type.
Spacer dampers for bundle conductors: suppress vortex-
induced conductor vibrations

94
Fittings for Insulator Sets
Fittings for insulator set compromise:
1. Fittings to attach the insulator sets to the support.
2. Fittings to join the insulator of one string , e. g. ball and socket
or clevis and tongue connections, yoke plates for multi-string
insulator sets.
3. Fittings for grading of electrical fields and arcing protection, e.
g. coordinating spark gaps, arcing horns and rings, as well as
grading fittings.
4. Ball and socket connections are used for connecting long rod
and cap-and-pin insulators, clevis and tongue connections for
long rod and composite insulators. The dimensions of ball and
socket connections are standardized by IEC 60120, for clevis
and tongue connections by IEC 60471.
5. Arcing protection fittings should safe-guard insulators
sensitive to abrupt temperature changes which may occur due
to power arcs.
95
Sag Adjusters and Miscellaneous Fittings
Sag adjusters: these consist of pivoted clamping plates with
adjustment holes to allow the sag of the conductor to be
regulated after the initial erection in steps of, say, 10 mm over a
300 mm range.
Miscellaneous fittings:
These include:
Tower or pole anti-climbing guards
Climbing steps
Danger plates
Tower or pole number plates
Phase plates
Line circuit identifications
Aircraft warning spheres
96
Representation of Lines
The way in which lines and cables are represented with an
equivalent circuit depends on the following:
Length
Type
Accuracy needed
There are three broad categories of length as follows:
Short (up to 80 km or 50 miles).
Medium (up to 240 km or 150 miles).
Long (above 240 km or 150 miles).
97
Representation of Lines
The actual line or cable is a distributed constant circuit and it
has:
Resistance
Inductance
Capacitance
Leakage resistance
These are all distributed evenly along its length.
Except the long lines, the total resistance, inductance,
capacitance and leakage resistance of the line are concentrated
to give a lumped constant circuit.
The various distances quoted are used as a rough guide only.
98
Voltage Drop Along a Line
The various loads (customers) connected across the line draw
current causing the voltage to drop.
The farther one gets away from the substation, the higher the
voltage drop.
If the voltage at the substation is set at nominal value, the
customers at the end of the line will not have enough voltage
under heavy load.
If the voltage is set so that the end customers have nominal
value, the voltage near the substation is too high for light
loading conditions.
A compromise must be reached or maybe other methods can
be employed for voltage regulation under various loading
conditions.
99
Substation
1st customer
2nd customer
last customer
Other laterals
Distribution Circuit
100
Substation
1st customer
2nd customer
last customer
V
V
Base
Voltage Drop Along a Line with Heavy
Load
101
Voltage Drop Along a Line with Light
Load
102
Substation
1st customer
2nd customer
last customer
V
V
Base
Reactance
The magnetic flux produced by the AC current flowing in a
conductor produces a series inductive reactance due to:
Self inductance (which causes skin effect) along the conductor.
Mutual inductance between conductors.
The reactance does not dissipate real power, but results in a
voltage drop along the line and also draws reactive volt-
amperes.
Any reactive power on the line must be supplied by the
generator over and above to the reactive power the load will
consume.

103
Reactance
Basic formula, geometric mean radius and geometric mean
distance
Three phase formula
Positive and negative sequence reactance
Zero sequence reactance
104
Basic Formula, Geometric Mean Radius
and Geometric Mean Distance
105
( ) ( )
0.2 0.25 log / [ / ]
e
L d r mH km = +
L : inductance
d : separation between conductor axes (mm)
r : radius of conductor (mm)
d
r
Three-phase Formula for Transmission
Lines Inductance (L)
106
( ) ( )
0.2 log / [ / ]
e
L GMD GMR K mH km = +
K : correction factor
GMD : geometric mean distance between the A, B and C phases (mm)
GMR : geometric mean radius of conductors (mm)
3
AB BC CA
GMD d d d =
r
d
AB
d
AC
d
BC
A B
C
Three-phase Formula for Transmission
Lines Inductance (L)
107
All aluminum or all copper conductor
ACSR
Number of strands GMR Number of Al
strands
GMR
7 0.726 r 6 0.768 r
19 0.758 r 12 0.859 r
37 0.768 r 26 0.809 r
61 0.772 r 30 0.826 r
91 0.774 r 54 0.810 r
127 0.776 r
169 0.779 r
Solid 0.779 r
GMR values as function of conductor radius, r
Positive and Negative Sequence
Reactance
The positive and negative sequence inductive reactances (X
1
, X
2
)
of a three phase overhead line are equal and for a frequency, f Hz,
become:
108
( ) ( )
3
1
0.4 10 log /
e
X f GMD GMR K t

= +
Zero Sequence Reactance
Zero sequence reactance (X
0
) is complicated to calculate. The
value depends upon the position and materials used for the earth
wires and the log of the square root of the ground resistivity.
109
Earth wire Overhead line X
0
/X
1

- Single circuit 3.5
- Double circuit 5.5
Galvanized steel Single circuit 3.5
Galvanized steel Double circuit 5.0
Non-magnetic Single circuit 2.0
Non-magnetic Double circuit 3.0
Typical values for the ratio of zero-to-positive sequence
reactance for double and single circuit overhead lines
Capacitance
Conductors separated by a given distance have capacitance.
The capacitance of a transmission line depends upon:
Conductor size
Spacing
Height above the ground
Voltage
Transmission line capacitance must be charged initially before
transfer of real power can occur.
The expression for line-to-neutral capacitance, C, is:
110
( )
1
[ / ]
18log /
e
C F km
GMD r
=
Resistance
The series resistance of a conductor depends on:
Resistivity of the conductor material
Length
Temperature
Skin effect
Conductor resistance varies with temperature in a linear
fashion.
Losses occur because of the resistance of the lines, and these
losses are kept minimum by using high voltages for
transmission of bulk power.
111
Power Factor Correction
The term correction or compensation is used to describe the
intentional insertion of reactive power devices, either capacitive
or inductive, to achieve one or more desired effects in an
electric power system.
These effects include improved voltage profiles, enhanced
stability and increased transmission capacity.
The correcting devices are either in series or in shunt (parallel)
with the load(s) at one or more points in the power circuit.
112
Why do we bother?
The motivations behind power factor correction equipment are:
Increase the efficiency of the source i.e. the AC mains in two
distinct ways as follows:
Lower the source losses (harmonics are associated with undesired
components and losses).
Increase the power that can be taken out from a given source.
Reduce the line harmonics and associated Electromagnetic
Interference) (EMI) induced in the source (AC mains) by the
load.
Market expectations for modern equipment.
The aim is to shape the line current so that it will be in phase
with the input sinusoidal voltage.
113
Shunt Capacitors for Voltage Regulation
Capacitors have been effectively used to correct the power
factor since most of the loads are inductive (lagging).
This is achieved by supplying Var.
The capacitors are installed as close to the loads as possible.
There are two ways for the capacitances to become available
for such function as follows:
Fixed value: to cater for both light and heavy load conditions.
Variable or switched capacitor banks in the case that the
load variation is so large and one capacitor value will not be
good enough to serve all cases.
114
Shunt Capacitors for Voltage Regulation
Switched capacitor banks are expensive mainly because they
need sensing hardware to operate and appropriate control
systems.
All capacitor banks require protection with a fuse or circuit
breaker.
They can be connected either as delta or star.
The underground start connection is preferred because if a
capacitor is shorted in one leg, the other two will limit the fault
current.
Shunt capacitors are usually installed in radial feeders.
115
Shunt Capacitors for Voltage Regulation
116
Without shunt capacitor
Applying shunt capacitor
Distance from the source (generator)
T
e
r
m
i
n
a
l

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
Capacitor Banks
117
Circuit breaker
CT for protective
relays
PT PT PT
Protevtive relay
Fuses
Outdoor
Regulator Bank
118
Disconnect Switches
for the Outdoor
Regulator Bank for
Maintenance
119
Shunt Reactors
Shunt reactors are usually installed to remedy utility company
power-generation and transmission issues including:
Overvoltages that occur during low load periods at utility
substations served by long lines as a result of the inherent
capacitance of the line.
Leading power factors at generating plants resulting in lower
transient and steady-state stability limits.
Open-circuit line charging kVA requirements in extra-high-
voltage systems that exceed the available generation
capabilities.
120
Shunt Reactors
121
Without shunt reactor
Applying shunt reactor
Distance from the source (generator)
N
o
-
l
o
a
d

t
e
r
m
i
n
a
l

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
Skin Effect
The skin effect phenomena refer to the fact that as the
frequency of the AC current increases, the flow of current shifts
towards the surface of the conductor.
Since the AC current reverses direction in a periodic way, each
reversal results in the magnetic flux produced by the current
also reversing.
The magnetic flux density is highest in the centre of the
conductor, causing the inductive reactance of the conductor to
also be highest in the centre.
The higher inductive reactance in the centre forces the current
towards the surface.
The skin effect at a fixed frequency is proportional to the
diameter of the conductor.
The skin effect causes the AC resistance to be 10 to 20 per
cent of the DC one.
122
Representation of Transmission and
Distribution Systems
Modern electricity supply systems are three-phase systems.
The design of distribution networks is such so that normal
operation is reasonably close to balanced three-phase
systems, i.e. one phase is usually sufficient to study and
understand the systems full operation.
Equal loading on all three phases is ensured by connecting as
far as possible equal domestic loads to each phase of the low
voltage distribution feeders.
Industrial loads are most of the time three-phase ones.
123
Reasons for Interconnection
There are a number of reasons for interconnection as follows:
The base load is satisfied by high efficiency generation plants
that feed into the system and not into a particular load
regardless of geographical location.
To meet sudden increases, spinning reserve is available from
generators running at normal speed and ready to supply power
instantaneously.
Interconnection allows for alternative paths to exist between
generators and bulk supply point. This offers security of
supply should a given path fails.
124
Transmission
It implies the bulk transfer of power from generators to load
centers which is then distributed.
The transmission network operates at high voltage.
Generators usually produce voltages at around 11kV -25kV.
Transformers increase this to the main transmission voltage
levels.
Large amounts of power is transmitted at voltage levels of 400
kV and 275 kV in the UK. Slightly different in other countries.
This network in many cases is called supergrid.
125
M
Line, cable or busbar (three-phase)
Rotating machine-general
Synchronous machine
Two winding transformer
Three winding transformer
Current transformer
Breaker
Three-phase star connected with the star
point solidly connected to earth or
ground electrode
Three-phase star connected
Load
Symbols of Power System Components
126
Large high-efficiency station
Substation (grid supply point)
Generator transformers
275 kV or 400 kV (345.5 0r 765 kV in U.S.A.)
(busbars sectionalized)
Load
Substation
Loads
Load
Load
To the
rest
of
system
Embedded generation
(local generator)
Typical
Power
System
127
Large generators ( gas, coal, nuclear, hydro)
Tie line to other systems
CHP generators or small
local independents
Small embedded
generators, e.g. wind,
landfill gas
132 kV
(230/115 kV)
400/275 kV
(765 kV, 500/345 kV)
Distribution
Loads
Constituent Networks of a Supply System
128
Transmission Line Repair
The time to repair a failed transmission line typically varies from
2 to 10 days, depending upon:
Type of line
Overhead
Underground cable in conduit
Pipe-type of cable
The time required to replace a failed bulk-power system
transformer is typically 30 days.
As a result of the previous points, emergency ratings for a
transmission line or transformer may include, 2-hours
emergency, 2-to-10 days emergency, and in some cases 30
days emergency ratings.
129
Overhead Transmission Line Ratings
The ratings of an overhead transmission line is based on the
maximum temperature of the conductors.
Conductor temperature affects the following:
The conductor sag between towers
The loss of conductor tensile strength due to annealing.
If the temperature is too high the following may happen:
Proscribed conductor-to-ground clearance may not be met.
The elastic limit of the conductor may be exceeded such that it
cannot shrink to its original length when cooled.
130
Overhead Transmission Line Ratings
Conductor temperature depends upon:
Current magnitude and its time duration.
Ambient temperature.
Wind velocity.
Solar radiation.
Conductor surface conditions.
There are standards that allow use of standards assumptions
on ambient temperature, wind velocity, etc. and these are
calculated conservatively (IEEE Std. 738-85, 1985).
131
Overhead Transmission Line Ratings
It is common practise to have summer and winter ratings,
based on seasonal ambient temperature differences.
In locations that higher winds prevail, such as coastal areas,
larger than normal line ratings are used.
Emergency line ratings vary between 110% to 120% of
normal ratings.
In many cases real time monitoring of actual conductor
temperatures along a transmission line is used for on-line
dynamic transmission line ratings.
132
Stability Definitions
System stability is the ability of all synchronous generators in
operation to stay in synchronism with each other while moving
from one operating condition to another.
Steady-state stability refers to small changes in operating
conditions, such as normal load changes.
Transient stability refers to larger, abrupt changes, such as
the loss of the largest generator or a short circuit followed by
circuit breakers opening, where synchronism or loss of
synchronism occurs within a few seconds.
Dynamic stability refers to longer time periods, from minutes
up to a half-hour following a large, abrupt change, where steam
generators (boilers), automatic generation control and system
operator actions affect stability.
133
Planning Process and Stability
Steady state stability is also evaluated during the planning
process with the use of power-flow programs and by the
systems ability to meet equipment loading criteria and
transmission voltage criteria under steady state conditions.
Transient stability is evaluated via stability programs by
simulating the systems transient response for various types of
disturbances, including short circuits and other abrupt network
changes.
134
Typical Disturbances and Stability
Studies
Scenario: All transmission lines in service, and a permanent
three-phase fault (short-circuit) occurs on:
Any transmission line
Both transmission lines on any double circuit tower
At any bus
The fault is successfully cleared by primary relay
Any one transmission line out of service, a permanent three-
phase fault occurs on any other transmission line. The fault is
successfully cleared by primary relaying.
With all transmission lines in service, a permanent three-phase
fault occurs on any transmission line; back up relaying clears
the fault after a time delay due to a circuit breaker failure.
135
Value-based Transmission Planning
The method assigns a monetary value to various levels of
reliability in order to balance reliability and cost.
For each outage, the amount of money of unserved energy is
determined and its value is calculated based on the type of
customers and other information.
If the cost of the transmission project required to eliminate the
outage exceeds the value of service, then that project is given
lower priority.
This means that reliability is quantified, and benefit-to-cost
ratios are used to compare and prioritise planning options.
136
Cables
Cables are use for low voltage, medium voltage and high
voltage power systems.
Besides there are many applications of using control,
communication cable and fiber optic cables.
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards for
application and testing of cables are IEC 60055, 60096, 60141,
60183, 60227, 60228, 60229, 60230, 60287, 60331, 60332,
60364,60502, 60702, 60724, 60754, 60811, 60840, 60853,
60859, 60885, 61034, 61042, 61084, 61443 and 62067.
137
Classification of Cables
138
Voltage level Usage Voltage range Insulation
Low voltage (LV) Telephone 50 V PVC or PE
Control 600/1000 V PVC
Solid dielectric 600/1000 V PVC, XLPE, EPR
MI or MIND 600/1000 V Paper
Fire resistant 600 & 1000 V
Mineral, Silicone
Rubber
Fire retardant 600/1000 V LSF, LSOH
Medium voltage (MV) Solid dielectric 3 kV to 7.2 kV PVC, PE, XLPE, EPR
MI or MIND 3 kV to 7.2 kV Paper
XLPE : Cross-linked polyethylene
PVC : Polyvinylchloride
PE : Polyethylene
EPR : Ethylene propylene rubber
LSF : Low smoke and fume
LSOH : Low smoke zero halogen
MI : Mass impregnated
MIND : Mass impregnated non-draining
PPL : Polypropylene paper laminate
Classification of Cables
139
Voltage level Usage Voltage range Insulation
High voltage (HV) Solid dielectric 10 kV to 150 kV XLPE, EPR
MIND 10 kV to 36 kV Paper
Oil- filled, gas pressure 80 kV to 150 kV Paper
Gas insulated ducts 10 kV to 150 kV SF
6

Very high voltage
(VHV)
Solid dielectric
150 kV to 300
kV
XLPE
Oil-filled
150 kV to 300
kV
Paper, PPL
Gas insulated ducts
150 kV to 300
kV
SF
6

Extra high voltage
(EHV)
Solid dielectric Above 300 kV XLPE
Oil-filled Above 300 kV Paper, PPL
Gas insulated ducts Above 300 kV SF
6

Insulation
Synthetic insulation for wire and cable can be classified as
follows:
Thermosetting
Thermoplastic
The mixture of materials within each of these categories vary so
much so that unlimited number of insulations are available to
the power engineer.
Most of insulation is composed of compounds made of
synthetic rubber polymers (thermosetting) and from synthetic
materials (thermoplastics).
These synthetic materials are combined to prove specific
physical and electrical properties.
140
Thermosetting Insulation
These materials are characterised by their ability to:
be stretched
compressed
Deformed
within reasonable limits under mechanical strain and then return
to their original shape when the applied stress is removed.
141
Thermoplastic Insulation
Thermoplastic insulation materials have excellent electrical
characteristics.
They are relatively inexpensive.
They are popular since they allow thinner insulation thickness to
be used to obtain good electrical properties, especially at higher
voltage levels.
142
Cable Armouring
In order to protect cables from mechanical damages such as
pick or spade blows, ground subsidence or excessive vibrations
cable armouring is employed.
For three-core cables this consists of one or two layers of
galvanized steel tapes, galvanized steel wire braid or
galvanized steel wires helically wound over the cable.
For single core cables aluminium is used instead of steel wire in
order to avoid losses.

143
Underground Cables
It is quite difficult and in most cases impossible to obtain right
of way in urban areas for overhead lines.
Therefore, use of underground cables is usually confined to the
short lengths required in heavily populated areas.
The cost of underground cable is higher than the overhead
cable.
Technologies such as cryogenic cable and other types of cable
using forced cooling techniques are used. In this case the cable
uses three separate cables, each having a hollow centre for
cooling purposes.
The conductor is made of stranded aluminium. The conductors
are wrapped with an insulating material that contains liquid
nitrogen.
144
Cryogenic Underground Cable
145
Outer
covering
Insulation
containing liquid
nitrogen
Stranded
aluminium
conductors
Hollow core
High-pressure Oil-filled Pipe-type High-
voltage Cable
146
Steel pipe (filled with insulting oil)
Skid wires
Paper or oil
insulation
Screen
Metallic
tapes
Conductor
(stranded
copper)
Submarine Cables
Submarine cables require additional tensile strength to permit
laying on or under the sea or river bed under high tension
conditions.
Paper, PVC or XLPE insulation is used together with additional
protection measures against water ingress and mechanical
damage and with special sheath compositions to repel worm
attack.
Such cables are manufactured in the longest possible lengths in
order to minimize the number of underwater cable joints.
When preparing the design for submarine cables an accurate
knowledge of the prevailing currents and tidal variations is
essential to assist in deciding the best cable route and most
favourable times for the cable laying work.
147
Summary
Key points Competence required
Overhead line towers
Comparing towers and poles applications and
structures
Overhead line fittings Ability to choose suitable fittings
Tower structure
Differentiation between tower structures
according to their applications
Design span
Calculating clearances and spans according to
standards
Transmission line model
Describing transmission line model, overvoltage,
voltage drop, reasons for connecting capacitors
and inductors to transmission lines
Cables
Comparing different types of cables and ability to
use standards to choose cables for specific
applications
148