Higher Care - Unit 2 - Sociology For Care

National Qualifications:
Sociology for Care

Higher
Support Material
August 2007
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Acknowledgements
SFEU is grateful to the subject specialists in Scotland’s Colleges and other

agencies and industry bodies who have been involved in the writing of this and
other support materials for the national qualifications in Care.
SFEU is also grateful for the contribution of the Scottish Qualifications Authority in
the compilation of these materials, specifically for its permission to reproduce
extracts from Course and Unit Specifications.
Some material has been adapted from SFEU packs for other National
Qualification units including Studying Human Society (Intermediate 2 & Higher),
Understanding Human Society 1 & 2 (Higher), Human Development & Behaviour
(Higher) and the HSDU Support Notes for Human Development & Behaviour
D053 12 (Higher).
© Scottish Further Education Unit 2007
Scottish Further Education Unit 2

F17Y 12
Introduction
These notes are provided to support teachers and lecturers presenting the Scottish
Qualifications Authority F17Y 12, Sociology for Care. Copyright for this pack is held
by the Scottish Further Education Unit (SFEU). However, teachers and lecturers
have permission to use the pack and reproduce items from the pack provided that
this is to support teaching and learning processes and that no profit is made from
such use. If reproduced in part, the source should be acknowledged.
Enquiries relating to this Support Pack or issues relating to copyright should be

addressed to:
Marketing Officer - Communications

The Scottish Further Education Unit
Argyll Court
Castle Business Park
Stirling
FK9 4TY
Website: www.sfeu.ac.uk
Further information regarding this Unit including Unit Specification, National

Assessment Bank materials, Centre Approval and certification can be obtained
from:
The Scottish Qualifications Authority

Optima Building
58 Robertson Street
Glasgow
G2 8DQ
Website: www.sqa.org.uk
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of this Support Pack,
teachers and lecturers should satisfy themselves that the information passed to
candidates is accurate and in accordance with the current SQA arrangements
documents. SFEU will accept no responsibility for any consequences deriving
either directly or indirectly from the use of this Pack.

Contents
Reference Section 6
What is the Care Course all about? 7
Unit Outcomes, PCs and Evidence Requirements 13
Tutor Support Section 16

How to Use This Pack 17
Guidance on Unit Delivery 22
Resources 24
Student Support Section 25

Key to Activity Symbols 26
Glossary of Terms 27
Outcome 1: Introduction and Overview 31
What is Sociology About? 33
Sociological Thinking v Common Sense 34
Exploring Research 37
Private Problems and Public Issues 42
Understanding Society 44
Introduction to Sociological Theory 50
Structural and Action Theories 55
Making Theory Interesting 59
Introduction to Functionalist Theory 66
Introduction to Conflict Theory 71
Introduction to Feminist Theory 75
Introduction to Symbolic Interactionist Theory 79
Overview of Sociological Theories: Revision Exercise 84
The Relevance of Sociology to Care 86
The Relevance of Sociology to Care: Case Studies 88
The Three Case Studies 89
Case Study: Akram 90

Case Study: Ethel 92

Case Study: Rab 94
Sociological Concepts: Socialisation, Culture and Life Chances 98
Sociological Perspectives on the Family 102
Functionalist Theory and the Family 104
Conflict Theory and the Family 108
Feminist Theory and the Family 113
Symbolic Interactionist Theory and the Family 118
Revision and Check-up Opportunity 122
Sociological Perspectives on Deviance 123
Functionalist Theory and Deviance 125
Conflict Theory and Deviance 129
Feminist Theory and Deviance 134
Symbolic Interactionist Theory and Deviance 139
Revision and Check-up Opportunity 144
Principles Underpinning the National Care Standards 147
Review Exercise: Care Settings 148
Guiding Values in Care 153
Social Inequality and Values and Principles in Care 154
Investigation: Social Inequality/Contemporary Social Issues 155
The Role of Legislation 156
Concluding Comments 157
References 158
Tutor Notes 159

Suggested Responses for Key Worksheets and Activities 160

Reference Section

What is the Care Course all about?
Summary of Course
The Course aims to provide the knowledge, understanding, and skills to enable a
candidate to recognise the role of sociology in fashioning care priorities and
practice. This is entwined with the role of psychology in providing evidence of
human behaviour and development. This will have an effect on how the person in
need of care responds to change in their life. The application of theories to these
clients enables us to account for specific behaviour. The Unit Values and Principles
in Care (Higher) examines the care relationship as well as how legislation, values
and principles underpin professional care practice and how we plan to meet the
care needs of individuals.
Sociology for Care (Higher)
This Unit is designed to provide candidates with a framework to understand some

of the wider social influences that can impact on individuals receiving a care
service. It will enable candidates to learn about the main sociological theories that
provide insight into the influences that shape individuals’ lives. By focusing on key
aspects of society, candidates will be able to develop their knowledge and
understanding of sociological theories. The concept of social inequality will be
explored and through an examination of social issues candidates will learn why
certain individuals or groups in society require care services. The influence of
sociology in shaping the values and principles that underpin care practice will also
be studied.
In the Unit candidates study:
• the contribution of key sociological theories to an understanding of care

• aspects of society using sociological concepts and theories
• the insights which sociology gives to care practice
The mandatory content for this Unit is detailed in the Appendix to the Unit
Specification. This mandatory content is sampled in both Unit and Course
assessment.

Assessment
To achieve the Course award the candidate must pass the Units as well as pass
the Course assessment. The candidate’s grade is based on the Course
assessment.
Assessment objectives
At Higher, the key elements of knowledge and understanding, analysis,

application and evaluation are assessed in the following ways.
• Knowledge and understanding

Candidates should be able to demonstrate wide-ranging and detailed knowledge
and understanding of aspects of care practice and the relevant concepts, theories
and methods employed by care professionals in their roles. The range of
knowledge should extend to an understanding of key theoretical and practical
issues in sociology, psychology and values and principles for care and their
application in care practice.
• Analysis
Candidates should be able to select from, interpret and analyse different
sociological and psychological theories and models of care planning in the
context of care practice. In so doing, candidates should be able to present
information in a balanced, logical and coherent manner, which focuses clearly on
the issues under review. Candidates should be able to use, with confidence, the
language and concepts of care and demonstrate a clear and in-depth
understanding of the inter-relationship between evidence and theory.
Assessment of issues should be critical and comprehensive and should reflect
confidence in dealing with complex arguments
• Evaluation
Candidates should demonstrate the ability to make balanced evaluations of care
related theories and practical examples and base these upon justified and
sustained arguments. Explanations offered and methods used by care
professionals should be examined critically and the conclusions drawn should be
well developed and reasoned, reflecting clear understanding of the care topic
being assessed.
• Application
Candidates should be able to demonstrate the application of theories, concepts
and methods covered in the Units and apply them to a care situation. This will
centre on case study and simulated situations from key theoretical and practical
issues in sociology, and psychology as applied in care practice, and values and
principles in care.

The balance of assessment between knowledge and understanding and analysis

application and evaluation in Course and Unit specifications will be approximately:
• Course – 50% knowledge and understanding, 50% analysis, application and

evaluation.
• Units – 60% knowledge and understanding, 40% analysis, application and
evaluation.
Unit assessment
Satisfactory evidence of the achievement of all Outcomes and Performance

Criteria for each Unit is in the form of written and/or oral recorded evidence,
produced under closed book, supervised conditions within a time limit of one hour
for each Unit.
Each assessment samples across the mandatory content for the individual Unit
and the nature of sampling is detailed in the Evidence Requirements within the
Statement of Standards within each Unit Specification. If re-assessment is
required, it should sample across a different range of mandatory content.
Further details about Unit assessment for this Course can be found in the
National Assessment Bank (NAB) materials and in the Unit Specifications.
Course assessment
The Course assessment consists of 2 Question Papers. Each Question Paper

lasts 1 hour 20 minutes. There is a break of 20 minutes between each paper.
Paper 1
• Section 1 set on content of Psychology for Care (Higher)
• Section 2 set on content of Sociology for Care (Higher)
• The mark allocation for this paper is 50.
Paper 2
• Section 3 set on content of Values and Principles in Care
• Section 4 set on the integrated content of at least two of the three Units in this
Course
• The mark allocation for this paper is 50.
Further details of the Course assessment are given in the Course Assessment
Specification and in the Specimen Question Paper.

Link between Unit and Course assessment/added value
The Course consists of three Units and an additional 40 hours study. The Course
assessment tests the candidates’ knowledge and understanding of the content
covered in all three Units and their ability to demonstrate and apply knowledge
and skills acquired throughout the Course.
In Units at Higher candidates are required to demonstrate knowledge and

understanding and the ability to analyse and evaluate a range of related care
theories and their practical application. The Course assessment will require
candidates to use their knowledge and understanding of psychology, sociology
and values and principles and to apply critical and analytical skills to answer
question drawn from the whole Course.
Unit and Course assessment complement each other. Unit assessment provides
evidence of a specific level of achievement in the psychology, sociology and
values and principles sections of the Course. The Course assessment confirms
and expands on this, providing sampled evidence of a range of skills exceeding
those required for Unit success, such as retention of knowledge.
The Course assessment at Higher requires that candidates demonstrate the

ability to:
• retain knowledge and understanding from across all three Units of the Course
on a single occasion
• analyse and evaluate theories and applications to the care context from all
three Units on a single occasion
• apply theories and applications in a care context to a range of topics from
across the Units on a single occasion
• integrate knowledge and understanding of theories and applications in a care
context
• perform more complex analytical and evaluative tasks than required for Unit
assessment.

The Course in Care (Higher)
Course Rationale
Issues of health and social care are becoming increasingly important due to an
increase in the population of care service users. As a result, there is a growing
need for qualified health and social care professionals. The Higher Care Course
provides a strong foundation of knowledge and skills for candidates who wish to
progress to further or higher education or employment in this area.
The Higher Course in Care relates to caring for people in society, other than self
or family, in an environment or agency whose codes of practice are dictated to
and guided by legislation, policy and professional ethics. This includes formalised
personal care in the community or home. It is concerned with the holistic study of
the client in context.
The Course will form an important part of the menu of provision, not only for those
who have identified the field of care as their chosen career path, but also for any
candidates who wish to extend their educational experience.
The knowledge acquired in the areas of the understanding of human behaviour

through applying psychological and sociological approaches and theories to care
situations is transferable to other academic or career pathways, particularly those
which involve working with people, either individually or as part of a team. This
Course can therefore have a number of significant advantages for the candidate.
For example it:
• helps candidates to understand the inter-relationship between psychology,

sociology and care values and principles which form the basis for care practice
• provides an insight into the wide range of factors which might impact upon an
individual’s development and behaviour
• enables candidates to inform and enhance their understanding of effective
service provision
• increases candidates’ awareness of the dangers of viewing human behaviour
and development purely from their own ethnocentric perspective
• raises candidates’ awareness of the psychological factors influencing their
perceptions of normal development and behaviour
• raises candidates’ awareness of the role of sociology in shaping social policy.

Aims
The Course provides opportunities for candidates to:
• acquire specialist knowledge and understanding required to care for others

• develop the ability to apply knowledge in a range of contexts
• develop awareness of their personal value base
• develop self-awareness and self-reflective practice
• identify people’s needs and develop skills for care planning
• develop an understanding of the values and principles that underpin
professional care practice.
• develop the awareness of the role of legislation and care planning in promoting
positive outcomes for people requiring care
• develop an understanding of the main sociological theories that provide insight
into the influences that shape individual’s lives
• develop an understanding of the way in which psychological approaches help
to understand aspects of human and behaviour
• develop an understanding of why certain individuals or groups in society
require care services
• acquire the awareness of the role of sociology in shaping the values and
principles that underpin care practice
• learn about some key approaches that can provide insight into understanding
human behaviour and development and apply these approaches to a care
context
• develop an understanding of transition and loss and their relevance to
understanding human development and behaviour in a care context.

Unit Outcomes, PCs and Evidence Requirements
Unit Specification: statement of standards
SUMMARY
This is a mandatory Unit in the Care (Higher) Course. It can also be taken as a
free-standing Unit for candidates who wish to gain a basic understanding of
sociological theories and how they influence care practice.
This Unit is designed to provide candidates with a framework to understand some

of the wider social influences that can impact on individuals receiving a care
service. It will enable candidates to learn about the main sociological theories
that provide insight into the influences that shape individuals’ lives. By focusing
on key aspects of society, candidates will be able to develop their knowledge and
understanding of sociological theories. The concept of social inequality will be
explored and through an examination of social issues, candidates will be able to
understand why certain individuals or groups in society require care services.
The influence of sociology in shaping the values and principles that underpin care
practice will also be studied.
The Unit is suitable for candidates who wish to gain employment in the health and
social care sectors at support worker level or to progress to further study.
OUTCOMES
1. Explain the contribution of key sociological theories to an understanding of

care in contemporary society.
2. Analyse aspects of society using sociological concepts and theories.
3. Analyse the way in which a sociological understanding provides insight into
the principles underpinning care practice.
Acceptable performance in this Unit will be the satisfactory achievement of the

standards set out in this part of the Unit Specification. All sections of the
statement of standards are mandatory and cannot be altered without reference to
the Scottish Qualifications Authority.

OUTCOME 1
Explain the contribution of key sociological theories to an understanding of care in

contemporary society.
Performance Criteria
(a) Explain the role of sociological thinking in understanding contemporary
society.
(b) Describe key features of specific sociological theories.
(c) Explain the relevance of sociology to care in contemporary society.
OUTCOME 2
Analyse aspects of society using sociological concepts and theories.
(a) Explain specific aspects of society using key sociological concepts.
(b) Explain specific aspects of society using sociological theories
OUTCOME 3
Analyse the way in which a sociological understanding provides insight into the
principles underpinning care practice.
(a) Describe the principles underpinning care practice.
(b) Analyse the concept of social inequality through contemporary social issues
relevant to care practice.
EVIDENCE REQUIREMENTS FOR THIS UNIT
Written and/or oral evidence is required to demonstrate the achievement of all

Outcomes and Performance Criteria for the Unit. The evidence must be produced
under closed-book, supervised conditions within a time limit of one hour. 60% of
the total marks available must be allocated to knowledge and understanding with
the remaining 40% of the marks being allocated to analysis, application and
evaluation.
As candidates will increase their knowledge, understanding and skills throughout

their study, assessment should take place towards the end of the Unit.
The use of a cut-off score may be appropriate for this assessment.
An appropriate instrument of assessment would be a case study or case studies

accompanied by a series of structured questions. The questions should sample
across the mandatory Unit content and allow candidates to generate evidence for
all Outcomes and Performance criteria in an integrated way

Each assessment must sample across the mandatory content of the unit and will
allow candidates to generate evidence which covers:
• the role of sociology in understanding society

• the key features of two of the following theories: functionalist, conflict, feminist,
symbolic interactionist
• the relevance of sociology to care in contemporary society
• either family or deviance using one of the following key sociological concepts:
socialisation, culture or life chances
• either the family or deviance using one of the following theories: functionalist,
conflict, feminist, symbolic interactionist.
• two principles which underpin the National Care Standards
• the concept of social inequality through one of the following: disability or
homelessness or health status
If reassessment is required, it should sample a different range of mandatory

content.
NB Centres must refer to the full Unit Specification for detailed information
related to this Unit.

Tutor Support Section

How to Use This Pack
There are a number of ways to bring Sociology to life for learners. One of the key
themes throughout the pack is for learners to make effective use of their own life
experiences but then to be able to use this as a means of understanding the
complex nature of the society in which we live. From this it is intended that
learners will be able to move on to be more objective about their own experiences
as well as gaining more insight into the life chances and life experiences of
others, especially those who find themselves requiring care services.
Although the support notes have been designed to be used sequentially, it would
not be necessary to use every exercise and activity in the pack in order to
understand the topics covered. Indeed there are some activities included where
there are a number of alternative discussion points or case studies relating to the
issue being covered. Any or all of the materials could be used to illustrate
different points in a variety of ways depending on the level of understanding of the
class group and the preference of the staff delivering the unit. Some of the
materials could be easily adapted to use in different ways. For example there are
revision exercises that could be used either as peer assessment activities or as
the basis of homework activities in which tutors could provide more detailed
feedback. There may also be some benefit in making use, where appropriate, of
Intermediate 2 Sociology for Care notes from the F17Y 11 support pack.
Within the pack there is a lot of material designed to ‘make theory interesting’ (or
if that fails…) ‘relevant’. However, the decision as to whether to include some or
all of the support notes in the class teaching may be influenced by whether this
unit is being delivered concurrently or consecutively with the other core units that
comprise the Intermediate 2 Care course, or indeed whether it is being delivered
as a stand alone unit. If some candidates have an academic knowledge of
sociology through previous or concurrent studies of, for example an Intermediate
2 or Higher Sociology course or units, then it may be unnecessary to study the
support notes relating to sociological theory in quite so much depth. For groups
taking the external exam in Higher Care more time will, however, need to be
spent on helping students to memorise key features of sociological theories, so
more time could be spent on mnemonics and mind mapping. There are also many
activities included throughout the pack for candidates to practice applying theory
to real life situations as this will always be a feature of both unit and course
assessment. Opportunities have also been included to undertake more complex
tasks such as evaluating different sociological perspectives or being clear about
how theories can be contrasted with each other. For classes who are doing this
as a stand-alone unit, tutors may have more time to make effective use of the
exercises which enable students to understand and apply the material to their
own life, wider society and to care settings.
The support notes in this pack have been produced in such a way that candidates
will learn the knowledge and skills to tackle questions in a NAB or external exam

which demand candidates to demonstrate either knowledge and understanding

(KU), application to ‘real’ situations or care contexts (APP) or some degree of
analysis and evaluation (AE).
Rationale for teaching/learning approaches

There are a number of policy initiatives which have been considered when
developing this pack. They are summarised below.
1) Assessment is for Learning Programme

http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/assess/
This programme is based on the principle that ‘good feedback is essential to

inform improvements at all levels in the education system’. In it, everyone – the
tutor as well as the students – is regarded as a learner.
There are 3 parts to the AifL approach:

1) Assessment for learning: day-to-day classroom interactions and feedback that
are focused on the learner and sensitive to their individual needs;
2) Assessment as learning: pupil’s participation in assessment and reflecting on

their learning helps them to become better learners;
3) Assessment of learning: concerned with enhancing teachers confidence in

their own judgements so that assessment information is reliable, comparable
and dependable.
This pack can only deal with points 1 and 2, but tutors will get an opportunity to
develop their skills in point 3 through SQA and SFEU workshops. A number of the
exercises in this pack will encourage the learner to reflect on their own work and
to assess other learners’ work, in order to build them into more independent
learners. This will include the use of formative assessment in hopefully preparing
learners to produce a more confident performance in summative assessments
and external exams.
Formative Assessment (process):
• clarifying learning intentions at the planning stage

• sharing these with learners
• involving them in self evaluation
• focusing oral and written feedback around the learning intention of each lesson
or task

• appropriate questioning
• organising individual target setting
• raising learner’s self esteem via the language of the classroom
• (Gardening analogy: feeding and watering the plant).
Summative Assessment (product):
• baseline testing
• end of topic tests
• National Assessment Bank
• (Gardening analogy: measuring the size of the plant).
Formative Assessment Strategies
Formative assessment improves learning. Assessment is used to allow learners

to develop an awareness of how THEY can improve their learning.
With written work, this can be done with:
• ‘Comment Only’ Marking i.e. they don’t get a mark, but do get feedback on
how to improve their answer. This is intended to encourage the learner to think
about what they can do to improve their work rather than just think: ‘Great. I’ve
scraped a pass.’ followed by turning round to ask the mark of the person sitting
next to them. This type of feedback ties in to promoting the learner’s intrinsic
valuing of their work and taking pride and responsibility for achievement and
progress, rather than the extrinsic pass/fail mentality.
• Peer- or Self-Assessment. These skills help the learner to develop an
awareness of what makes a good piece work. It asks them to independently
judge what is strong or weak in an answer, rather than to rely on the tutor. The
tutor needs to support learners to achieve the confidence and ability to do this,
but it is a very useful technique once developed.
In order to facilitate this type of delivery and assessment strategy, there are
candidate activities and exercises included throughout the support pack. In most
instances these activities and exercises follow on quite naturally from the
preceding topic. However, the answers and/or suggested responses relating to
the activities are located at the end of the support pack in a separate Tutor
section. The decision as to when to issue these notes to best support self and/or
peer assessment can therefore be made by the tutor.

2) Curriculum for Excellence (2004)

http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/curriculumforexcellence/index.asp
The Curriculum for Excellence Report aims to ensure seamless education for
children and young people (CYP) in Scotland, aged 3 – 18. The Care Course can
contribute to this by directly or indirectly meeting the aspects in bold below. This
subject area and the methods of teaching that are used are ideal for meeting
these aims.
• All CYP can be successful learners, effective contributors, confident individuals

and responsible citizens
• Every CYP fulfils their potential; attainment will rise across the board
• There is a renewed emphasis on equipping CYP with essential skills including
literacy, numeracy and creative thinking skills and promoting good health and
well being
• Scotland’s education system continues to meet the challenges of the 21st
Century.
Teaching activities
A number of the suggested teaching activities suggested in the Curriculum for

Excellence framework are already used widely in care courses:
• Activity based
• Creative/innovative
• Direction of travel: do students know where they are going. Do they know how
to get there?
• Narrative: what is the story you want to tell? Not how difficult it is, but how
relevant/interesting it is.
Education (Scotland) Act 2000
Makes provision for the 5 National Priorities for Education:
1) Achievement and Attainment

2) Framework for Learning
3) Inclusion and Equality
4) Values and Citizenship
5) Learning for Life

HMIE
3) Changing Lives - Report of the 21st Century Social Work

review: Implementation Plan (2006)
http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2006/02/02094408/0
The report notes the need for ‘Programmes of learning that contribute to the
continuous development of the social services workforce’ and which ‘Support the
establishment of career pathways and career progression, in line with emerging
policy needs’. This course, based at SCQF level 5 enables learners to enter into
the social service workforce at care assistant level, or to develop further
underpinning knowledge by advancing to Higher and HNC care Courses.
4) Learning Together (1999)

http://www.scotland.gov.uk/learningtogether/
The Scottish Executive produced the publication ‘Learning Together’. This

outlines a strategy for education, training and lifelong learning for people working
in the National Health Service in Scotland. There is an emphasis on the value of
education and lifelong learning in contributing to the delivery of quality services
within the NHS. Candidates who study and achieve care units and courses can
expect to improve their opportunities for employment within a care sector with this
learning ethos.
Please note that the materials and activities contained in this pack are not
intended to be a mandatory set of teaching notes. They provide centres
with a flexible set of materials and activities which can be selected, adapted
and used in whatever way suits individual centres and their particular
situations.

Guidance on Unit Delivery
Although centres will deliver this unit in a number of ways, a timetable for an 18
week course with 2 hour classes is provided below. As the unit is a nominal 40
hours, this implies that there are at least 4 hours for self-study. Apart from
revision of notes, students can be expected to carry out some of the activities in
their own time and bring their work back to class for discussion/marking.
Content Mode of delivery

Intro and overview of unit
1 Outcome 1 • tutor input
- What is sociology? • student exercises
- Distinction between sociological
thinking and
Common sense
Exploring Research • tutor input
2 - private troubles and public issues • individual and group
research
• internet investigation
opportunity
Understanding Society • tutor input
3 - Summary and Review • student exercises
- Introduction to Sociological theory
• tutor input
4 Structural & Action Theories • student exercises
Making theory interesting • class discussion
• tutor input
5 Functionalist Theory • student exercises
Conflict Theory
• tutor input
6 Feminist Theory • student exercises
Symbolic Interactionist Theory
• formative assessment
7 Revision Exercise opportunity
• tutor input
8 Relevance of Sociology to Care • class discussion
- Overview and Case Studies • case studies
• formative assessment
opportunity
Outcome 2 – Sociological concepts & • tutor input
9 aspects • student exercises
- socialisation, culture, life chances • group discussion
- the family; deviance
Sociological perspectives on the family

The family • tutor input

10 - Functionalism: Key features and • student exercises
overview
- Conflict: Key features and overview
The family • tutor input
11 - Feminism: Key features and overview • student exercises
- S. I.: Key features and overview • revision opportunity
Sociological perspectives on deviance • tutor input
12 - Functionalism: Key features and • student exercises
overview • group discussion
- Conflict: Key features and overview
Deviance • tutor input

13 - Feminism: Key features and overview • student exercises
- S. I.: Key features and overview • revision opportunity
Outcome 3 – Sociology and Care • tutor input

14 Values & • student exercises
Principles • group discussion
- National Care Standards Principles
- Care Settings
Guiding Values in Care • tutor input
15 - Social Inequality • group and class discussion
- Values and Principles
- The role of legislation
Contemporary Social issue • individual/group
16 Investigation investigation
NAB Revision • case studies
• revision
NAB Outcomes (All Outcomes)
17
NAB Feedback
18 Remediation/Reassessment as
Required

Resources
Recommended Text
Miller, J. and Gibb, S. (Eds) (2007) Care In Practice for Higher (2nd Edn) Hodder
and Stoughton
Useful web links
www.carecommission.com
www.cebmh.warne.ox.ac.uk/csr/
www.cehr.org.uk/
www.drc-gb.org
www.oneplusone.org.uk/
www.jrf.org.uk
www.seemescotland.org.uk/
www.sssc.uk.com
www.nelson.com/nelson/sociology/glossary.html#a

Student Support Section

Key to Activity Symbols
Reading Writing Discussion Reflection
Brainstrorming Case studies ICT Research Revision
Group Investigation
Study Tips
1) Highlighting Key Words
None of the key words have been put into bold in this unit, as it will be more useful
for you to be actively involved in highlighting the keywords on each page. If you
don’t already have some, go and buy yourself some highlighter pens!
The point of highlighting each keyword is so that when you read over your notes,
the main point on each page jumps out at you. Therefore, it is crucial that you only
highlight one or two words at a time. If you highlight too much, then nothing will
jump out at you and you’ll need to wear sunglasses to read your notes!
Occasionally, it is useful to highlight a sentence, if it gives a definition of a key

term but even then, it is better to try and highlight only the relevant parts of the
sentence. It might also be useful to highlight the key term in one colour, and the
definition in another colour, so again you are making the separate things stand out
differently.
Less is more when highlighting.

Glossary of Terms
analogy Making comparisons or drawing similarities between

two things.
autonomy Independence and control over one’s own affairs.
capitalism A social and economic system which is driven by

private ownership and profit.
cohabitation A situation where a couple live together as husband

and wife but are not legally married.
contemporary Present day, currently.
corporate crime Law-breaking by executives in large organizations.
culture The way of life of a society which can include

language, customs, dress, symbols and artifacts (e.g.
ornaments, tools.)
demography The study of populations with particular reference to

statistics relating to births, deaths, marriages,
migration, disease etc.
determinism A belief that individuals’ lives are shaped by their

situations and environments and that they have very
little free will.
discrimination Treating an individual or a group unfairly usually on

account of prejudiced or stereotyped views.
empowerment Enabling people to take control of their own lives.
ethnic group A group of people who share a common culture.
ethnocentricity A view of the world in which other cultures are

devalued in comparison to our own culture.
ethnography The study of the culture and way of life of a group of

people by directly observing them.
extended family A family structure where the basic nuclear family tree
has been added to vertically (grandparents, parents,
children) or horizontally (siblings with respective
spouses and children).

free will The ability of individuals to be completely autonomous

and exercise choice.
human agency Human action which has the potential to transform

social arrangements.
judiciary A body of judges (courtroom).
life chances The opportunities someone has of accessing desirable

experiences in life such as a good education, income,
housing and health.
macro-sociology A sociological perspective that focuses on the large

scale structural aspects of society.
marginalisation The process whereby individuals or groups are forced

to live on the edges or outside mainstream society.
mass media Communication which can reach large numbers of

people at the same time - can include TV, radio,
newspapers, magazines and the internet.
meritocracy A system whereby social positions are achieved in

society on the basis of merit such as educational
qualifications or skill rather than class, ethnic group or
gender.
micro-sociology A sociological perspective that focuses on the small

scale interactive processes that make up society.
morbidity That which relates to the nature and extent of illness in

a population.
mortality The number of deaths in a given period of time.
norms Social rules which define the expected behaviour in a

range of social situations.
objectivity Approaching topics with an open mind.
oppression Abuse of power towards a less powerful group by

those who have more power.
patriarchy Power and authority held by men; the basis of male

dominance over women in society.

perspective A way of looking at an issue from a particular

viewpoint
polygamy A pattern of marriage that allows more than one legal

partner at a time.
prejudice A negative attitude, usually based on a stereotype of a

social group, that often leads to discrimination.
primary socialisation The process through which we learn the values and
behaviour of the culture to which we belong. Usually
this takes place within our family.
roles The patterns of behaviour that are expected from

individuals in a society.
sanctions A reward or punishment to encourage social

conformity.
secondary socialisation The learning of skills and attitudes outwith the main
agency of the family. Can include the influence
exerted by schools, work, the media, religion and peer
group.
social exclusion The situation whereby people become marginalised or

prevented from taking an active part in mainstream
society.
social inclusion The process of developing measures to include and

value people who have been traditionally excluded
from society.
social justice The idea that a society should give individuals and
groups fair treatment and a just share of society’s
benefits.
socially constructed A belief that an aspect of social life is brought about by

social processes rather than being a natural
occurrence.
white-collar crime Crime committed by people in the course of carrying

out their middle-class jobs.

social institutions The organised social arrangements which exist in

societies (such as families) as well as the organised
beliefs or rules that establish how a society meets its
basic social needs (such as the justice system).
stereotyping A process whereby individuals are viewed in over-

simplified ways as part of a group and are assumed to
share the same characteristics.
sub-culture A small scale culture which differs in terms of norms

and values from the larger culture of which it is a part.
subjectivity Approaching subjects from a personal or individual

point of view.
values General beliefs about what is considered to be right,

wrong and/or important in society.
Based on definitions from a range of sources
Browne, K. (2005) An Introduction to Sociology Polity Press: Cambridge.

Lawson, T. and.Garrod, J. (2003) Complete A-Z of Sociology. Hodder and
Stoughton: London.
Miller, J et al (2000) Care in Practice. Hodder and Stoughton: London.
http://www.nelson.com/nelson/sociology/glossary.html#a

Outcome 1: Introduction and Overview
In this outcome you will be finding out how sociology can help us to have a better
understanding of the society in which we live.
One of the first things you will be asked to think about is the difference between
having a subjective view about something and how this differs from an objective
point of view. To help with this we will be looking at some topics or issues about
which we may have some personal knowledge or understanding and then we will
re-examine them from a sociological point of view. For anyone who has
completed the Sociology for Care Unit at Intermediate 2 level, then this idea
should seem familiar. As part of this discussion we will also look at the
relationship between individual experiences and the wider social contexts or
structures in which they happen.
Sociology provides us with a range of different ways of looking at society. Some

of these have become established theories or frameworks that can be helpful in
explaining and understanding society. In this outcome we will be examining
features of four major sociological theories that will help us to understand some
key issues relating to care in contemporary society.
OUTCOME 1
Explain the contribution of key sociological theories to an understanding of care in

(a) Explain the role of sociological thinking in understanding contemporary

society
(b) Describe key features of specific sociological theories
(c) Explain the relevance of sociology to care in contemporary society.

Overview of Topics
The role of sociological thinking:
• the distinction between common sense explanations and sociological

knowledge
• the relationship between private troubles and public issues
• the importance of understanding society rather than merely describing it
Key features of sociological perspectives: Overview:
• distinction between macro-sociology and micro-sociology (structural and action

theories)
• the similarity and differences between consensus and conflict theories
Key features and evaluation of specific sociological theories:
• functionalist theory
• conflict theory
• feminist theory
• symbolic interactionist theory
The relevance of sociology to care:
• raising awareness of the impact of wider social influences on those who

receive care services
• recognition that individuals and groups can influence the development and
provision of care services
Revision exercises and Case Studies

What is Sociology About?

In very simple terms sociology is about trying to explain how society works. It also
involves developing the ability to see society not only through our own eyes but
also through the eyes of other people and groups. Developing this social
awareness enables us to gain insight into current social issues and their impact
on our own lives as well as on those who may lead very different lives to
ourselves. Sociology can help us to do this.
In the Intermediate 2 course we learned that a simple definition of sociology was
‘the study of human society and human behaviour.’ This is because it involves
studying people as social beings and examines how behaviour can be shaped by
life experiences. The societies we live in also have a great influence on who we
are as individuals in terms of our attitudes, our beliefs and the chances that we
have in life. These issues are very important in sociology. Sociology is also
interested in looking at how society is structured. This means that it examines
how society is made up of different social institutions such as the family, the
education system or religion and it looks at the influence these institutions have
on how we live our lives. Social structures such as these are considered to be
the foundations of society by many sociologists.
A slightly more complex definition of sociology is
“… the study of individuals in groups and social formations in a systematic
way, which grew out of the search for understanding associated with the
industrial and scientific revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. It is now
an established discipline … and has offered generations of students
insights into the social world they inhabit.”
(Lawson & Garrod,1996: 258)
It is this idea of ‘offering insight into the social world we inhabit’ that makes
sociology such an important subject to study as part of a care course. Using
sociological concepts to examine social issues will help us to understand why
certain individuals or groups in society may require care services at some stage in
their lives. This is often because it is these people who are the most vulnerable in
society. This may be on account of their age, disability, ethnic background, health
or life chances.
The idea of social issues is wide ranging and could cover topics like marital
breakdown, poverty, disability, unemployment, drug misuse, criminal behaviour,
homelessness, obesity or binge drinking. Most people have opinions, or even
experience of, issues like these. Sociologists are involved in studying such social
issues.
So isn’t sociology pretty much just common sense then?

Sociological Thinking v Common Sense
Since sociology focuses on many subjects and social issues that most people
know something about, it is understandable that sociology could be seen as being
basically just ‘common sense’. This, however, is not true. In fact, what sociology
tries to do is challenge many taken for granted assumptions that people often
accept as common sense. It would also be true to say that sociology isn’t the only
social science that is interested in studying human behaviour and social issues.
What makes sociology distinctive is not so much the topics it studies, but rather
how it studies them.
As a lot of sociological thinking is based on challenging taken for granted

assumptions, a starting point is often the questioning of what we may believe to
be true. Let’s look at three issues and examine some common sense or taken for
granted assumptions about them.
Write down some commonly held beliefs about each of the topics below. In your
statements you should try to focus on what many people generally think about
these issues. For example what causes people to live in poverty, get married or to
commit suicide
Poverty: ________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Marriage: ________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Suicide: ________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Once you have completed this exercise, discuss your answers with the
people sitting near you.

It is likely that you will have generated a lot of ideas. Some of your suggestions
might have included:
Poverty:
• Some people are too lazy to find work and choose to live on benefits and that
means they are more likely to experience poverty
• Some people find themselves living in poverty because they can’t budget their
money
• There’s no real poverty in Britain today. Poverty is what you see in African
countries
Marriage;
• Most people get married because they fall in love … anyway, it’s every girl’s
dream to have a big white wedding
• It’s natural for a man and a woman to fall in love and want to get married
• Marriage is ‘going out of fashion’ nowadays
Suicide:
• People who commit suicide are mentally ill

• People commit suicide because life has become unbearable for them
• People who commit suicide are basically selfish
Do you think any of these statements are true?
How do you think sociologists might study some of these ideas to find out whether
they are in fact true?
Some of the information from the Intermediate 2 Sociology for Care unit could
also be helpful in developing your understanding of the distinction between
sociological and common sense explanations.

Sociological knowledge v Common sense assumptions
Common sense explanations of social issues are often based on opinion or

personal experience and therefore are often very subjective, which means that
they are based on an individual’s point of view. Sociological explanations are, by
contrast, more objective, which means they are not influenced by personal
feelings but are based on knowledge and evidence from research.
Common sense explanations are often considered to be:
Naturalistic “It’s only natural that when a man and woman fall in love that
they will choose to get married and want to have children.”
Individualistic “If people are poor it’s their own fault as there are plenty of
jobs for those that want them.”
Moralistic “People who take their own lives are selfish. They should
think of the people they leave behind.”
Many common sense explanations are based on naturalistic, individualistic or

moralistic assumptions. However, there is no escaping the fact that some of these
assumptions do appear to represent what many people believe about the social
world we live in. It is important to realise that some common sense explanations
or assumptions may not be incorrect or untrue, in fact they probably will be true
for some people. The problem arises when they are assumed to be true for all
people.
Sociological explanations attempt to avoid naturalistic, individualistic and

moralistic assumptions. In contrast sociology attempts to explain social behaviour
in terms of wider social forces, processes and structures, using evidence from
objective research to support these explanations.
For example, sociological explanations relating to some of the points noted in

relation to marriage, poverty and suicide would have a different, more objective
emphasis based on particular research that had been carried out in relation to the
subject.
Your next task is to try to find out about some research that has been carried out
in relation to these subjects.

Exploring Research
As a way of beginning to understand some of the complexities of the topics listed

earlier, you will now be given the task of using the internet to find out what kind of
research has taken place in relation to poverty, marriage and suicide.
Some of the information you find will have been produced by sociologists. Other
information you might find could have been produced by the government or even
other researchers such as economists or psychologists and then used by
sociologists as a basis for their own research.
Check with your tutor about how this task should be carried out. You could
complete this task as individuals and write up some of the things you find out.
Alternatively, this would be an ideal opportunity to carry out some group work.
The class could be divided into three groups, with each group focusing on a
particular topic. The small groups could then feed back to the whole group. Or
you may find it easier to divide into groups of three with each person in the group
investigating a different topic or website.
Whether you do this task individually or as part of a group you should spend
some time exploring the websites provided in the next section of the support
notes. Look specifically for the types of research that have taken place in relation
to the topic. You should also take some time to briefly explore any other links you
think could be relevant to the idea of sociological research.
Remember though that this is just an introductory exercise to give you some
insight into what kind of research actually takes place in relation to some of the
topics we might be discussing as part of this course.
Check with your tutor how this information is to be shared with the class. For
example you might be asked to do a presentation. Perhaps you could create a
poster illustrating some of the key points. Or maybe you’ll simply be asked to read
out some of your findings.
Whatever way you choose to complete this activity …Good Luck!

Exploring Research: Poverty
The Joseph Rowntree Foundation is a charitable organisation that carries out a

great deal of social research in the UK. One of their main aims is to try to more
fully understand the causes of poverty and other related social difficulties and
then find ways of overcoming them.
Visit the site below, looking specifically for information on research and policy.
If you have difficulty accessing the site, then type ‘Joseph Rowntree Foundation
Research and Policy’ into a search engine such as ‘Google’.
www.jrf.org.uk
When you have completed your investigation, you might find it helpful to write
some notes in response to the following questions in order to help you sort out
your findings:
What kind of research has this organisation undertaken?
What sort of issues have they looked at?
Which pieces of research seemed most interesting?
Did you find out anything that surprised you?
What useful links to other sites did you find?

Exploring Research: Suicide
The University of Oxford has a Centre for Suicide Research where the work
conducted is aimed at increasing knowledge directly relevant to prevention of
suicide and deliberate self-harm. Much of the research focuses on the
investigation of the causes of suicidal behaviour as well as its treatment and
prevention.
Visit the site below, looking specifically for information on research and policy.
If you have difficulty accessing the site, then type ‘University of Oxford Centre for
Suicide Research’ into a search engine such as ‘Google’.
www.cebmh.warne.ox.ac.uk/csr/
your findings:

Exploring Research: Marriage
One Plus One is an organisation that seeks to strengthen couple and family
relationships by putting research into practice. They conduct research into what
makes relationships work, or in some cases break down, and uses the research
findings to help develop resources for use by people supporting families. The
organisation is also influential in shaping government policy on families.
Visit the site below, looking specifically at the information centre and research
and innovation.
If you have difficulty accessing the site, then type ‘One Plus One marriage and
relationship research’ into a search engine such as ‘Google’.
http://www.oneplusone.org.uk/
your findings:

Exploring Research: Summary
The previous exercise should have enabled you to understand that it takes a lot
more than ‘common sense’ to fully understand the complex nature of many of the
issues which are of interest to sociology.
For example, if you looked at some of the research into poverty, you may have
discovered that some research has shown that there is a strong link between
poverty and educational background as well as ethnic background. If you
investigated this topic you might also have seen how much research is currently
taking place to highlight the problems of child poverty in the UK.
For those of you who investigated research on the subject of suicide, you may
have noticed that some research focused on suicide rates amongst specific
groups of people amongst whom suicide was more common. It is possible that
you also found links to organisations that develop strategies focussing on the
prevention of suicide and self-harm such as the Scottish ‘Choose Life’
organisation.
If you investigated the topic of marriage, you are likely to have found a lot of
statistical information on related issues such as changes in marriage patterns and
cohabitation, divorce rates, rates of remarriage or even the incidence of domestic
abuse.
So what’s next?
If by carrying out the previous exercise you now have a better understanding of
why it can be important to question ‘taken for granted assumptions’, hopefully you
will also have become aware of a related idea which is that there is a relationship
between private problems and public issues.
What do you think this means?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Private Problems and Public Issues
“When, in a city of 100,000, only one man is unemployed, that is his personal
trouble, and for its relief we properly look to the character of the man, his skills,
and his immediate opportunities. But when in a nation of 50 million employees,
15 million men are unemployed, that is an issue, and we may not hope to find
its solution within the range of opportunities open to any one individual.”
(C. Wright-Mills, 1959: 9)
The above quote is taken from an influential sociology text that was written
approximately 50 years ago. However, its message is still very relevant in
The activity in which we investigated research on poverty, marriage and divorce
should have highlighted that although each of these issues could have a very
personal or private impact on any of us at some point in our lives, they are also of
wider public concern in terms of both cause and impact.
The sociologist C.Wright-Mills believed that developing a ‘sociological
imagination’ helps us to understand that people’s private troubles can become
public issues and that some public issues can, in turn, cause private troubles. He
also believed that it was important to look at the relationship between these wider
issues and individual experiences.
This is one of the aspects of sociology that makes it both fascinating and
challenging. Frequently there are no ‘right’ answers or clear solutions to the
problems that are being studied or the questions that are being asked, in fact,
often a piece or research highlights that more or different questions still need to
be asked.
However, what is clear is that as students studying Sociology for Care it is
important to recognise that influences such as family, education, religion, the
world of work, the media, the economy or even terrorism and climate change can
have an impact on ourselves and those we aim to support. They can have an
impact on us both as individuals and as members of society. Our sense of
identity may be influenced by our culture, class, religion, sexuality or gender and
the extent to which public issues may impact upon us as individuals may also be
related to these issues.
As part of the Sociology for Care unit it is therefore of the utmost importance that
students are able to understand some of the wider social issues that can have an
impact on individuals who require care services.

Private Problems and Public Issues: Care Context
As you progress through this unit you will be given the opportunity to think about
some of the values and principles that are very important to professionals who
work in the area of health and social care. These principles are related to the
relationship between private problems and public issues. If you have studied the
Values and Principles in Care Unit, you may already have given this idea some
thought.
In relation to this unit, as part of Outcome 3, you will be focussing on three

contemporary social issues that are relevant to care practice. These will be
disability, homelessness and health status.
Having thought about how poverty, marriage and divorce can be both private
troubles and public issues, you should now write a few sentences about how you
think the idea of ‘private problems/public issues’ relates to the issues of disability,
homelessness and health. Although we will return to examine this idea later in
the unit, it would be helpful for you to record your thoughts at this stage in your
learning. Write a few lines about how the idea of ‘private problems/public issues’
relates to:
Disability: ________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Homelessness: __________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Health: _______________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Understanding Society
Another concept that it is important to grasp when studying sociology is the idea
that we are seeking to understand society rather than merely describe it.
To illustrate this point I will focus on what you are often asked to do in exams. For
example, in an exam you might be asked to describe something and if you
manage to do this accurately you will probably have demonstrated a degree of
knowledge. However you are unlikely to have shown much understanding.
Imagine you are asked to

describe what a family is. You
might suggest that a family is
usually a mother, father
(perhaps married, perhaps not)
and children. There may be
other relatives connected to
the family such as
grandparents, aunts and
uncles. Some people may also
live in lone parent or step-
parent families.
This is fine as it clearly describes what families are or can be. However, what the
above statement doesn’t do is provide much of an understanding of why families
are the way they are or what they actually do. For example it doesn’t explain what
happens in families or how they have changed over time or whether the
experience of families is the same in all cultures.
If you were asked to provide this level of understanding in an exam, you wouldn’t
be asked to describe what a family is, it is more likely that you would be asked to
explain or analyse some aspect or function that the family fulfils in society. By
doing this you would be much more likely to demonstrate not just knowledge but
also understanding.
A key point to remember then is that:
• Describing something tells us what something is
• Understanding something helps tells us why it is.

Understanding Society: Activity
As an activity to illustrate the difference between describing and understanding

something, you should complete the following task.
In the space below provide a minimum of four statements that describe the
composition of the ‘Sociology for Care’ class group you are part of.
• ________________________________________________________________
• ________________________________________________________________
• ________________________________________________________________
• ________________________________________________________________
Now make an attempt at trying to explain any or all of the points you have listed.
Remember that this might involve explaining ‘why’ the class has been described
in the way it has. If you think it would help, discuss your ideas with a partner first.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Understanding Society: Activity Discussion
In describing your class group it is likely that you will have referred to issues such
as gender, age, career aspirations, ethnic background or perhaps where people
live or what they are wearing.
Below are examples of some descriptions that might apply to a Higher Care class.
• There are 20 people in the class
• The class is predominantly made up of females (18 females;

2 males)
• There is an age range in the class (5 aged under 20; 7

aged 20 – 30; 6 aged 30 – 40; 2 aged 40+)
• Everyone is hoping to pursue a career in health or social

care in the future
• Everyone is dressed casually
With this description we can begin to get a kind of mental picture of what the class
group may look like. Your own description may be similar to the above or
different in some key areas. For example, if you are studying this course as part
of a school group, some of the descriptions are likely to be different, although
some of them may be similar. In a school group, descriptions might include:
• There are 12 people in the class
• They are all female
• Everyone is aged between 16-18
• Most of the class are interested in becoming either nurses

or social workers
• Everyone is wearing school uniform
In your groups you might have highlighted other key issues such as ethnic
background, social class or even what colour of hair people have or whether they
are wearing glasses!

However, for the purposes of this exercise we will be reflecting on how we might
go about trying to understand why some of the facts above are as they are?
Class size: This might be determined by how popular the subject is, or how
much demand there is for jobs in the field that the subject relates to, such as a
local or national shortage of nurses or social workers (or even plasterers and
plumbers in a different class.) Class size might even be affected by where you are
studying. For example if you live in a rural area, class size may be affected if the
college you are attending is the only place in the region where you can study your
chosen subject. Or you might be attending a school or college in a town/city
where there are many choices available and this may have an impact on the
composition or size of the class.
Gender mix: Irrespective of where you are studying this

course, there is a likelihood that your class will be made
up of mostly female students. Why is this? Is it likely to be
the same in the class of plasterers and plumbers? Trying
to understand why the Higher Care class is made up of
mostly females is related to the way in which the ‘caring’
role has been perceived by society for many years.
Women have traditionally been assigned the ‘caring’ role
within families as wives, mothers or daughters and when
(or if) employment opportunities arise, it is probably not
surprising that women (and men) see women as being
more capable in this field. Interestingly, because the
domestic or ‘caring’ role has traditionally been under
valued or taken for granted in society it is common for jobs in the caring
professions to attract lower pay than traditionally ‘male’ jobs that require similar
levels of skills or knowledge. (Do plumbers generally earn more than nurses?)
It is also interesting to note that gender socialisation

doesn’t only happen in families or the workplace. For
many years it was also reinforced in schools. If you
know anyone in the 40+ age bracket, compare their
experiences with someone under 20 in terms of what
subjects (and sports) males and females were taught at
school.
If, however, you do have some males in your class,

then this is a very encouraging sign. This is because it
is important that the stereotype that women are ‘natural’
carers and therefore better at it than men really needs
to be challenged. (Similarly, if there are some females
in the plumbing or plastering class then this is also
good news.)

Age range: If you are in a college class rather than a school group, there is a
likelihood that there will be some mature students in your class. How can this be
explained and understood?
In order to fully understand you probably need to ask

them. (Sociologists often conduct research by directly
asking people for information through structured or
unstructured interviews, or even using questionnaires.) If
you were to ask the mature students in your class why
they are attending college now, it is possible that they
would mention that they didn’t work hard or weren’t
encouraged to work at school so they want a chance to
do it now. They might say that because their children are
now at school they want to ‘do something for
themselves’. Some may even say that they want a
career change and have always wanted to be a nurse or
social worker, but didn’t think they could gain the
qualifications. Some people may already have
experience of working in care but are now being expected to gain formal
qualifications and want to do the course to help them towards this. The
opportunities for mature students to return to study are also an element of
government policy to promote ‘lifelong learning.’ This in turn is influenced by
demographic factors (population issues) which mean that the UK, like most
industrial societies, now has an ageing population as a result of low birth rates
and increasing life expectancy.
Career choices: As mentioned above, there is

now an expectation that people who want to train
as nurses, or social workers have to gain
qualifications before being accepted onto courses
or training programmes. In years gone by the
qualifications would most likely have been in
traditional school subjects such as English, Maths,
Chemistry, History etc. However, there are now
more opportunities to study a wider range of
vocationally based subjects in colleges, some of
which have more recently been made available to
schools. It is now possible to study subjects at
Intermediate 1/2 and Higher levels that are more
directly related to vocational areas such as Care,
Tourism, Hospitality, Hairdressing or Architectural Design to name only a few.
Again this is partly driven by government policies focussed on promoting
vocational training and opportunities. For those specifically interested in studying
health and social care, there are now also far more opportunities in both schools
and colleges to study courses or units in associated academic disciplines such as

Psychology, Sociology, Human Biology, Early Years Education or Religious,

Moral and Philosophical Studies.
Mode of Dress: Most people believe that what you

wear expresses something about you as a person. We
all probably believe that we are free agents to dress as
we please. However, this isn’t really the case. There
are established norms of behaviour in society that
govern how we behave in certain circumstances. For
example, there may be established expectations about
what clothes to wear at a funeral, which would be
different from what you wear at a party. In describing
the school class earlier, school uniforms were referred
to. These examples of expectations regarding modes
of dress illustrate how our behaviour can be controlled
in certain situations. This can even happen when we
don’t think there are any rules. For example, is there
anyone in your class wearing a suit and a tie? Or a
bikini? Or a Superman outfit? Probably the answer to these questions is ‘no’…
unless it might be the lecturer (… in the suit and tie, not the bikini or superman
outfit!) This is because there is generally informal agreement between people
about what behaviour is appropriate in certain situations. If people break the
formal or informal rules there are likely to be sanctions (or punishments) imposed
on them. For example, not wearing school uniform might result in detention or a
punishment exercise whereas wearing a superman outfit to the next Higher Care
class might result in everyone laughing at you or deciding that you’re not as cool
as they thought you were, so they won’t be inviting you to their party at the
weekend after all!
Understanding Society: Concluding thoughts
• In studying ‘Sociology for Care’, we will not just be describing society, but will
also be working towards understanding society.
• Our opportunities in life (such as education, job prospects) might be affected
by a number of things such as where we live, how old we are, our ethnic
background or whether we are male or female.
• Although we may think we are free to choose how we behave, we are actually
strongly influenced by the behavioural norms of the societies we live in.

Introduction to Sociological Theory
In studying sociological theory one of the first concepts to try to understand is that
of Freewill and Determinism. Although the phrase might look a bit daunting, it
actually relates to the final point on the previous page i.e. “although we may think
we are free to choose how we behave, we are actually strongly influenced by the
behavioural norms of the societies we live in.”
Freewill (sometimes called human agency) is the idea that human beings have
the ability to control, change or have choice over all aspects of their lives. This is
also sometimes referred to as autonomy.
Determinism, on the other hand, is based on the belief that human beings have
little free will or choice in how they behave but are influenced by the situations
and environments in which they live or even by the course of history.
When we begin to look at sociological theory as a way of helping us to

understand society, we will find out that different theories have different points of
view in relation to free will and determinism. Some theories believe that society
can be best explained by looking at how society shapes the individual; they are
referred to as structural theories. Other theories believe it is more helpful to
explain society in terms of how individuals shape society; they are referred to as
action theories. Most structural theories adopt a deterministic view of society,
whereas action theories place more emphasis on the idea of free will.
Structural theories, as the name suggests, look at how society is structured and
adopt a macro-sociological approach by looking at society on a large scale,
specifically in relation to how all the social institutions in society are inter-related.
Action theories on the other hand adopt a micro-sociological approach because
they are more interested in the small-scale interactions that take place between
individuals and small groups in society.
Within each of these broad sociological perspectives, structure and action, there
are a range of theories which each has a slightly different way of looking at
society. Some emphasise determinism, others free will. Some view society as a
stable, well functioning, harmonious whole (a consensus view) while others
adopt a conflict approach by viewing society as being dynamic and constantly
changing as a result of tension or conflict.
As part of this unit we will be studying four main sociological theories:

Functionalism, Conflict, Feminism and Symbolic Interactionism.) These theories

have been selected as part of this unit because they will be the most useful for us
when we use sociological understanding to study care in contemporary society.
Although the idea of studying theories may sound quite boring or even quite
daunting, theories are not as difficult to understand (or boring) if you manage to
grasp the basic concepts first.
So what is a theory?
A theory is just a framework for understanding things about the world we live in.
All theories originate from ideas which have been tested or researched in some
way. This is what makes them objective, unlike an idea which is based on
personal experience or common sense which would be more subjective.
Sociological theory is a particular

framework for explaining how
society works. Some theories are
likely to explain social behaviour
in terms of the relationships
between individuals, groups and
society. Others will emphasise
how social behaviours can be
linked to social processes and
structures. Many theories will be
examining the same aspect of
society, but will see it from a
different point of view or show up different issues more clearly. A useful way of
thinking about this is to imagine a type of Hall of Mirrors that you might see at a
funfair. The mirrors show up different areas more clearly than others such as a
big head/ small head or a long thin body/small round body, even though they are
a reflection of the same thing. Sociological theories can be looked at in a similar
way – some theories show up different aspects of society more clearly than
others.
What we will discover as we learn more about sociology is, that some theories are
helpful in understanding particular social issues but other theories help us to
develop a better understanding of society in relation to different issues.
On the following page is a diagram that shows each of the sociological theories
we will be studying as part of the Sociology for Care unit. Hopefully this diagram
might help you see where the theories ‘fit in’ in terms of structure/action (macro-
sociology/micro-sociology) and whether they adopt a consensus or conflict point
of view in examining and understanding society.

Sociological Theory
STRUCTURE ACTION
(Macro-sociology) (Micro-sociology)
Society shapes the individual The individual shapes society
Free Will/Human Agency

Determinism
SOCIETY INDIVIDUAL
Consensus Conflict
Functionalism Conflict Feminism Symbolic Interactionism

Structural and Action Theories
Structural and action theories are both interested in explaining and making sense
of our social world. However, they approach their explanations in different ways.
Structural theories attempt to understand society and explain human behaviour by

looking at society first and examining the way in which it is structured. In general
terms, structural theories believe that society shapes the individual. The fact that
structural theories look at the whole of society, or the ‘big picture’, means that
these theories can be effective at examining and explaining how society has
changed over time. They do this by looking at social trends. In the internet
investigation of research which you did
earlier in the unit, an example of this would
be looking at statistics that relate to
suicide. Looking at statistics is a way of
examining quantitative data which means
that a large amount of data relating to
many people can be examined fairly
easily. Trends or patterns can be
examined by, for example looking at
differences between gender, age groups
or even geographical areas.
By contrast, action theories tend to take their starting point as the individual. They
examine how individuals interact with each other in small social groups. Action
theories usually place a lot of emphasis on these interactions and the meanings
behind them and in turn believe it is the many interactions between individuals
and groups that shape society. Rather than examining social trends, action
theorists are more concerned with small-scale interaction and trying to
understand and interpret the meanings that people place on these interactions.
Action theorists believe this is a much more meaningful way to understand what
drives human behaviour. For example, rather than
trying to explain suicide through looking at
statistics, sociologists who operate from an action
perspective would be more likely to conduct
research which provided in-depth qualitative data.
This could be gained by carrying out unstructured
interviews asking people directly about their
experiences of contemplating suicide. Another
research method often used by sociologists
adopting an action perspective is participant

observation. This involves actually becoming part of the group being studied,
such as living alongside people who were ‘sleeping rough’ in order to gain insight
into the experience of homelessness.
No one way of examining or explaining society is necessarily better. Rather both

types of theory, structure and action, can be useful for different purposes and
highlight different issues. In fact in many cases it can be extremely helpful to
develop an understanding of both perspectives.

Introduction to Sociological Theory
Revision Exercise: Structural and Action theories
Below is a list of statements.
Use the grid on the following page to correctly list some of the key features of
Structural and Action theories.
• Believes that society shapes the individual

• Starts with the individual and then generalises about society
• Determinism is implicit in analysis
• Interested in meanings and interactions
• Would examine unemployment by asking unemployed people about their
experiences of being unemployed by using an unstructured interview
technique or by observing them
• Starts with society as a whole and then analyses the inter-related social
structures and institutions
• Mostly uses qualitative methods of research
• Free will or human agency is implicit in analysis
• Would examine unemployment by looking at the number and details of people
claiming benefit or attending a job centre
• Interested in trends and social forces
• Interested in explaining and making sense of the social world we live in
• Mostly uses quantitative methods of research
• Believes that individuals and groups shape society

Record your statements below. Most of them are part of a contrasting pair, so as
well as getting the statements in the correct columns, you should also try to pair
them correctly too. One statement can relate to both structural and action
theories.
You could do this as individuals or in a pair and then swap answers with another
person or group.
One pair of statements has been added to the grid below to give you an idea of
what is involved in the task.
STRUCTURAL ACTION
Believes that society shapes the Believes that individuals and

individual groups shape society

Making Theory Interesting
If you managed to complete the previous activity without too much difficulty – well
done! If you struggled with it, don’t panic as there will be many opportunities for
you to develop your understanding of different theories in this unit, as well as an
expectation that you will be able to apply your theoretical understanding to real
life situations and to case studies relating to the context of care.
It is really important that you try to grasp the idea that theories aren’t just about
learning facts (although this is obviously important), what makes theory
interesting, is when you begin to see that you can effectively use it to explain or
make sense of something that you are familiar with. For anyone who has already
studied some psychology theories, this idea will be familiar. Sometimes a theory
only becomes interesting or ‘real’ when we can make sense of applying it to
ourselves, our families or to real life situations.
The next activity will give you a chance to get into the swing of this.
As we begin to progress through the unit learning about different sociological

theories, we will refer back to the activity you are about to complete as a way of
beginning to apply theoretical understanding.

Making theory interesting: Activity (pages 60 - 63)
Work in small groups to discuss the following dilemma. You should record your
decision and thoughts on the following page.
The country is about to experience a nuclear attack. In the small town where you
live the government has decided that eight people can be selected to be located
safely in a purpose built shelter where their survival will be guaranteed. These
eight people will form the basis of a future society.
Your group is the committee that must decide who should be selected. No one on
the committee can be selected. You must choose from a group of 12 people who
have been nominated by the residents of the town.
You should record which eight people you have selected and provide justification
for your selection. You must also provide reasons for excluding the four people
not been selected
You must agree on a final decision in the next 30 minutes.
• James: a 45 year old environmental scientist

• Violet: a 36 year old journalist who is 7 months pregnant with her first child
• Eva: a 13 year old schoolgirl
• Jake: a 21 year old professional rugby player
• Mary: a 40 year old cook
• Samantha: 29 year old physics teacher
• Leroy: a 24 year old gardener
• Tony: a 45 year old politician
• Jean: a 50 year old doctor
• Bobby: a 15 year old computer hacker
• Craig: a 32 year old minister
• Susie: a 28 year old lawyer

The 8 people being selected for the nuclear protected shelter are:
Person Selected Justification for Selection
The 4 people being not selected for the nuclear protected shelter are:
Person not Justification for Non-Selection

Selected
Additional Comments: ___________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Share your decisions and discussion with the rest of the class.

Making theory interesting: Activity (continued)
In relation to this exercise it is likely that in your ‘committee groups’ as well as

within the wider class discussion, a range of issues were highlighted. It is likely
that certain roles, skills, abilities or attributes seemed to be important in the
formation of the new society. It is also possible that there was not complete
agreement about all the issues being discussed. Some of the issues you are likely
to have debated could include:
• The skills people had that would be considered important in the new society
• The age of the people being selected
• The gender of the people being selected
• The importance of keeping the human race in existence
• Who would be an asset to society?
• Who would be a drain on society?
Imagine that the eight selected people have now survived the nuclear attack and
are about to leave the shelter to try to establish their new society. Give some
consideration to the following points.
• Does the society have requirements that are necessary for survival?
• Will there be general agreement on priorities?
• How does organisation affect which tasks will need to be done and who
undertakes these tasks?
• Will there be any shared values in society?
• Who will hold the power in society?
• Will there be agreement on who holds power?
• What resources do you have?
• Who will decide on the allocation of resources?
• Over what issues will conflict be likely to arise?
• Will conflict be inevitable or are there ways of resolving conflict?
• Will the priorities change over time? Is so, which ones?

Write a short paragraph below summarising some of your thoughts on these

issues.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Making theory interesting: Summary
In the course of learning about the four specific sociological theories that form
part of the unit Sociology for Care, we will return to discuss the activity you have
just completed in order to highlight a number of the points that arose in your
groups. We will then see how the issues you raised can be interpreted using
different sociological theories. Hopefully we will then be able to appreciate how
different sociological theories can provide frameworks that can contribute to a
fuller understanding of society.
The four sociological theories you will be learning about are:
• functionalist theory
• conflict theory
• feminist theory
• symbolic interactionist theory

Introduction to Functionalist Theory
From previous notes (and the theory diagram) you should recall that the
functionalist perspective adopts a macro-sociological approach when it looks at
society. This means that it looks at how society as a whole operates.
Functionalists believe that society is made up of groups that are bound together
and share a common understanding of their way of life. It is this common
understanding that enables society to remain stable. It also allows for shared
beliefs and understanding to be passed on to future generations. Functionalists
therefore believe that there is a shared agreement within society about what is
important in life and what behaviour is appropriate in certain contexts.
Reflecting back on the nuclear attack shelter activity should illustrate some
elements of this idea. Think back on what people in the group agreed were
important issues to be taken into consideration in the selection process as well as
the discussion about the likely issues arising in the new society.
Although the information above provides a very brief and somewhat simplified
overview of functionalist theory, for the purposes of this unit there will be four key
features that you will be expected to learn, understand and apply in relation to
each sociological theory studied as part of the unit. For functionalist theory these
four features are:
• consensus on norms, values and roles

• integration and interdependence
• stability and continuity
• dysfunctionality

Functionalist Theory: Key Features
Consensus on norms, values and roles
In the context of functionalist theory, a ‘consensus’ means that everyone within

the society is in agreement about how society should operate. This agreement
depends on a shared understanding of norms, values and roles.
Norms can apply to the formal rules (or laws) that govern a society, such as laws
against theft or violent behaviour, as well as the more informal rules of behaviour
that influence us, such as queuing for a bus or not wearing a superman outfit to
attend a Higher Care class! From a functionalist perspective there is usually a
consensus regarding norms of behaviour.
Values refer to the things in society which people view as important such as the
sanctity of human life, certain religious beliefs, or the importance of education.
Again, functionalists believe that there is a shared agreement within society about
the aspects of life and social living that are valued.
Roles relate to expected patterns of behaviour that are associated with a

particular status or ‘part’ that someone plays in society (such as teacher or a
police officer.) A shared understanding of roles allows people to predict how
others will act in particular situations and this in turn enables them to respond
appropriately. The predictability of this situation contributes towards social order
and social stability.
Integration and interdependence
Functionalists view the whole of society as being composed of inter-related parts

which operating together make society function.
This notion of integration and

interdependence is often explained using a
biological or mechanical analogy whereby
society is compared to a human body or a
complex machine like a car. Just like a
body or a car, society is made up of
interconnected parts, which are dependent
on each other in order to be a functioning
whole. In a body or car this would be the
heart, lungs, blood supply etc and in a car

it could be engine, gearbox, petrol etc. In society, however the integrated and
interconnected parts are the social institutions that make up society such as the
family, education system, the economy, the law, religion and so forth.
This analogy can be taken further. For example, within a human body or a car
some component parts are more vital than others. Faults in these component
parts can seriously affect the functioning or smooth running of the whole system
e.g. if the heart malfunctions or the car engine blows up, then neither the car nor
the body will function effectively. It would be expected that these component parts
would have to be ‘cured’ or ‘fixed’ in order for the body or car to function
effectively again.
Similarly, because functionalists view society as

being made up of many inter-related
components, the smooth running of society
depends on all parts functioning well. If any
component part of society begins to fail then it
will be considered to be dysfunctional and will
require attention in order to contribute again to
the smooth running of society. The concept of
dysfunctionality is discussed more fully below.
Stability and continuity
For functionalists, society is generally viewed as being

stable and largely unchanging. This is often referred to
as a conservative view, which in this context means
keeping things the way they are or conserving them.
This involves passing on the values and norms that are
important to society from one generation to the next.
An analogy for this could be a relay race where the
baton represents a set of rules, norms and values, with
each generation being represented by a different
runner who receives the baton from the previous
runner and passes it on to the next.
Functionalists value this stability and continuity viewing

it is as a positive contribution to society.
Dysfunctionality
Dysfunctionality is a state which describes when either a whole society, groups

within society or individuals who are members of society do not operate as it is
believed they should. Not conforming to established norms of behaviour could be
perceived as not acting in the best interests of society as a whole. It may even be
believed by some people that dysfunctional behaviour threatens the stability of

society e.g. ’the Neighbours from Hell’. Dysfunctional behaviour is often referred
to as deviant behaviour.
If the term ‘dysfunctional’ is used, for example, in relation to a family, this would
imply that the way in which the family operates is not conforming to the generally
accepted norms of behaviour. They may therefore be threatening the stability of
society or posing a threat to other individuals or groups within the society. This
might take the form of what is considered to be anti-social behaviour where the
generally accepted rules and norms of society are not being respected.
Within a functionalist perspective, dysfunctional behaviour can threaten the whole

of society. As a means of overcoming this potential threat, functionalists would
suggest that remediative action should be taken. This might involve re-educating
the dysfunctional members of society to enable them to rejoin the mainstream of
society, or it might involve removing them from society in order to restore stability.

Functionalist Theory: Evaluation
Once you have read through the four key features of functionalist theory and
discussed them with your tutor, try to evaluate some of the key features of the
theory. This basically involves summarising what you think some of the strengths
and weaknesses of the theory might be.
In order to do this well you might need to read over the four key features again.
This time as you are reading through them, think about what some of the
weaknesses or drawbacks of the different features of the functionalist theory
might be as well as what the theory is good at highlighting.
This exercise will help you to develop your knowledge of the similarities and
differences between theories which will be helpful when you are required to
demonstrate an understanding of contrasting theories.
Record your thoughts below:
Some strengths of functionalist theory are:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Some weaknesses of functionalist theory are:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Introduction to Conflict Theory
As you may remember from earlier handouts and the sociological theory diagram,
conflict theory, like functionalism, adopts a structural approach to examining and
explaining society. It therefore takes a macro-sociological view by looking at
society a structured whole. Like the functionalist approach, conflict theory
believes that different parts of society are interconnected and interdependent, but
unlike functionalist theory, conflict theorists do not believe that this
interdependence is harmonious and creates stability. Instead, conflict theorists
believe that society can be best explained in terms of the tension and conflict that
exists between different elements of society that results in constant struggle and
change.
For conflict theory the four key features that you will be expected to be able to
learn, understand and apply, are that society can be best explained in terms of:
• power differentials built into social structures

• competition over scarce resources
• control, coercion and constraint imposed by dominant group
• social conflict and change

Conflict Theory: Key Features
Power differentials built into social structures
Unlike functionalist theory which explains society in terms of a shared

understanding of values, norms, stability and continuity, conflict theory by contrast
highlights that society can be best explained in terms of the fundamental conflicts
that exist in society between different groups in society who have different levels
of power. Conflict theorists firmly believe that society is structured in such a way
that the interests of some groups are more effectively met than others. Put in
simple terms, this means that some groups in society get a ‘better deal’ than
others. Within contemporary UK society conflict theorists believe that power is
often directly related to wealth and property ownership which in turn is often
associated with education and social background; the people who have most
power over us are those who have had these benefits. Conflict theory is good at
highlighting the extent to which hidden barriers can exist within the social
structures of society. These hidden barriers can mean that some people find
doors are closed to them. These hidden barriers can be related to gender, class,
race, disability, age, sexual orientation, religion or even a person’s accent. Many
sociologists who adopt a conflict perspective believe that these inequalities based
on power differentials are deeply rooted within society’s institutions.
Competition over scarce resources
As conflict theory views society as being composed of competing

groups, what is it they are competing over? The discussion
above highlights the point that they are competing for power, with
the most dominant group seeking to have power over the less
dominant groups. However, power struggles or conflicts also
occur in society when there is competition over scarce
resources.
Think back to the nuclear attack group activity you took part in
earlier in the unit. When you had your discussion about forming a new society, did
you anticipate any potential conflicts over scarce resources? Can you recall how
you thought you would resolve these? Do you think this would be resolved in the
same or a different way in an already established society?
Conflict theorists highlight the extent to which those groups with power tend to
have control over the distribution of resources in society and that for the most part
they are driven by protecting their own positions, which in many cases also
involves protecting their wealth by maximising their profits.

Control, coercion and constraint imposed by dominant group
If, as conflict theorists suggest, society is characterised

by power differentials, this in effect means that those with
very high levels of power may use that power to influence
how society operates and may use (or abuse) their power
to constrain the actions and behaviour of less powerful
individuals or groups. This perceived abuse of power can,
however, lead to a dynamic situation where resistance to
this state of affairs brings about change. For example, if
individuals or groups believe that they are being taken
advantage of or exploited by those with more power, then
often, by banding together and acting collectively, they
can become more powerful. This can be illustrated by the
trade union movement which originated in response to
tyrannical factory owners imposing severe working
conditions on their employees. A further illustration is that in the UK in the 1960s
the Miners Union managed to become very strong (because at that time coal was
a scarce resource that was in big demand.) Over time, the Miners Union
developed a stronger position in terms of being able to negotiate with the
government of the day and as a result they were able to improve working
conditions in the mines and bring about wage increases. However, with the
discovery of North Sea oil and gas, the development of the nuclear industry and a
growing move towards less damaging sources of renewable energy, coal mining
is no longer a thriving industry in the UK and the majority of pits in the UK have
now been closed.
Many modern conflict theorists believe that

those holding most power in UK society today
are a socially elite group comprising the chief
executives of large companies, high ranking
politicians and civil servants as well as some
key high level military personnel. They believe
that this dominant, elite group control the way in
which society works and largely operate in a
way that best suits their own interests.
Social conflict and change
Conflict theory can therefore be considered as a theory which emphasises a basic

feature of all societies as being the struggle between different groups over scarce
resources, which might include natural resources or wealth as well as status and
power. This inevitably leads to social conflict and a society which is dynamic and
constantly changing. This means that unlike functionalism which emphasises the
need for stability and continuity in society, conflict theory highlights conflict,
struggle and change as being what drives society.

Conflict Theory: Evaluation
Once you have read through the four key features of conflict theory and
weaknesses or drawbacks of the different features of the conflict theory might be
as well as what the theory is good at highlighting.
Some strengths of conflict theory are:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Some weaknesses of conflict theory are:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Introduction to Feminist Theory
Feminism as a sociological perspective encompasses a range of theories and

ideas which are closely associated with the feminist movement. For the purposes
of this unit, we will not be exploring the different branches of feminist theory, but
rather will be focussing on the general themes of feminist theory that highlight
how women have been subordinated, exploited and oppressed in society. The
sociological theory diagram will remind you that feminist theory is usually
considered to be a type of conflict theory, primarily on account of the belief that
within society it is predominantly men who have significantly more power than
women.
Feminist theory is a relatively recent addition to the perspectives that have been
developed in the field of sociology and as an academic body of knowledge it
continues to evolve. To date there are generally considered to have been three
waves of feminism. Although there is no requirement to know these as part of the
Sociology for Care Unit, information can be found on the historical development of
the feminist movement and feminist theory in the recommended text for this
course or in most introductory sociology textbooks.
For the purposes of this unit, however, there will be four key features that you
will be expected to be able to learn, understand and apply in relation to feminist
theory which are:
• gender role socialisation

• equal rights for women
• questioning of ‘malestream’ thinking
• oppression and subordination through patriarchy

Feminist Theory: Key Features
Gender role socialisation
Feminists highlight that as part of our socialisation

we are socialised into our gender roles and through
transmitting ideas of ‘masculinity’ and ‘femininity’
boys and girls are encouraged to behave differently.
Boys may be accepted or even encouraged to be
aggressive, outgoing, strong and demanding, while
girls are more likely to be encouraged to be neat,
tidy, gentle and obedient. As well as highlighting
these gender-based stereotypes, feminist theory is commonly considered to be a
type of conflict theory as it clearly highlights the extent to which women generally
have less power in society than men. They argue that the differences between
men and women are not innate (inborn or naturally occurring) but happen as a
result of gender role conditioning. Feminists argue that the different ways in which
boys and girls are treated from birth discourages women from developing their full
potential. In this way women become oppressed in society and are frequently
seen as being subordinate to men. Feminists believe that sexism is embedded in
the culture of society and that this leads to inequality of opportunity for many
women. This issue is of particular interest to the study of care in contemporary
society as we have already noted that it is predominantly women who adopt
caring roles not only within households but also within the wide ranging caring
professions. Feminists would also highlight that not only do these jobs attract
lower pay and lower status, but also that even within the predominantly female
caring professions for many years it has been males who have held the positions
with most power and authority in these professions.
Equal rights for women
Most feminists would therefore argue that there is a need for children to be
socialised into a culture of equality and that this should permeate the whole of
society from within the home, through education and in the workplace. One of the
most significant ways of ensuring equal rights for women is through legislation.
The Sex Discrimination Acts 1975 and 1986 and the Equal Pay Acts 1970 and
1986 endeavoured to promote equality of opportunity and equal rights for women
in a number of key areas. However, despite these measures, the Equal
Opportunities Commission published figures in 2007 which showed that women
who work full-time earn, on average, 17% less per hour than men working full-
time and for women who work part-time, the gap in pay relative to full-time men is
38% per hour.

Questioning of ‘malestream’ thinking
‘Malestream’ is a term used by feminist writers to highlight the fact that for many
years sociological thinking, as well as most aspects of social welfare (including
the development of social policy) was dominated by men. Feminists have also
drawn attention to the fact that for many years research and writing has taken
place from a male point of view whereas women’s interests or rights were either
minimised or overlooked altogether. Feminist sociology developed partly in
response to this situation.
Oppression and subordination through patriarchy
Patriarchy refers to the

system of men holding the
power, control and
authority in a society, or
even within a household.
(The opposite of this is
‘matriarchy’.) Radical
feminists especially argue
that there has always been
a sexual division of labour
underpinning and
reinforcing a system of male domination within our society and that the family is a
key instrument in maintaining this male power and the persistence of patriarchy.
They believe that socialisation processes within the family that reinforce ideas of
women’s ‘natural’ roles and behaviour are then mirrored in all spheres of society
and not only benefit men but also serve to keep women subordinate and inferior
to men. Some radical feminists believe that men can then use aggression and
threats of physical force to control women and maintain their dominant position.
This originates in the family but spreads throughout wider society. These
feminists would argue that to free themselves from male domination, women
should seek total independence from men and some radical feminists would
endorse complete reproductive independence from men and even an abolition of
the family. Although these final points may appear to be rather extreme, the
feminist approach has been significant in highlighting what is often referred to as
‘the darker side’ of family life, which was often completely overlooked by other
perspectives, especially functionalist theory which has often been criticised for its
overly positive portrayal of family life.
Reflect back on the nuclear attack shelter activity you took part in earlier in the
unit. Can you recall whether there were any assumptions made about the
likelihood that it would be women who would carry out certain roles or whether
you attempted to ensure that this did not happen? Was there any tension or
conflict about this?

Feminist Theory: Evaluation
Once you have read through the four key features of feminist theory and
weaknesses or drawbacks of the different features of feminist theory might be as
well as what the theory is good at highlighting.
Some strengths of feminist theory are:
__________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Some weaknesses of feminist theory are:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Introduction to Symbolic Interactionist Theory
Symbolic interactionist theory looks at society in a different way to functionalist,

conflict and feminist theory. This is because it adopts a micro-sociological view.
Rather than being a structural theory it is more of an action theory. This approach
examines the significance of individual actions and small group interactions on
the way in which society operates and develops. Symbolic interactionist theory
sees society as being made up of an infinite amount of these social interactions
and attempts to explain aspects of wider society from the basis of these small
scale interactions. In effect therefore, symbolic interactionism examines society
from the inside out, rather than from the outside in like structural theories.
For the purposes of this unit there will be four key features that you will be
expected to be able to learn, understand and apply in relation to symbolic
interactionist theory. These four features are:
• the idea of the self-concept

• the significance of symbols and labels in social interaction
• the concept of ‘role-taking’
• the individual as an influence on society

Symbolic Interactionist Theory: Key Features
The idea of the self-concept
Central to the ideas of symbolic interactionist theory is the

idea of ‘the self’. The concept we have of our self is derived
from the perceptions we have of the feedback we receive
from other people during our social interactions. This, in
turn, helps to form our self-identity or self-concept. Similarly,
through the process of being socialised into the culture of
the society we live in, we are able to gain a sense of our self
as part of the culture to which we belong. For example
someone who is a doctor, will have the idea of being a
doctor built into their self concept, and are likely to define themselves in terms of
this role because others interact with her or him in terms of this role.
Furthermore, it is likely in our culture that the doctor will have a positive self
concept because doctors have high status within our society. The significance of
role taking to the symbolic interactionist way of thinking is explored more fully
later in this section.
The significance of symbols and labels in social interaction
If, as stated above, the person who I perceive myself to be (my ‘self’) is
dependent upon my perceptions of the feedback I receive from others during
interactions, then it is important that there is some element of shared
understanding within these interactions. Symbolic interactionists believe that we
live in a symbolic world in which symbols have shared meanings. The ‘symbol’
within symbolic interactionism relates to the communication tools we use during
interactions. Language for example is a communication tool made up of a set of
symbols of which we share an understanding. In the example about the doctor
outlined above, everyone in the class reading that information would have a
shared understanding of what the word ‘doctor’ actually means (even if there
wasn’t a photo alongside it!). So, with most symbols comes a shared
understanding of meaning.
An interaction is where two or more people become involved

in a social experience during which they both give and
receive communication with the others in the interaction.
This two-way process takes place in symbolic form in which
feedback is transmitted and received not only in the form of
words but also gestures or objects which convey meaning to
those involved in the interaction.

The idea of labelling involves attaching a label (or symbol) which in turn helps us
to interpret the communication. I use a label like ‘doctor’ and you know what it
means. This may all seem very obvious. However, although labels can be positive
or even neutral like child, parent or carer,
one of the interesting aspects of this theory is
the way in which it is able to focus on the
way in which labels can become very
powerful in defining an individual’s identity.
For example, although ‘doctor’ may be
perceived in a positive manner, there are a
whole host of negative labels that can be
attached to people from which we form an
impression that conjures up different types of
impressions such as ‘vandal’, ‘pervert’,
‘drug user’ or even ‘geriatric’, ‘anorexic’, or ‘bimbo’. Labelling like this can serve to
strip people of their individual identity and in an interaction there is the likelihood
that someone interacts with a person on the basis of their ‘label’ which may be a
distorted or over-simplified version of their true ‘self’.
Labelling theory, which is closely associated with the symbolic interactionist

perspective, highlights the extent to which a self-fulfilling prophecy can occur as a
result of labelling. This means that people have expectations of someone’s
behaviour based on how they have been labelled and interact with them
accordingly. Frequently the result if this interaction is that it actually serves to
make the realisation of the predicted behaviour more likely i.e. people conform to
the expectations of the feedback they receive.
The concept of ‘role-taking’
Often symbolic interactionist theory is

explained in terms of society being
composed of ‘social actors’ who play certain
’roles’ in society. This is often described as
members of society being like actors in a
play on a stage with the audience being
made up of other social actors. We therefore
try to act in such a way that the other actors
with whom we interact perceives our ‘acting’
positively. Some symbolic interactionist
theorists refer to this idea as ‘impression management’. For example, the ‘doctor’
we have referred to is likely to want to appear as competent and professional to
his or her patients, as this is what is expected of someone who fulfils that role.
With any role, such as that of doctor, there are likely to be other symbols (or
props) that may be associated with this role to help reinforce the credibility of the
acting. Can you think of any?

The individual as an influence on society
The final feature of the symbolic interactionist perspective within this unit
emphasises the nature of this theory as being micro-sociological in its outlook.
This means that because symbolic interactionist theory focuses on the small
scale interactions that take place in society, it is able to highlight the way in which
these small scale interactions help us ‘make sense’ of society as it is experienced
by real people. It is also useful in highlighting the way in which individuals can
actually be influential in shaping the societies in which they live.

Symbolic Interactionist Theory: Evaluation
Once you have read through the four key features of symbolic interactionist
theory and discussed them with your tutor, try to evaluate some of the key
features of the theory. This basically involves summarising what you think some
of the strengths and weaknesses of the theory might be.
weaknesses or drawbacks of the different features of symbolic interactionist
theory might be as well as what the theory is good at highlighting.
Some strengths of symbolic interactionist theory are:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Some weaknesses of symbolic interactionist theory are:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Overview of Sociological Theories: Revision Exercise
Check with your tutor how this exercise is to be completed, for example in class,
or as homework as well as whether it will be marked by your tutor, by peer
assessment or by yourself using the marking guidelines.
This revision exercise will be helpful in checking out your knowledge and
understanding (KU). Later in the support pack notes you will be given the
opportunity to complete a revision exercise to help you check your ability to
analyse, evaluate and apply your understanding (AE/APP).
Knowledge and Understanding
1. Explain one similarity and two differences between structural and action
theories in sociology.
2. Identify and briefly describe two key features of each of the following
sociological theories
• functionalism
• conflict
• feminism
• symbolic interactionism
3. Explain one similarity and one difference between functionalist and conflict
theory.
4. Explain one strength and one weakness of feminist and symbolic

interactionist theory.
5. Explain how the idea of our role in society would be explained by each of the
following sociological theories
• functionalism
• conflict
• feminism
6. Select two sociological theories and identify two ways in which they contrast
with each other.

Revising sociological theory
A further way of testing your own knowledge and understanding of the theoretical
input you have learned so far would be to have a class debate, with teams
arguing the case for and against each of the four theories you have studied.
At this stage of your learning you might also find it helpful to draw up study notes
or posters listing the key features of each of the theories, as you will find this very
useful when it comes to revising for your NAB assessment and final exam.
As a revision activity (and an introduction to the application of sociological theory),

you could also divide into four teams with each team representing functionalist,
conflict, feminist or symbolic interactionist theory. Each group should then reflect
back on the nuclear attack shelter activity and evaluate how well their allocated
theory could be applied to that situation i.e. how could the key features of the
theory be applied to that situation, what would the theory be good at highlighting
or explaining as well as what the theory would not be good at explaining. These
findings could then be presented to the rest of the class. This way of revising the
theories would also be useful in demonstrating how theories can be contrasted
with each other.
Remember the Hall of Mirrors analogy too: some theories will show up some
aspects of society more clearly than others!

The Relevance of Sociology to Care
As previously referred to in the notes, sociology is relevant to the care context

because it helps us to question taken for granted assumptions and to develop a
deeper insight into reasons how and why individuals and groups may require the
support of care services at some point in their lives.
If you completed the last revision activity on the previous page, you will also have
seen that different sociological theories are effective at highlighting different
elements of the society in which we live. It therefore follows that different
sociological theories can offer different insights into aspects of the caring role and
the provision of care services in contemporary society.
As a way of convincing yourself that you have already gained some

understanding of sociological theory, read the quote below and answer the
questions that follow.
“Thus women continue to care for the young, the old and the dependent,
mainly exempting men and state services from such tasks… The price of
such caring work is economic dependence. Looking after people is either
done for no pay, within the family, or for low pay in the public sector…The
care of most dependants has been the province of women, has belonged to
the domestic arena, and has been unpaid. It thus made women dependent.”
(G. Pascall (1986), cited in Moore, 2002: 390)
Which of the sociological theories you have studied best explains the aspects of
care highlighted above?
___________________________________________________________________
Explain, using sociological phrases and concepts associated with the theory, how
the theory is illustrated in the quote above.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Below is a second quote. It comes from a piece of research which was carried out
in four care settings for older adults. Read the quote and answer the questions
that follow,
“This paper is a contribution to the developing understanding of social

relationships in institutional care settings… [It] focuses on the ways in which
the context of people's lives shapes social interaction. The paper draws on
ethnographic observations conducted in four care settings [and] finds that …
the personal, cultural and structural contexts frame social interaction and
influence the ways that residents use humour, express sexuality, and show
hostility… These contexts ‘control’ resident action by establishing frameworks
for the interpretation of meaning… [and] by the ways in which residents
actively take on the ‘role’ of others, and project ‘self’ and a ‘label’.”
(Hubbard et al, 2003: 99)
Which of the sociological theories you have studied best explains the aspects of
care highlighted above?
___________________________________________________________________
Explain, using sociological phrases and concepts associated with the theory, how
the theory is illustrated in the quote above.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Explain what you think the authors mean by the term “…the ways in which
residents actively take on the ‘role’ of others, and project ‘self’ and a ‘label’.”
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

The Relevance of Sociology to Care: Case Studies
If you have successfully completed the revision exercises and activities on

sociological theory, you should now be fairly confident of your knowledge and
understanding (KU) in this area. By evaluating, comparing and contrasting
theories you have also been improving your skills of analysis and evaluation (AE)
You will now be given the opportunity to test out your ability to apply your
sociological knowledge and understanding to some case studies, which relate to
the context of care in some way. This will help develop your skills in the
application of theory (APP).
Throughout the rest of the unit material we will ‘revisit’ three case studies to test
your ability to apply different elements of sociological knowledge. For those of you
who have completed the Intermediate 2 Sociology for Care Unit, then this process
(but not the case studies) will seem familiar.
The three people in the case studies are called Akram, Ethel and Rab. On the
following page there is a very brief summary of the three case studies and
following that there are fuller versions of the case studies which you will be
expected to examine in detail. You will then apply sociological theory to the case
studies.
Check with your tutor whether you should complete all the case studies or
whether different people in the class will concentrate on particular case studies
and discuss their answers with the rest of the class.
Alternatively you might find it helpful to undertake one case study together in
class and complete the others as homework or as revision exercises later in the
unit.

The Three Case Studies
Akram
Akram is 15 years old and moved to Scotland with his

family as asylum seekers four years ago. Although he
initially settled in fairly well, he has been facing a
number of difficulties recently, which have resulted in
him appearing at a Children’s Hearing. If you don’t know
anything about the Children’s Hearing system you
should ask your tutor to give you some information
about it or do some research yourself prior to studying
Akram’s case study.
Ethel
Ethel, who has mobility difficulties, was widowed fairly

recently and is struggling to cope because her husband had
previously cared for her. As a consequence of her
difficulties, she has been admitted to a care home as her
daughter, who lives 200 miles away, is not in a position to
care for Ethel at present. Ethel has found it difficult to settle
into the home, and although she used to take great pride in
her appearance, she is no longer concerned about how she
dresses or her personal hygiene.
Rab
Rab is an adult with a learning disability who has been

attending a Day Centre for over 10 years. Throughout
this time Rab has been a cheerful young man who has
made good relationships with the staff and other service
users at the centre. However, Rab’s behaviour has
deteriorated following the departure of his key worker
with whom he had a very positive relationship. The
relationship with his new key worker has become very
tense and is causing difficulties at the centre.

Case Study: Akram
Akram is 15 years old and came to Scotland four years

ago. His family had sought political asylum after fearing
for their lives in their own country. They were given
permission to stay in Britain and were housed by the
local authority in a multi-storey block in a large city.
Living in a large city in a foreign country was very
strange for the family and they found the way of life very
different from their small village in East Africa. Akram
has two younger sisters and, with extra help provided by
their school, they have been able to learn English fairly quickly. However, Akram’s
parents continued to speak their own language at home. The family are Muslims
and as part of their Islamic faith, Akram’s father expected Akram to attend the
mosque and recite his daily prayers, as he was keen that Akram continued to
learn the ways of his religion and culture.
A year ago, two days after Akram’s fourteenth birthday, his father was diagnosed
as suffering from a serious illness from which he died six months later. But before
he died, Akram’s father told Akram that he would soon be the head of the family.
After her husband’s death Akram’s mother tried to keep the family together but,
when Akram became very aggressive towards her, she found controlling his
temper outbursts impossible to cope with. Akram had also been facing difficulties
at school. Recent world events had created a situation whereby a number of
Muslim children at the school were being subjected to racial abuse and Akram
had retaliated. Akram stopped attending school and started staying out at night.
Very quickly Akram gained a reputation as a troublemaker. The police became
involved on a number of occasions when Akram was found wandering the streets
late at night near the mosque after being involved in a number of violent fights
with local youths. The police decided to send a referral about Akram’s situation to
the reporter to the Children’s Panel.
After asking for reports about Akram and his family, the reporter to the Children’s
Panel called a Children’s Hearing. The Children’s Hearing was attended by
Akram, his mother, his guidance teacher and a social worker who had met the
family on a number of occasions in order to provide a report for the Children’s
Panel. At the Children’s Hearing Akram’s mother clearly stated that she could not
cope any more with Akram’s violent outbursts and general behaviour. The
decision was taken that Akram should be looked after by the local authority for a
period of time both for his own protection and support as well as the safety of
others. As a consequence, Akram went to live at Redwoods Residential Unit.

Case Study: Akram
Application of theory
• Apply two features of functionalist theory to Akram’s case study.

• Apply two features of symbolic interactionist theory to Akram’s case study.
• Explain how these two theories offer a contrasting view of Akram’s situation.
In completing this task you should
• clearly state the two features you have selected in relation to each theory and
provide a brief explanation of them.
• explain how the features of the theories you have selected can be applied to
Akram’s case.
• in relation to the idea of ‘contrasting theories’, briefly explain how functionalism
and symbolic interactionism contrast, then illustrate this by highlighting
elements from the case study that each of the two theories would explain in a
different way.

Case Study: Ethel
Ethel was admitted to Brookside Residential Home for

Older People over a year ago. Her admission to
Brookside came as a result of the tragic death of her
husband, Bert. Ethel has a physical disability, which has
made her virtually immobile in recent years and she has
depended on Bert for all her day-to-day care needs. Her
only daughter, Shirley, lives with her husband and three
children 200 miles away, and although Shirley feels it is
her duty to look after her mother, she is not in a position
to do this at the moment and so the local Social Work
Department have made emergency provision for Ethel at
Brookside. Initially after arriving at Brookside, Ethel was
very withdrawn and was clearly still grieving for Bert.
Ethel has been assigned a care worker at Brookside whose name is Charlie.
Charlie is a very experienced care worker and it is his responsibility to ensure that
Ethel is supported to settle in as well as she can and to work towards assessing
her needs.
Ethel has now been living at Brookside for three months, and one of Charlie’s
major concerns is that Ethel does not want to interact with any of the other
residents and appears to lack confidence in everything she does. Charlie knows
from chatting to Ethel’s daughter that before moving to Brookside Ethel had
always taken a pride in her appearance. She would always be smartly dressed,
enjoyed going to the hairdressers and would never think of going out of the house
without her make-up on. Ethel’s family photographs certainly confirm that she was
a very fashionable and glamorous woman when she was younger. However,
since coming to Brookside Ethel appears to have lost all interest in herself, has
become very untidy and takes no interest in her appearance at all. This has now
resulted in a situation whereby most of the other residents at Brookside avoid
Ethel and some even refer to her as ‘Dirty Ethel’ and pull faces at her. The more
this happens, the less interest Ethel appears to be taking in her appearance.

Case Study: Ethel
• Apply two features of symbolic interactionist theory to Ethel’s case study.

• Apply one feature of feminist theory to Ethel’s case study.
• Apply one feature of functionalist theory to Ethel’s case study.
• Select one point from the case study and explain how feminism and
functionalism would have contrasting views in relation to the issue you have
chosen.
In completing this task you should:
• clearly state the features you have selected in relation to each of the theories
and provide a brief explanation of them.
Ethel’s case.
• choose one point referred to in the case study which you feel would be useful
to highlight the different ways in which feminism and functionalism would have
contrasting views.

Case Study: Rab
Rab is 27 years old and lives with his parents. He is

presently attending Kirkfield Day Centre every weekday.
Rab has had learning disabilities all his life and started at
Kirkfield after leaving special school when he was 16
years old. Rab has always been a cheerful young man
who interacts well with staff and other clients. He is
enthusiastic about all the activities he participates in and
has always been a keen member and captain of the
Centre football team.
Rab’s ‘keyworker’ Brian, who is also 27 years old, managed the football team and
Rab has always had a very strong relationship with Brian. Over the years at
Kirkfield, Rab always wished to be with Brian and joined in all the activities that
Brian organised. However, three months ago Brian left Kirkfield to take up a new
post and at this point Rab’s behaviour quickly deteriorated.
Rab’s new key worker, Graham is a very ambitious young man who is also the
Assistant Manager at Kirkfield. Rab has complained to other service users that
Graham does not spend any time with him and that he was thinking about
complaining to his social worker about this. Rab decides to talk to Graham
directly about the situation. Graham responds by saying that as Assistant
Manager, he has many other duties and responsibilities to be concerned with and
that Rab needs to learn to look after himself without ‘going moaning to his social
worker’.
Following this discussion, Rab became very uncommunicative with Graham and
over time has become quite defiant and aggressive towards him. Graham did not
like his authority being undermined in this way and, in order to try to get Rab to
control his behaviour, Graham banned him from the football team until his
behaviour improved.
Over the past few months, staff have noted how Rab has changed from being a
pleasant, confident young man, who has become aggressive, untidy and has
even been caught damaging other clients’ belongings on several occasions.
Everything came to a head last week when Rab broke a window in the Centre
and cut himself intentionally several times with bits of the broken glass.
Graham is calling a staff meeting to discuss suspending Rab from the centre on
account of his behaviour.

Case Study: Rab
• Apply two features of conflict theory to Rab’s case study.

• Apply two features of functionalist theory to Rab’s case study.
• Select one point from the case study and explain how conflict and
functionalist theory might provide different (contrasting) explanations of the
situation.
In completing this task you should
• clearly state the features you have selected in relation to each of the theories
and provide a brief explanation of them.
Rab’s case.
• choose one point referred to in the case study which you believe conflict and
functionalist theory would explain in different ways.

In this outcome you will be finding out how some key sociological concepts and
the theories covered in Outcome 1 can help us analyse aspects of society.
The aspects of society which we will focus on are the family and deviance. The
key sociological concepts which will be referred to are socialisation, culture and
life chances. Although some of these words or concepts may appear familiar to
you, it is important to remember that we will be approaching these topics using
our ‘sociological imagination’ rather than ‘common-sense.’
In this outcome we will be using the concepts of socialisation, culture and life
chances to help analyse how different sociological theories attempt to explain and
understand firstly the family and secondly, deviant behaviour. The sociological
theories we will be focussing on are functionalist, conflict, feminist and symbolic
interactionist theories. By continuing to apply sociological theories to ‘real life’
situations with which you may be familiar, you will hopefully be able to develop a
deeper understanding of the theories.
OUTCOME 2
Analyse aspects of society using sociological concepts and theories
(a) Explain specific aspects of society using key sociological concepts

(b) Explain specific aspects of society using sociological theories

Overview of Topics
Key Sociological Concepts
• socialisation
• culture
• life chances
Aspects of society/social life
• the family
• deviance
Aspects of society from different sociological perspectives
Family from:
• a functionalist perspective
• a conflict perspective
• a feminist perspective
• a symbolic interactionist perspective
Deviance from:
Revision exercise based on case study material

Sociological Concepts: Socialisation, Culture and Life Chances
Socialisation.
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which we learn the norms and values
of the society and culture to which we belong. Through a gradual process we
learn ‘right from wrong’; we learn what is expected of us in different situations;
quite simply we learn how to ‘fit in’ to our world. Socialisation begins when we are
born and continues throughout our lives. This is because a society needs its new
members to be socialised into its patterns of behaviour, its values, norms and
rules.
Through socialisation we not only learn the values, norms and roles of our culture,
we also acquire a sense of who we are and where we belong. We are most
responsive to influences when we are young and our early socialisation or
primary socialisation has the most impact on influencing who we are. In
practically every society it is the family that bears the main responsibility for
primary socialisation.
As children move into wider society, secondary socialisation begins. During this
process children learn from a wider range of people and institutions such as
extended family members, playgroup staff, nursery staff, teachers and friends. As
children move into adolescence, the family remains an important influence on
socialisation but peer groups become of increasing importance. Then during
adulthood the workplace often has an important influence on socialisation as do
new roles of perhaps, wife/husband or parent. In the later stages of life many
older people live independent, active lives but some older people may have to
adapt to the norms and changes associated with group living in residential care.
Of particular significance to us in this unit is the idea that it is usually through

exposure to secondary agents of socialisation that we find out about ways of
behaviour which do not conform to what we believe is the accepted norm. This
behaviour can be perceived as deviant behaviour or deviance.

Culture
Culture is the learned, shared behaviour of the members of a society. Culture

includes the values, beliefs, customs, norms, rules and regulations that human
beings learn as members of their society. It is essential that culture is not only
learned but also shared. For example, without a shared understanding of
language, communication would be difficult. However, it is also important to
appreciate that different human societies with different cultures show
considerable differences in the ways they communicate and behave.
Understanding that a diversity of cultures exist in our society is very important to
appreciate as is the fact that belonging to a particular culture is likely to strongly
influence someone’s sense of identity. Culture can relate to aspects of religion or
ethnic background but it is also important to understand that culture could equally
relate to belonging to a particular community or lifestyle such as new age
travellers, the deaf community or a punk or goth culture.
However, in terms of our learning in this part of the unit, it is important that we
realise the extent to which the particular norms, values and beliefs of one culture
may be perceived as deviant by another.
We often use the expression ‘culture shock’ to describe the feelings of stress and
disorientation that we feel when we enter an unfamiliar cultural setting. Culture
shock occurs because we learn our own cultural patterns early in life and they
become second nature to us. Confronted with other ways of doing things we may
become amused, annoyed, confused or shocked. Every culture contains its own
unique patterns of behaviour that may seem alien to people from other cultural
backgrounds.
It is important to understand that the problems of functioning in a new culture are

compounded by ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to evaluate other
cultures from our own point of view and to conclude that other cultures are inferior
or in some way deviant.
In relation to care, it is essential that care workers, who may be working with
people from a variety of cultures, avoid ethnocentrism. In working with people in
care settings it is important to understand our own culture and that of others, and
it is not helpful in care work to judge other cultures by comparison with our own. It
is equally unhelpful in care work to view our own culture as being superior. It is
important therefore for all care workers to realise the importance of culturally
sensitive practice.

Life Chances
This refers to the chances someone has of accessing the opportunities or

experiences that are widely considered to be desirable in society. It can relate to
such aspects of life as education, income, housing and health. In the Intermediate
2 Sociology for Care unit, it was highlighted that discrimination can severely limit
an individual or group’s life chances.
For those of you who studied the Intermediate 2 unit, you would have examined
how the impact of discrimination can lead to reduced life chances across a range
of areas, as research and investigation has shown that people who experience
discrimination are also more likely to:
• experience physical and mental health problems

• have poor attainment in education
• have limited opportunities in employment
• live in poverty
• face barriers to services.
It is therefore clear to see how in such situations people are likely to come into
contact with a range of care services. It is also very important that care workers
understand the value of enhancing the lives of individuals and groups who have
experienced restricted life chances rather than making the situation worse
through prejudiced attitudes or discriminatory behaviour.

Aspects of Society
In the next part of the unit we will be using our understanding of the sociological
concepts of socialisation, culture and life chances to apply to two particular
aspects of society, the family and deviance.
We will also be testing our knowledge of the four sociological theories

(functionalism, conflict, feminism and symbolic interactionism) by applying these
theories to aspects of the family and deviance.

Sociological Perspectives on the Family
In the space below, write a few lines about what ‘family’ means to you.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
As previously discussed in this unit, it is unlikely that we will all share the same
experience or point of view about the idea of ‘family’ even though we all have an
understanding of what the word means.
Most people studying this unit will have some experience of family and are likely
to have grown up in or currently be part of a family. However it is likely that
individual experiences will have varied. Some people may have grown up in or be
part of a nuclear family whereas others may have lived as part of a lone parent
family. Others may live as part of a reconstituted (step-parent) family, or be part
of a large extended family or perhaps have spent time in some form of substitute
care such as a foster family or a residential care home.
To help stimulate your ‘sociological imagination’ in relation to the family, take

some time to complete the following written activity and, once completed, discuss
your thoughts as a class group.
• Select two different family types (nuclear, lone parent etc)

• Describe the two types of family selected
• Explain why you think the types of family you have selected exist in society

Sociological Perspectives on the Family
It will probably come as no surprise to you to find out that different sociological
theories have different points of view in relation to the family. Examining these
different perspectives is what the next part of the unit materials will focus on.
If you think you have a reasonably sound grasp of the key features of the four
theories we are studying as part of this unit, them it is likely that you may be able
to predict what each of the different theories are likely to have to say about ‘the
family’. However, if you are still struggling to get to terms with the four different
theories, then this section of the support notes will provide you with an opportunity
to remind yourself of some of the key features.
We will be examining the family from:

Functionalist Theory and the Family
As you may recall, the four key features of functionalist theory you should know
are:

So how do you think functionalist theory would approach explaining the family in
terms of these key features?
Take each feature in turn and try to briefly explain the family in functionalist terms
using these key features. (Don’t worry about not getting it absolutely right, as you
will be given further information!)
consensus on norms, values and roles
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
integration and interdependence
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
stability and continuity
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

dysfunctionality
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Functionalist Theory and the Family
Key features and sociological concepts
Functionalist theory focuses on the functions the family fulfils for members of the
family as well as for society as a whole. Talcott Parsons (1959), who wrote from a
functionalist perspective, argued that the family has two ‘basic and irreducible
functions’ which he believed to be the primary socialisation of children and the
stabilisation of adult personalities. We have already examined how the processes
of socialisation, especially primary socialisation within the family, leads human
beings to learn the norms and values of the culture to which they belong. They
also learn the roles that are expected of them as members of their own family as
well as their roles within wider society.
Fundamental to the functionalist point of view is the idea that there exists a
shared agreement or consensus on norms, values and roles within society.
The functionalist perspective would see the family as being a positive force in
society as it is crucial in establishing and reinforcing this consensus.
This shared agreement on norms, values and roles

contributes to the integration and
interdependence that functionalists believe exists
in society. Using the biological analogy referred to
earlier in the support notes, the family could be
considered to be one of the most vital ‘organs’ that
helps to keep the ‘body’ of society working
effectively. Families are integrated with other key
institutions in society such as education or the justice system and together they
reinforce the established norms of society. In this respect they also become
interdependent in order to function effectively as part of an integrated whole. In
relation to the family, this means that members of a family are not only integrated
and interdependent on other members of their family, but are also part of the
wider integration and interdependence that exists in wider society. Families
depend on schools to educate their children, schools depend on families to
reinforce the rules established at school, the economy depends on the family to
work productively in employment and buy consumer goods to boost the economy,
the police, courts and prison service are interdependent in establishing and
maintaining law and order and would expect families to be adhering to and
reinforcing similar values. This in turn means that the family is important in
contributing towards stability and continuity in society.

However, as previously noted there may be individuals or groups within society

who do not conform to the agreed norms of behaviour of the wider society. Such
behaviour may be considered to be deviant or dysfunctional as it is perceived
not to be in the best interests of society as a whole. When the term
‘dysfunctional’ is used to refer to a family, it may imply that family members are
not conforming to the accepted roles or rules of behaviour expected within
families and that this is creating disharmony either within the family or posing a
threat to wider society in some way. Functionalists would suggest that there are
regulatory mechanisms in place within society that encourage adherence and
conformity to the established norms of behaviour. However, it is also important to
appreciate that what is perceived to be dysfunctional behaviour by some people
may be behaviour that is established as the norm within an individual’s family,
culture or sub-culture.
It is also significant that an individual’s family experiences and life chances can
have a bearing on the extent to which their behaviour or values are considered to
be dysfunctional and that this can also be linked to the extent to which they may
be socially excluded from wider society. For example, a child who lives in a family
with parents of the same sex, a person who has a learning disability, a teenage
girl who leaves home and ‘sleeps rough’ after experiencing abuse in her family, or
someone who experiences mental health difficulties may have experiences or
behave in ways that some people may consider dysfunctional or threatening to
the stability of society.
In some respects therefore functionalist theory does not fully explain the
experience of family for all people. Often functionalists are criticised for presenting
an overly optimistic or idealised picture of family life. This is because functionalist
theory finds it difficult to explain the experiences of
some people whose families may not be well
integrated into society, or whose family
experiences are not harmonious. This might
include families who experience poverty, or families
who are part of a minority ethnic group or follow a
life style not considered to be part of the ‘norm’
such as new age travellers or a gay partnership or
marriage.
As we progress on to some of the other sociological theories, we will see that they
are better at highlighting and explaining some of these issues.

Conflict Theory and the Family
As you may recall, the four key features of conflict theory you should know are:

So how do you think conflict theory would approach explaining the family in terms
of these key features?
Take each feature in turn and try briefly explain the family in conflict terms using
these key features. (Don’t worry about not getting it absolutely right, as you will
be given further information!)
power differentials in social structures
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
competition over scarce resources
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
control, coercion and constraint
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

social conflict and change
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Conflict Theory and the Family
In examining society, conflict theory focuses on the power imbalances that exist
and the manner in which the struggles that ensue from these power differentials
characterise how people live their lives. Whereas the functionalist perspective
generally has a very positive view of the family, conflict theory, by contrast,
argues that the family serves the needs of some sections of society much better
than others. Conflict theorists highlight the way families reproduce inequality from
one generation to another. Karl Marx was a very influential sociologist who
emphasised that social class was at the root of the inequalities and power
differentials that are experienced by families, whereas feminist writers, as we will
find out later in the notes, place more emphasis on the power differentials
between men and women which are learned within the family and reflected in the
social structures of wider society.
In emphasising the
importance of class in
creating an imbalance of
power in society, Marxist
theorists predominantly focus
on the power wielded by
those who own the ‘means of
production’ which are the
factories, tools and materials
that are required to produce
the goods and services that
are required by society.
Those who own these resources are in effect able to exert control over those
with less power or resources.
Many conflict theorists emphasise the extent to which the family is closely linked
to, and even exploited by, the forces of capitalism which is an economic and
social system that is driven by the maximisation of profit for those who own the
‘means of production’. In terms of the role of the family in this system, conflict
theorists would argue that through the process of socialisation families teach
their children to accept the ‘rules’ of those with most power who are in control of
scarce resources. For example, they would argue that within families children
are encouraged to work hard at school to help them get a ‘good education’ or a
‘decent job’ because there will be competition for places at college or university
as well as competition for jobs. Some conflict theorists emphasise how this forces

people onto a treadmill where they accept that they have to ‘work to live’, but in
the end find themselves ‘living to work’ as they find themselves having to work
harder or longer to earn more money to support their families. However, by
becoming consumers (and buying goods that are priced higher than they are
worth in order to maximise profits for the capitalists), they are, in effect,
perpetuating a system of inequality. For individuals or families who are unable to
find security through paid employment, and even those who do find employment
but are poorly paid, they can unfortunately find themselves in a cycle of poverty
and deprivation from which it is difficult to escape.
Research conducted by Wheeler et al

(2005) based on information from the 2001
census illustrated that the rich-poor divide
in the UK was as wide as it was 60 years
previously. Their research found that
families with the greatest level of need
lived in the poorest neighbourhoods and
were least likely to have access to
services and support that would help them
improve life chances. Conflict theory
would suggest that those who hold the power and wealth in society wish to
maintain this position and if necessary use control, coercion and constraint to
protect their interests.
In terms of constraining aspects of family life in the widest sense, conflict theorists
would argue that the predominant laws, norms and values in society constrain
individuals and in effect prevent or discourage individuality, creativity and
anything that poses a threat to the continuity and stability of society. However,
conflict theorists would suggest that a key aspect of human nature is to fight
against being controlled or constrained and whereas functionalists would
emphasise the importance of retaining traditional family values, conflict theorists
would argue that change is inevitable in terms of how the family as a social
institution evolves. In terms of relating the concept of social change to the family,
conflict theorists would highlight increasing divorce rates, an increase in lone
parent families, the emergence of gay and lesbian families and a diverse range of
multi-cultural families as examples of social change relating to the family.
The notions of control, coercion and constraint are well illustrated within the
family when the issues of domestic violence and child abuse are considered in
terms of the power imbalances that can exist in some families. This issue is,
however, covered in more depth in the next section on feminist theory.
However, although conflict theory is effective in highlighting the extent to which

power imbalances within families and within wider society as a whole can have a
major impact on an individual’s life experiences and life chances, there are
limitations to some of the arguments. For example, some conflict theorists,
especially Marxists, have not acknowledged the increase in power and wealth

which is experienced by the middle classes, who do not own the ‘means of
production’. Furthermore, there are many families who do not perceive
themselves as being exploited by the capitalist system, but rather believe they
have improved their life chances in comparison to previous generations of their
families.
However, the conflict theory has been useful in opening up the debate in relation
to some of the more negative aspects of family life, which is a key theme of the
feminist perspective that we will examine next.

Feminist Theory and the Family
As you may recall, the four key features of feminist theory you should know are:

So how do you think feminist theory would approach explaining the family in
Take each feature in turn and try briefly explain the family in feminist terms using
these key features. (Again, don’t worry too much about not getting it absolutely
right, as you will be given further information!)
gender role socialisation
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
equal rights for women
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
questioning of ‘malestream’ thinking
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

oppression, subordination and patriarchy
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Feminist Theory and the Family
Feminist theory is probably one of the most influential

sociological theories in terms of providing a contemporary
perspective on the family. Central to many of their arguments
and research is the idea that through gender role
socialisation we learn our roles as part of the culture to
which we belong. Children begin to learn their gender roles at
a very early stage in their lives. Feminists would argue that
much of this learning, which takes place in the family and is
reinforced by wider society, is focussed on learning key
distinctions between ‘feminine’ and ‘masculine’ roles and
behaviour. For example, in many cultures it is common for girls
and boys to be dressed differently from birth onwards and to
be given different toys to play with. Feminists argue that it is
through this process of socialisation that expectations are
created of the roles and behaviour that will be expected for
boys and girls as they progress into adulthood. Browne (2005)
notes that more than a billion Barbie dolls (or members of her
family) have been sold throughout the world since 1959 …
apparently if they were all placed head-to-toe they would circle the world more
than eleven times! Feminists would question whether these types of toys
encourage girls to be overly concerned about their image and bodies. A further
example of gender role socialisation within families is research that has shown
that within families there is a marked difference in participation levels in
household tasks performed around the home by boys and girls, with girls being
encouraged to help with indoor work, usually by helping their mothers with
domestic tasks, while boys were more likely to be encouraged to help with
outdoor tasks such as cleaning the car or sweeping paths.
A feminist point of view would highlight the extent to which females learn to
expect and accept that they have an inferior role to play within the family and that
this situation is then also accepted as being the norm within wider society. Some
radical feminists would argue that there has always been a sexual division of
labour underpinning and reinforcing a system of male domination within society
and would see the family as being a key instrument in maintaining this male
power and domination. They would further argue that socialisation processes that
reinforce ideas of women’s ‘natural’ caring roles and behaviour persist in all
spheres of society and not only benefit men but also serve to keep women
subordinate and inferior to men. Many feminists therefore highlight that within

families, oppression, subordination and patriarchy are evident and that within
many families it is not uncommon for men to use their aggression and threats of
physical force to control women as a means of maintaining their dominant
position. This imbalance of power can, as a consequence, limit women’s’
opportunities and life chances not only within their own families but in wider
society too. For example in relation to employment, women are less likely to be in
full-time work but are more likely to be lower paid and be in less secure posts
than men. Women are also less likely to be found in senior positions even in
areas of employment traditionally associated with women such as nursing, social
work or primary teaching.
It is for this reason that more liberal feminists seek to highlight the importance of
securing equal rights for women through legislation (laws) that promote equal
opportunity and see this as the most effective way of eradicating sexism from our
culture and attitudes. In order to liberate women, a feminist perspective would
highlight that it is necessary to educate that men and women are equal in
opportunity. This need for socialisation of children into a culture of equality would
ideally begin in the family and permeate through the rest of society.
Each of these key features highlights the extent to which our society has for many
years been dominated by ‘malestream’ thinking. The needs of men and the
male perspective have frequently been predominant in families and society at
large. (Within your class group, check out the extent to which the males in
families get bigger helpings of food at mealtimes or have all their washing and
ironing done for them!) Although this may seem quite trivial, it becomes more
concerning when a woman’s situation is perceived through ‘male’ eyes within
institutions in wider society. Dobash & Dobash’s (1979) Scottish study of violence
against women, noted that police officers were unlikely to arrest a husband for
using violence against his wife. In relation to education, Spender (1983) found
that men controlled the education system and therefore, more importance was
placed on male experience and knowledge. Furthermore, the curriculum and
interaction in the classroom was found to be biased in favour of boys.
However, more contemporary research seems to be

indicating that some improvements are taking place in
relation to women’s place in society. For example in
relation to education, Francis (2000) found that female
achievement in schools was improving with girls
overtaking boys in many subjects. However, it was also
noted that boys still dominated classrooms and teachers
still tended to leave girls to themselves while giving
more attention to the boys. In relation to the study of the
family in particular, Young & Wilmott (1973) found that
in terms of tasks being undertaken within the family,
there was evidence that roles had become much more
symmetrical with many more domestic tasks being
shared more equally between men and women.

Increased equality in domestic chores has consequently increased opportunities

for women in areas such as employment which has made a significant financial
difference to many families.
The final theory we will examine, symbolic interactionism, will focus more on how
the interaction within families has an impact on how people behave and how they
develop their idea of who they are and how they ‘fit in’ to their social worlds.

Symbolic Interactionist Theory and the Family
As you may recall, the four key features of symbolic interactionist theory you
should know are:

So how do you think symbolic interactionist theory would approach explaining the
family in terms of these key features?
Take each feature in turn and try to briefly explain the family in symbolic
interactionist terms using these key features. (Don’t worry about not getting it
absolutely right, as you will be given further information!)
the self-concept
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
symbols, labels and interaction
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
the concept of ‘role-taking’
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

the individual as an influence on society
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Symbolic Interactionist Theory and the Family
The idea of the self-concept is very significant in a

symbolic interactionist examination of the family. As
you have learned from earlier notes, a person’s
experiences and interactions within his or her family
plays a crucial part in how they construct their sense of
‘self’. A great deal of contemporary sociological
research on the family which is done from a symbolic
interactionist perspective focuses on role analysis.
This could include how the role of husband and wife
might be defined in different families or at different
stages in family life such as after the birth of children.
Symbolic interactionists therefore emphasise the interactions that take place in
families that lead to the negotiation of roles and role identity within families.
The process of socialisation is central to many sociological theories and the

socialisation of children is considered by most sociological perspectives to be one
of the few remaining (and most critical) functions of the family in modern
societies. In terms of symbolic interactionist theory, the emphasis is on the vital
interactions and processes through which our personalities and self-concepts are
formed and through which the values and attitudes of our culture are passed
from one generation to the next in symbolic ways.
One of the ways in which the symbolic interactionist perspective differs from many
other perspectives is in its ability to focus on the reciprocal nature of
interaction. For example, in examining the small scale interactions that take
place within families, naturally a focus would be on how a child is socialised and
integrated into its family and wider culture, with much interactionist research
focusing on issues relating to self-esteem, gender or sibling identities and
relationships within the family. However, what the symbolic interactionist
approach is also able to examine, is the idea that the socialisation process is
highly reciprocal with parents and children affecting one anothers' self-concepts.
For example although we may be aware of the extent to which a child can lose
confidence and self-esteem due to being discouraged or criticised by his or her
parents, it is not uncommon for parents to think they have ‘failed ‘in some way
because of their interpretation of the way that their child interacts with them.
Symbolic interaction theory is in a position to examine these reciprocal
interactions and the extent to which they contribute to an individual’s self-concept
and their understanding of their role.

Symbolic interactionist theory is also helpful in examining

how the negotiation of roles and identity becomes
problematic if there is not a shared understanding
between those taking part in an interaction. An example
to illustrate this could be when families seeking asylum in
this country are expected to renegotiate their roles in
unfamiliar cultural contexts, for example enrolling children
at school or seeking health care. It could also relate to a
situation where a gay or lesbian couple approaches an
agency seeking to adopt a child. It might even apply to a
situation where a child with a physical disability who has
been encouraged by her family to be independent and
adventurous, finds in difficult to play with the other
children in a school playground due to a teacher’s overly protective attitude. Each
of these situations arise due to the interpretative processes that take place in
an interaction. We may believe we have a shared understanding of a
communication symbol, such as a word like ‘family’ or ‘disability’ and this
shapes our interaction. However, when we interact with others on the basis of a
‘label’ rather than with a person as an individual, this can lead to problems in
terms of someone’s self-perception and self-concept. Earlier in the notes we
examined how this can result in a self-fulfilling prophecy. Take a moment to
discuss again what this term means with your tutor or class colleagues.
In relation to the study of Sociology for Care, symbolic interactionist theory is

particularly helpful in highlighting the extent to which the processes and
interactions that take place within the family as well as in wider society can have
an impact on an individual’s life chances. The examples outlined above relating
to the family seeking asylum, the gay or lesbian couple seeking to adopt a child
and the little girl with a physical disability who was discouraged from playing with
other children in the playground, each illustrate in different ways how an
individual’s life chances can be negatively affected by other people’s perception
of them. This situation becomes even more complicated when it begins to have
an effect on someone’s perception of themselves.
However, symbolic interactionist theory, because it is able to adopt a ‘social

action’ or freewill approach to explaining society (rather than the deterministic
approach of structural theories), can also emphasise the extent to which people
can take control of and change their own lives through the interaction with others.
In this respect, therefore it is able to acknowledge that it is not only society that
influences the individual, but that the individual can also influence and change
society through many small scale processes and interactions.

Sociological Aspect: The Family
Revision and Check-up Opportunity
Read the case study relating to Akram again on page

90 of the support notes.
Select one of the following sociological theories:
• functionalist
• conflict
• feminist
Apply two features of your selected theory to the case study material by
explaining the relevance of socialisation or culture to the family.

Sociological Perspectives on Deviance
We will now focus on deviance as the second aspect of society which forms part
of the support pack material for this unit.
In the space below, write a few lines about what your understanding by the word
‘deviance’.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Share your definitions with the rest of the class group.
Although it is likely that people in your class have provided a fairly accurate and
similar definition, it is less likely that everyone will really agree on this idea once
we examine it in more detail. This is because the concept of deviance is often
considered to be ‘relative’. Basically, this means that what one person believes is
deviant, another person may accept as normal behaviour.
To help stimulate your ‘sociological imagination’ in relation to the idea of

deviance, take some time to complete the following written activity and, once
completed, discuss your thoughts as a class group.
• Select two different behaviours which you think everyone in the class would
consider deviant.
• Are either or both of these behaviours also considered to be crimes?
• Think of two examples of behaviour that would be considered to be deviant
but not criminal.
• Think of two examples of behaviour that would be considered to be crimes
but are not necessarily considered to be deviant behaviour.
• Provide two examples of an act that could be considered deviant, but only
depending on the context in which they took place.

Sociological Perspectives on Deviance
In the next section of the unit we will examine different sociological perspectives
on deviance. As with ‘the family’ we will discover that different sociological
theories will provide different perspectives on the family as an aspect of the social
world in which we live.
As we have already completed the process of applying different sociological

theories to the family, hopefully you will now have a better idea of how the
different sociological theories we have been studying are likely to have
contrasting views on deviance. However, if you are still struggling to get to terms
with the four different theories, then this section of the support notes will provide
you with a further opportunity to remind you of some of the key features.
We will be examining deviance from:

Functionalist Theory and Deviance
As you may recall, the four key features of functionalist theory you should know
are:

So how do you think functionalist theory would explain deviance in terms of these
key features?
Take each feature in turn and briefly explain deviance in functionalist terms using
these key features.
consensus on norms, values and roles
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
integration and interdependence
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
stability and continuity
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

dysfunctionality
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Functionalist theory and deviance
Functionalists believe that society is maintained

through a generally accepted set of rules based on a
consensus on norms, values and roles. From a
functionalist perspective deviance would be considered
to be behaviour that was viewed as threatening the
stability of society by breaking the established rules.
Sociological theory in general recognises that people
learn the rules of the culture to which they belong
through the processes of socialisation. Individuals or
groups who are considered not to be conforming to the
agreed norms and values may, however, have been
socialised according to a set of norms and values that differ from those generally
accepted by the majority. In this respect, their behaviour may be considered to be
dysfunctional by many people. It is important to recognise, however, that within
their own culture or sub-culture such behaviour may be considered to be the
norm.
Functionalism also highlights the manner in which stability and continuity is

maintained in society when the shared agreement on norms and values is passed
on from one generation to the next. If an opposing set of norms, values or
deviant behaviour prevailed in a particular group or sub-culture, then functionalist
theory would highlight the extent to which this would be seen as a threat to the
stability of society.
Using the biological or mechanical analogy referred to earlier can also be helpful
in trying to understand and explain deviance from a functionalist perspective. As
functionalist theory believes that the social institutions within society are
integrated and interdependent, it follows that it is important that they all work
together for the common good. If one component of a body or complex piece of
machinery fails to work properly, then it can become dysfunctional and affect the
smooth running of the whole. In order for ‘the body’ of society to remain integrated
and in order to maintain stability, functionalist theory would suggest that
individuals or groups who demonstrate deviant behaviour should be rehabilitated
or removed from society in order to remove the threat that their deviant behaviour
creates. Ideally they should also ‘relearn’ the expected norms of society in order
to ‘fit back in’ as fully functioning parts of the society to which they belong.

Functionalist theory is very effective in highlighting the extent to which society

uses interdependent formal and informal agencies of social control to ensure that
people adhere to the accepted rules of society. Sanctions are used by both
informal and formal agencies of social control to regulate behaviour. Informal
social control may take place in the family or through the influence of a peer
group and even in the workplace. In these settings it will be through processes of
approval, disapproval and social pressure that expectations of behaviour are
established and deviant behaviour is controlled.
Examples of formal agents of social control could include the

police, courts or prisons. Negative sanctions or punishments
handed out by formal agents of social control could include
individuals spending time in institutions which have been
established within society to help maintain social order such as
prisons or secure residential units for young people.
Interestingly, such institutions may themselves be perceived as
‘mini-societies’ in their own right, within which inmates or
residents find that it is important to learn and abide by certain
rules or codes of conduct in order to survive as part of a
different sub-culture.
In many cases individuals or groups whose behaviour is considered to be deviant

by wider society often face limited life chances across a range of areas. For
example to use the example above, people who have spent time in prison or
children and young people who have spent time ‘in care’ looked after by the local
authority may find it more difficult to secure employment or housing. For many
this may result in financial and/or emotional insecurity. There are many other
groups in society who face what the Commission for Equality and Human Rights
(CEHR) refer to as multiple discrimination across a range of social institutions in
society. This often comes about when some aspect of behaviour, culture, lifestyle,
personality or even health is not perceived as conforming to the accepted norm.
Groups who may experience this could include lone parents, people who face
mental health difficulties, homeless people, minority ethic groups or individuals
with some form of disability. This would therefore suggest that the idea of
deviance can be considered to be ‘relative’, which means that it is dependent
upon the circumstances and point of view of those considering any behaviour.
What may be perceived as deviant by one group, in a particular context or even at
a particular point in history, may not be considered as deviant by a different
group, in a different context or a different point in history. The perception of
deviance can change as society changes.
However, as functionalist theory emphasises the importance of stability and

continuity, this perspective finds it difficult to explain change in society. The next
sociological theory we will study, conflict theory, is more able to focus on this
issue. Also, where a functionalist perspective would suggest that the social rules
that exist in society are created and enforced for the benefit of everyone or the
‘common good’, conflict theory adopts quite a different point of view.

Conflict Theory and Deviance
As you may recall, the four key features of conflict theory you should know are:

So how do you think conflict theory would approach explaining deviance in terms
Take each feature in turn and try to explain the family in conflict terms using these
key features
power differentials in social structures
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
competition over scarce resources
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
control, coercion and constraint
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

social conflict and change
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Conflict theory and deviance
Conflict theory believes that power differentials are built into the social
structures of society. In terms of explaining deviance, this theory emphasises the
extent to which it is those with most power in society who define what is perceived
as deviant and/or criminal behaviour. Conflict theorists would also suggest that
the laws that exist in society reflect and protect the interests of these dominant
groups. They would explain this in terms of the dominant group trying to maintain
its control over society’s resources. Conflict theory also emphasises the extent
to which the agencies of social control that are in a position to influence our
behaviour and beliefs such as the mass media, education, the judiciary or religion
are controlled by those with established power in society.
As a way of illustrating this

point, conflict theorists could
highlight how ‘white-collar’
crime (middle class crime)
such as tax evasion, or
falsifying expense claims are
less frequently reported or
prosecuted than crimes that
are perceived to be more
‘working class’ such as benefit
fraud. It is also interesting to
reflect on the way in which TV,
newspaper and billboard
advertising is often used to
emphasise the scale of crimes such as social security
fraud. To illustrate this point further it would also be helpful to consider the
findings of a survey conducted in the 1960’s that claimed civil servants had
‘stolen’ small items from their places of work with a total value greater than all the
bank robberies carried out in the same year… but we don’t see adverts about this
type of crime on TV! This again emphasises the relative nature of deviance by
highlighting that those in positions of power in society have control over what is
defined as deviant and or criminal behaviour. Furthermore, corporate crimes,
which are those carried out by large companies to benefit the company as a
whole rather than any particular individual, are often under-represented in official
crime statistics thereby adding to the ‘common-sense’ belief that most crime is
committed by the ‘lower’ classes in society.

Exploitation of the less powerful by the more powerful in society could in itself be
perceived as deviant behaviour. However, since it is the most powerful that
control society, then their behaviour would not be classed as deviant by the
members of the powerful groups themselves. For example, wealthy factory
owners or chief executives of large corporations are likely to feel justified in
making huge profits and living an extravagant lifestyle, despite the fact that
people who work for them may be earning a low wage and experience poor living
conditions. Conflict theorists would view this as a consequence of the power
imbalance built into the structure of our society and the fact that those in powerful
positions wish to retain control over society’s resources. Naturally this creates
restricted life chances for those who do not hold positions of power or influence
in society.
Some lifestyles, or even the social circumstances in which people live, may be
perceived as being deviant by a large proportion of society. One of the strengths
of conflict theory is that it is able to highlight that for a considerable number of
people it is their weakened position in society that creates or dictates the type of
lives they lead rather than personal choice. For example, National Health Service
(NHS) figures in 2004 showed that men living in Scotland’s most deprived areas
(most of which are in Glasgow) can expect to die 10 years earlier than the
Scottish average. Many conflict theorists, especially Marxists, see social class
inequalities as the central cause of poverty in society which can lead to some
people becoming involved in what are perceived to be criminal or deviant
activities.
In relation to some of the key sociological concepts we have learned about as

part of this unit, conflict theory would emphasise the importance of recognising
that the culture into which we are socialised is characterised by an imbalance of
power and that part of our socialisation process involves us learning our place
in society. Conflict theory highlights that ‘our place in society’ is defined in terms
of the amount of power or control we have or don’t have. If we are part of a
dominant group, we are more likely to find ourselves in a position where we can
exert control, coercion and constraint over less powerful individuals or groups.
If we find ourselves socialised into a position of lower status in our culture, then
we are likely to have experiences that involve rules being imposed on us by those
more powerful than ourselves.
As society is structured in this way, with those possessing most power defining
what is deviant, conflict theorists believe it is then easy for those with most power
in society to maintain the moral high ground. In relation to social class for
example, the number of working class prisoners in the prison population far
outnumber those form middle or upper classes. Other groups in society who are
less powerful or marginalised in society are also disproportionately represented in
prisons and in crime statistics. Conflict theory highlights the need to question the
extent to which courts, the police force and other related institutions concerned
with social control may be biased against those with less power in society such as
minority ethnic groups, people with mental health difficulties or even women.

Conflict theorists would suggest that this situation arises because the social
institutions that make up society operate in such a way as to protect the interests
of the most powerful.
This next theory we will examine is feminist theory, a type of conflict theory, which
will focus on the power imbalances that exist in society between men and women
and the way that this imbalance is reflected in social institutions in society.

Feminist Theory and Deviance
As you may recall, the four key features of feminist theory you should know are:

So how do you think feminist theory would approach explaining deviance in terms
Take each feature in turn and try to briefly explain deviance using these key
features of feminist theory.
gender role socialisation
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
equal rights for women
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
questioning of ‘malestream’ thinking
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

oppression, subordination and patriarchy
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Feminist theory and deviance
The most fundamental element of feminist theory is the idea that within society
economic and political power is in the hands of men, and that patriarchy which is
the power through which men dominate women, is deep-rooted in the social
institutions in society. For the most part feminists use this line of reasoning to
emphasise the extent to which women then find themselves oppressed and
subordinated in society.
In terms of researching the topic of deviance as an aspect of the social world we

live in, one of the first points that feminist theorists would highlight is the fact that
before the emergence of modern feminism in the 1970s there was very little
evidence of research being conducted by women in this field or even research on
deviance in general in relation to women or women’s behaviour. This gender
blindness, which was typical of much of the malestream thinking that
predominated society at that time, meant that there was a lack of understanding
(or interest) regarding issues surrounding whether or what crimes women
committed and why. However, once the feminist movement emerged and
sociology began to include the female perspective in studies of deviance and
criminal behaviour, some interesting facts began to emerge. For example it
became clear from statistics that in general women committed fewer crimes than
men, that the types of crime women committed frequently differed from those
committed by men and that when women were charged with crimes their
sentences tended to be more lenient than those received by men.
Feminist theory highlights the extent to which our attitudes

and perceptions of male and female deviant or criminal
behaviour is deep-rooted in the gender role socialisation
which takes place within the culture to which we belong.
Throughout this process we are socialised into expecting
men to be more tough and dominant than women and as a
consequence we expect men to be more likely than women
to carry out acts of violence, aggression or serious offences.
Feminists might also argue that as men are less restricted
by the demands of children and the home, they also have
more freedom and opportunity to commit crime or to become
involved in deviant behaviour. However, it is also interesting
to note that those women who do commit serious offences, especially when
violence is involved, often receive much more severe punishment than men who
commit a similar offence. An explanation for this could be that our gender role

socialisation leads us to expect women to be compliant and obedient so that

when they severely contradict this norm, the punishment (or sanction) is much
more severe than for men towards whom there is more of an expectation or
acceptance of deviant or criminal behaviour.
The feminist approach is therefore very effective in highlighting the gendered

nature of crime and has been useful in explaining the relationship between
women’s deviant or criminal behaviour and different aspects of life chances. For
example some key pieces of sociological research have shown that the most
common reasons women gave for their criminal behaviour included drug or
alcohol dependence and/or poverty. A high percentage of women who are in
prison are there for non-payment of fines, drug offences, or for offences involving
theft or fraud, which they committed in order to feed themselves or their children
(Browne, 2005).
A major contribution that feminism has made is to

draw attention to the victimisation of women in
society, especially within the home. Incidents of
domestic abuse, the reporting and investigation of
rape and aspects of prostitution have all been the
focus of sociological research conducted from a
feminist perspective. The result has been that
feminist campaigns have been successful in
bringing about changes in the law and policies within the police force and courts
that relate to rape, domestic abuse and sexual violence. The feminist approach
has been able to do this because of its ability to focus on how the life chances of
many women are adversely affected by the power of patriarchy that persists in
society that has led to the oppression and subordination of many women.
As noted earlier in the support pack, it is important to

recognise that not all deviant acts are criminal. Conflict
theory also highlighted that it is often those in the position of
most power who are able to define the nature of deviant
behaviour. These points are also relevant when examining
feminist theory relating to deviance. A feminist perspective is
useful in helping us to understand how gender role
socialisation creates expectations of our behaviour as men or
women. There are, however, consequences that can occur
when individuals do not conform to the expected norm. For
example women who choose to be childless are frequently
perceived to be ‘deviant’ and can be subjected to stigma and discrimination.
Similarly women who opt to follow a career, especially if it happens to be in a
male dominated profession, are often perceived as being deviant, and are likely to
encounter more difficulties than male counterparts in terms of securing promotion.
This is often referred to as having to break the ‘glass ceiling’, an informal barrier
that prevents women rising to the highest positions in organisations, despite the
fact that legislation and policies exist promoting equal rights for women. Other

behaviour which may be perceived as deviant as it does not conform to the norm
in terms of the socialisation of females, could be women who choose to live as
part of a lesbian partnership or who opt to use surrogacy as a means of having a
family. In such situations it is likely that stigma and discrimination will be
experienced.
Ideas of how we are expected to adopt and fulfil our ‘roles’ in life are central to the
next sociological theory we will study, symbolic interactionism.

Symbolic Interactionist Theory and Deviance
As you may recall, the four key features of symbolic interactionist theory you
should know are:

So how do you think symbolic interactionist theory would explain deviance in

Take each feature in turn and try to briefly explain deviance from a symbolic
interactionist perspective using the four key features below.
the self-concept
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
symbols, labels and interaction
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
the concept of ‘role-taking’
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

the individual as an influence on society
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Symbolic interactionist theory and deviance
As symbolic interactionist theory adopts a micro-sociological perspective, it

concentrates on explaining behaviour at an individual or small group level and,
from examining these small-scale interactions, builds up a picture of society. In
relation to the study of deviance, the focus is on the interactions that lead to an
individual’s behaviour being defined in terms of deviance.
Central to this approach is the idea of the self-

concept. How we view our ‘self’ is dependent
upon perceptions about the feedback we
receive from others during social interactions. A
person is likely to perceive his or her behaviour
as deviant if they receive feedback from others
such as disapproval, distaste or discrimination,
which leads them to believe that their behaviour
is unacceptable or wrong. This interaction may
take place using a range of symbols, which will include both language and
aspects of non-verbal communication such as gestures. This symbolic
interaction contributes towards a person’s self-concept. If the interaction is
perceived in a negative way then a person may choose to recognise that their
behaviour is being seen as deviant or unacceptable and may change or adapt
their behaviour accordingly. However, when the interaction produces negative
feedback on a regular basis within a range of settings, then the individual
concerned may incorporate the notion of deviance into their self-concept.
These ideas become especially significant when someone has clearly been
labelled in some way, and as a consequence of the label is expected to perform
a role attached to which certain behaviours are expected. This idea of role-taking
can be considered to be fairly positive in some contexts. However, when an
individual has a deviant label applied to them in social interactions then a
situation can develop whereby they begin to ‘live up’ to the expected behaviours
associated with the label and a self-fulfilling prophecy can occur. An example of
this could be a 16 year old youth who lives in a residential care unit run by the
Social Work Department finds that many people he interacts with (teachers at
school, class mates, potential employers, the local college) all interact and give
feedback to him based on him being ’in care’. As a consequence people seem to
have poor expectations of his behaviour and abilities. Although he may initially try
to shake off this label, as he feels he is ‘more than just a kid in care’, it becomes
increasingly difficult for him to do so and gradually his behaviour conforms to

others’ expectations of him. This in turn confirms the expectations of the role he
was expected to play and so a self-fulfilling prophecy has occurred. Unfortunately
this can result in a cyclical process whereby the more a person perceives himself
or herself to be deviant, the more their behaviour may show deviant tendencies
and the more deviant behaviour they engage in, the more disapproval they will
receive.
Symbols, labels and the idea of role-taking are inherent in all cultures and,
through the process of primary and secondary socialisation we learn the
significance of different symbols and roles that are important to the cultures to
which we belong. Different cultures may have different symbols that are of
significance to them for religious, historical or spiritual reasons and there is likely
to be a shared understanding of the meaning of these symbols within a person’s
culture. However, there may be a lack of understanding of the significance of
these symbols outwith the culture. Discuss some examples of this with your class
tutor.
In terms of roles, the significance of socialisation and culture is also hugely

significant when considering symbolic interactionist theory and deviance. In our
study of the family we have already established that most of us have a shared
understanding of the word (or symbol) ‘family’ and the different roles that are
likely to be played within the families we belong to (mother, father, sister, brother,
housewife, breadwinner etc.) However, although we had a shared understanding
of the words, it was unlikely that we had a shared experience of ‘family’ and the
roles played within our families. As a sociological theory symbolic interactionism
is particularly interested in examining the meanings and experiences of
individuals in more depth as a way of understanding society more clearly.
In terms of applying this idea to the topic of deviance, some people may perceive
particular roles in life as being deviant or not conforming to the norm. As a
consequence their interactions with others in these situations or fulfilling these
roles may involve negative perceptions. Examples of this might include being a
single parent, having experienced domestic violence, being a ‘house-husband’,
having a disability, having a mental illness, being lesbian, gay or bisexual,
growing up in care, belonging to a minority religion or ethnic group within a
society or having spent time in prison. If interactions are based on negative
perceptions of such ‘labels’ then this can have an impact on the life chances that
are afforded to some people and the opportunities that they are given.
In terms of the significance of symbolic

interactionist theory to the context of care, it is
vital that as practitioners we recognise the power
that labelling can have on shaping the
interactions we have with service users as well as
recognising the extent to which labels can have
an impact of their life chances. For the most part
the emphasis in these notes has been on the

potentially negative aspects of this process. However, as an action theory,

symbolic interactionism is effective in recognising that through social interactions
individuals can also influence others’ perceptions in a positive way. Through this
process individuals and small groups can influence and shape society to redefine
what is perceived as deviant behaviour. Examples to illustrate this could be the
numerous committed individuals, pressure groups and campaigns that have been
prominent in highlighting examples of discrimination as well as the range of ways
in which people have successfully challenged negative perceptions of mental
health, disability and racial or religious intolerance.

Revision and Check-up Opportunity
ContrastingSociological Perspectives on the Family and Deviance
You have now completed all the learning and teaching covering the key topics in
Outcome 1 and 2 of the unit and in doing this have actually touched upon some of
the main points we will examine in the final part of the unit.
As a way of checking out your understanding and preparing for the NAB
assessment and external exam, you should now complete the following piece of
work.
Read the case studies for Akram, Ethel and Rab again. (pages 90 - 94)
Select one of the case studies and write a short essay (approximately 200-300
words) explaining how two contrasting sociological theories would explain either
the family or deviance in relation to Akram, Ethel or Rab.
In your short essay you should ensure that you:
• clearly explain some (or if possible all) key features of both sociological
theories selected
• apply the key features to the case study you have selected
• try to incorporate the sociological concepts of socialisation, culture and life
chances into your discussion
• evaluate the selected theories by briefly commenting on which one you believe
is most effective in explaining the points you have highlighted in the case
study.

In this outcome you will be analysing the way in which a sociological

understanding can help us gain some insight into the principles that underpin care
practice.
The principles that form part of the National Care Standards will be examined, but
as well as these, the importance of some of the guiding values that underpin the
standards will be highlighted. The specific guiding values significant to care which
we will be examining are empowerment, valuing diversity, social inclusion and
social justice.
The issue of social inequality will be a fundamental element of this final outcome.
Although the idea of social inequality has been implicitly addressed in earlier parts
of the unit, the emphasis in this outcome will be on recognising that social
inequality can lead to oppression, cycles of poverty or deprivation, marginalisation
and social exclusion. As a means of highlighting these points, you will be
investigating the social issues of disability, homelessness and health status.
The role that legislation plays in addressing social inequalities will also be
examined. You will be encouraged to explore how the emergence of positive
values and principles which emphasise empowerment, valuing diversity, social
inclusion and social justice have had a positive impact on social policy and the
provision of care services.
In the first two outcomes of this unit, you have been provided with a large amount
of explanatory information and exercises to prepare you for the work to be
completed in this final outcome. For Outcome 3 of the Sociology for Care unit,
you will find that you will be expected to complete a fair amount of independent
study and investigation to develop your understanding and analysis of some of
the key issues outlined below. For this reason there are less notes in this section
of the Support Pack, but it is expected that you will generate a range of your own
information independently or as class groups which you may then choose to
collate and/or share.

OUTCOME 3
Analyse the way in which a sociological understanding provides insight into the
principles underpinning care practice.
(a) Describe the principles underpinning care practice.

(b) Analyse the concept of social inequality through contemporary social issues
relevant to care practice.
Overview of topics
Principles underpinning National Care Standards
• dignity
• privacy
• choice
• safety
• realising potential
• equality and diversity.
Guiding values in care
• empowerment
• valuing diversity
• social inclusion
• social justice.
Social Inequality
• Explanation and consequences

• Oppression, discrimination, marginalisation, cycles of poverty and deprivation,
marginalisation, social exclusion
• Role of legislation.
Contemporary Social Issues
• disability
• homelessness
• health status.

Principles Underpinning the National Care Standards
For anyone who has studied the unit Values and Principles at Higher or
Intermediate 2 level, then these principles should already be familiar to you.
Similarly if you have recently worked in a care setting or are perhaps completing a
placement as part of the Practical Skills for Care unit in the Higher Care Practice
course, then you will know about the National Care Standards which have been
established in Scotland by the Care Commission.
For anyone who does not have this information or experience, you should take
the opportunity in your own study time to access the website of the Care
Commission and familiarise yourself with some of the material there. If you
haven’t watched it before, you should view their short DVD, which you can do
online, to find out about the range of services which the Care Commission
provides.
http://www.carecommission.com
However, irrespective of whether you are familiar with the National Care
Standards, the fundamental principles upon which the standards are based will
be familiar to you. They are dignity, privacy, choice, safety, realising potential,
equality and diversity.

Review Exercise: Care Settings
Care services can be delivered in a range of varied settings by a wide variety of

care professionals. This means that the same principles underpinning the
National Care Standards must be applied in a variety of locations by a range of
different carers.
Using information from the Care Commission website, your previous learning in
other Intermediate 2 or Higher Care units, and your own personal work or
placement experience, provide a brief summary of at least three different care
settings. You do not necessarily have to name the care organisation but rather
state the type of care service provided and the service user group, a brief
summary of what the service involves and a suggestion of the carers who may be
involved in providing the service.
For example:
Care Setting: Residential Care Home for Older Adults
Service Provided: 24 hour care to ensure the physical,

emotional and social well being of all
residents through assessing and meeting their
personal care needs, providing medical
attention as required and social activities
to promote cognitive abilities
Carers: Nursing staff, carers, dieticians,

physiotherapists, occupational therapists,
GPs, dieticians, as well as contact with
cooks, cleaners, drivers and volunteers.

Care Setting: _______________________________________________________
Service Provided:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Carers:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Care Setting: _______________________________________________________
Service Provided:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Carers:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Care Setting: _______________________________________________________
Service Provided:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Carers:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Once you have completed this exercise, share your information with the rest of
the class group.
If in the process of this exercise you find out about any care services or settings
about which you had previously been unfamiliar, be sure to take note of them.

Principles Underpinning the National Care Standards
As noted previously, the fundamental principles upon which the standards are
based are likely to be familiar to you. They are dignity, privacy, choice, safety,
realising potential, equality and diversity.
As a way of checking that you are able to understand the significance of these
principles to the actual provision of care services you will now be asked to
complete a small group activity.
In your groups you will be asked to select a client group and care setting upon
which you will focus your discussion of the principles underpinning the National
Care Standards. The previous exercise reviewing a range of care settings should
have been helpful to you in preparing for the next group activity. Some of you may
already have completed similar activities in other units, so this will be a further
opportunity for you to check and reinforce your understanding. You will be asked
to take each of the six principles and clearly explain ways in which that principle
can be put into practice in the care setting you have selected.
In order to make the most of this group activity, it would be helpful to have a
range of care settings represented within the class group.

Principles underpinning the National Care Standards
Client Group: _____________________________
Care Setting: _____________________________
Putting the National Care Standard Principles into Practice
Dignity: ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Privacy: ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Choice: ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Safety: ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Realising ___________________________________________________
Potential:
___________________________________________________
Equality and ___________________________________________________

Diversity:
___________________________________________________

Guiding Values in Care
For the purposes of the Sociology for Care unit, we will be highlighting four
particular values that are very important in all aspects of care provision. Having
now studied some fundamental sociological concepts and key sociological
theories you will have a deeper understanding of what these values truly mean
and why they are so important to the people who may require care services. The
four values we will highlight are:
• empowerment
• social justice
Use sociology or care textbooks to find your own definitions of these terms, and
on the basis of your research write a few lines explaining each term in the space
below.
empowerment __________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
valuing diversity __________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
social inclusion __________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
social justice __________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Social Inequality and Values and Principles in Care
The values and principles referred to in the Sociology for Care unit are vitally
important to all individuals in society, but more especially to particular groups who
may face social inequalities resulting in oppression, discrimination,
marginalisation, cycles of poverty/deprivation, marginalisation and social
exclusion. Many individuals who have these experiences require support from a
range of care services at some stage in their lives. It is therefore extremely
important that individual care workers, as well as the care agencies they are
employed by, adhere to the values and principles highlighted throughout this final
part of the unit.
For those who may have already completed the Values and Principles for Care
unit, you may recall that the two core values emphasised in the unit were:
• the value of respect for the worth and dignity of every individual
• the value of according social justice and promoting the social welfare of every
individual.
It is essential that care organisations develop policies and procedures that have
these core values at the heart of all elements of their care provision. Studying
issues related to social inequality will also reinforce the importance of these
values.
“The term social inequality simply refers to the existence of socially created
inequalities.”
(Haralambos et al, 2004: 1)
In the final part of the unit you will be examining how the insight which sociology
has hopefully given you can help to examine how the guiding values of
empowerment, valuing diversity, social inclusion and social justice are particularly
important to individuals who may face social inequality through issues relating to:
• disability
• homelessness
• health status.

Investigation: Social Inequality/Contemporary Social Issues
Decide as a class group or seek guidance from your class tutor about how you
will conduct this investigation. Use websites, textbooks, journal articles or contact
agencies and organisations to find out information about the oppression,
discrimination, marginalisation, cycles of poverty/deprivation, marginalisation and
social exclusion that can be experienced by individuals or groups who have a
disability, experience homelessness or who have a particular health problem or
condition.
You might also find that your local community centre, health centre or GP surgery
is a useful source of leaflets and information. Check with your tutor whether there
is any possibility of arranging some speakers to come to talk to you about some
of the issues that your investigations might raise.
Websites or organisations you could make effective use of will be wide and
varied. Some examples are SHELTER, Cyrenians, Turning Point Scotland,
Capability Scotland, the Multiple Sclerosis Society, Terrence Higgins Trust, and
the Commission for Equality and Human Rights
Ideally at the end of your investigation you should be able to explain how
organisations that embrace certain guiding values can have a positive impact on
overcoming the social inequalities faced by particular groups in society. You
should focus on the guiding values of:
• empowerment
• social justice.
One possible way of sharing the information from your investigation might be to
find or develop a case study based on an individual who has faced inequality
through having a disability, being homeless or having a health problem of some
description. The case studies could then be presented or ‘swapped’ between
groups in order for students to examine the consequences of inequality for the
particular individuals concerned and to highlight the ways in which positive care
values and guiding principles can or have improved the life chances of the
individuals featured in the case studies.
Before beginning your investigation, however, you should read the following
pages relating to the relevance of legislation as part of the process of promoting
social justice and social inclusion and, in the process of carrying out your
investigation, be aware of any legislation that has been significant to the social
issue being investigated.

The Role of Legislation
Depending on which social issue you investigate, you are likely to come across a
range of different pieces of legislation. Although it is not necessary as part of this
unit to have any in-depth knowledge of the legislation itself, it is important that
you gain some insight into the role of legislation in addressing social inequalities.
It is also likely that you will find that over the years it has been necessary to
amend or develop legislation in response to the need to protect and empower
vulnerable groups in society.
Some key legislation that should already be familiar to students who have
undertaken the Values and Principles for Care unit includes:
Disability Discrimination Acts 1995 and 2005

NHS and Community Care Act 1990
Community Care and Health (Scotland) Act 2002
Adults with Incapacity Act (Scotland) 2000
The Regulation of Care (Scotland) Act 2001
Mental Health: Care and Treatment (Scotland ) Act 2003
In your investigation of social issues surrounding disability, homelessness and

health status you should remember to highlight any recent policy developments or
legislation that believe have been significant .

Concluding Comments
In studying this unit you have learned that developing an understanding of

sociology can help us to explain and more fully understand the society in which
we live and enable us to challenge many taken for granted assumptions about the
social world we live in. Developing this understanding has provided us with more
insight into the influences that can shape an individual’s life chances and life
experiences.
Studying key sociological concepts and contrasting sociological theories has

further enabled us to appreciate that there are different ways of viewing and
explaining society. This has been helpful in that it has shown us that some
theories are particularly good at highlighting the importance of particular issues in
relation to how society functions and how individuals within society behave.
By focussing on issues of social inequality that are faced by some individuals or

groups in society, it has also been possible to see how the guiding values and
principles that are fundamental to care practice can actually enhance and
empower those who require care services at some stage in their lives.
Hopefully studying this unit will also have enabled you to develop your
‘sociological imagination’. It should also have enabled you to become a more
knowledgeable, less judgemental and more self-aware practitioner if you do
decide to follow a career in care or decide to continue your studies in this field of
work.
However, even if you do not decide to work in a care setting at any point in your
future, please remember that the information, knowledge and insight you should
have gained through studying this unit may help you develop an understanding of
social justice. This should encourage you to be a more compassionate human
being and a more responsible citizen within your community.

References
Dobash, R. and Dobash, R.( 1979) Violence against Wives. Open Books:
London.
Francis, B. (2000) Boys, Girls and Achievement: Addressing the Classroom

Issues Routeledge: London.
Haralambos, M., Holborn, M and Heald, R. (2004) Sociology Themes and

Perspectives HarperCollins: London.
Hubbard, G., Tester , S. and Downs, M.G. (2003) Ageing & Society 23: 99 -114
Cambridge University Press: London.
Miller, J (Ed) et al (2000) Care in Practice. Hodder and Stoughton: London.
Moore, S. (2002) Social Welfare Alive! Nelson Thornes: Cheltenham.
Parsons, T. (1959) The Social Structure of the Family’ in R.N. Anshen (ed.) The
Family: its Functions and Destiny Harper & Row: New York.
Pascall, G. (1986) Social Policy: A Feminist Analysis Tavistock: London.
Spender, D. (1983) Invisible Women: Schooling Scandal Women’s Press:

London.
Wheeler, B., M. Shaw, R. Mitchell and D. Dorling (2005) Life In Britain: Using
Millennial Census data to understand poverty, inequality and place Joseph
Rowntree Foundation.
Wright-Mills, C. (1959) The Sociological Imagination Oxford University Press:

New York.
Young, M. and Wilmott, P. The Symmetrical Family Routeledge & Kegan Paul:
London.

Tutor Notes

Suggested Responses for Key Worksheets and Activities
• Revision exercise: Structural and Action theories

• Revision Exercise: Overview of Sociological Theories.
Outcome 1
Completed Grid
STRUCTURAL ACTION
Interested in explaining and making sense of the social world we live in
Believes that society shapes the Believes that individuals and

individual groups shape society
Starts with society as a whole and Starts with the individual and
then analyses the inter-related then generalises about society
social structures and institutions
Interested in trends and social Interested in meanings and

forces interactions
Determinism is implicit in analysis Free will or human agency is

implicit in analysis
Mostly uses quantitative methods Mostly uses qualitative methods

of research of research
Would examine unemployment by Would examine unemployment by

looking at the number and details asking unemployed people about
of people claiming benefit or their experiences of being
attending a job centre unemployed by using an
unstructured interview technique
or by observing them

Outcome 1
Overview of Sociological Theories: Revision Exercise: Sample Answers
A range of correct answers would be acceptable, based on the format of the

sample answers below.
Knowledge and Understanding
1. Explain one similarity and two differences between structural and action
theories in sociology.
• one similarity is that both structural and action theories are Interested in
explaining and making sense of the social world we live in
• one difference is that structural theories believe that society shapes the
individual whereas action theories believe that it is the interactions between
individuals that shape society.
• a second difference is that structural theories are interested in how wider
social forces have an influence on human behaviour whereas action theories
are more interested in focussing on the meanings and interpretation of small
scale social interactions and processes.
2. Identify and briefly describe two key features of each of the following
sociological theories
• functionalism
• conflict
• feminism
Two key features of each theory are:
Functionalism
• consensus on norms, values and roles – there is a shared agreement in

society about how people are expected to behave and about what is
considered to be important in life
• integration and interdependence – the social institutions that make up society
such as the family, education, the economy and religion are all inter-related
and share the same values and norms

Conflict
• power differentials are built into social structures – within society different
groups possess different levels of power. Often this is related to economic
wealth. Social institutions are set up in such a way that those with most power
are able to exert control over those with less power and can dominate or even
exploit them.
• competition over scarce resources – the potential abuse of power usually
arises due to competition over limited resources in society. As a consequence
those with more power are keen and able to protect their own interests.
Feminism
• gender role socialisation – throughout primary (and secondary) socialisation

males and females learn how to fulfil different roles in life, with females usually
being encouraged to accept inferior roles, often based on traditional views of
women as child bearers and home-makers
• equal rights for women – one way to overcome the exploitation and oppression
of women in society is to ensure that laws are created and enforced which
ensure that women have equal rights to men in terms of employment
opportunities, rates of pay and conditions of work
Symbolic Interactionism
• the idea of the self-concept – we gain our sense of who we are based on the
feedback we receive from others during our social interactions with them. Our
perceptions of this feedback form the basis of our self-concept.
• the significance of symbols and labels in social interaction – during social
interactions a range of symbols, both verbal and non-verbal are used and
interpreted. The meanings we give to these symbols are significant in our
future interactions. If a label is attached to an individual, then this symbol can
suggest an expectation of behaviour which can, in some instances, result in a
self-fulfilling prophecy.
3. Explain one similarity and one difference between functionalist and conflict
theory.
• one similarity between functionalist and conflict theory is that they both adopt a
macro-sociological or structural approach when examining society
• one difference is that functionalist theory believes that there is a shared
agreement in society about rules, values and norms, whereas conflict theory
believes that the rules that exist in society have been put in place by those with
most power to protect their own interests

4. Explain one strength and one weakness of feminist and symbolic

interactionist theory.
Feminism
• one strength of feminist theory is that it has highlighted the significance of

domestic violence and the abuse of women within their own families and been
influential in changing the law to afford women more protection
• one weakness of feminist theory is that it finds it difficult to explain why it is that
many women do not feel exploited or oppressed within their families or wider
society
Symbolic Interactionism
• one strength of symbolic interactionist theory is that it is good at providing

insight into the impact of the labelling process and the interpretation and
meaning that people give to the social interactions they take part in
• one weakness of symbolic interactionist theory is that it overlooks the wider
social forces that can have a significant impact on how individuals live their
lives
5. Explain how the idea of our role in society would be explained by each of the
following sociological theories
• functionalism
• conflict
• feminism
Functionalist theory would highlight that we learn our roles through the
processes of socialisation and that there is a shared agreement between the
social institutions that make up society about how certain roles should be
performed and the expectations of behaviour associated with each role.
Conflict theory would suggest that our roles in life are dependent on where we
are located in terms of the power differentials that exist in society. If we are part
of a dominant group then we are likely to have a powerful and influential role in
society. If we are part of a less powerful group then we will have a more inferior
or subordinate role in society.

Feminist theory would highlight the extent to which gender-role socialisation

influences the roles carried out by males and females in society. Through this
process women are socialised into accepting a subordinate and inferior position
to men and are usually encouraged to conform to what are considered to be
traditional female roles.
Symbolic Interactionist theory highlights the extent to which roles are

negotiated through the processes of social interaction. When we adopt a role
there is an expectation that we will ‘act’ according to a ‘script’ and that feedback
from others will reinforce our ‘performance’ of the role.
6. Select two sociological theories and identify two ways in which they contrast
with each other.
Functionalist and symbolic interactionist theory can be contrasted with each

other in a number of ways. For example, functionalist theory is a structural theory
which focuses on how society shapes individual behaviour and examines the
impact that wider social forces can have on how individuals live their lives. By
contrast, symbolic interactionist theory adopts a more action based approach and
focuses on how small scale interactions between individuals and small groups
create the society in which we live. Secondly, in examining social behaviour they
adopt different types of research methods. Functionalist research is usually based
on quantitative data (official statistics, large scale surveys) whereas symbolic
interactionist research would make more use of qualitative data generated by
research methods such as participant observation or unstructured interviews.

Scottish Further Education Unit
Argyll Court
Castle Business Park
Stirling
FK9 4TY
Tel: 01786 892000 Fax: 01786 892001 E-mail: sfeu@sfeu.ac.uk Web: www.sfeu.ac.uk

Higher Care - Unit 2 - Sociology For Care

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Higher Care - Unit 2 - Sociology For Care

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

National Qualifications:

Sociology for Care

SFEU is grateful to the subject specialists in Scotland’s Colleges and other

© Scottish Further Education Unit 2007

Scottish Further Education Unit 2

Care: Sociology for Care, Higher

Enquiries relating to this Support Pack or issues relating to copyright should be

Marketing Officer - Communications

Further information regarding this Unit including Unit Specification, National

The Scottish Qualifications Authority

Scottish Further Education Unit 3

Tutor Support Section 16

Student Support Section 25

Scottish Further Education Unit 4

Case Study: Ethel 92

Tutor Notes 159

Scottish Further Education Unit 5

Scottish Further Education Unit 6

What is the Care Course all about?

Sociology for Care (Higher)

This Unit is designed to provide candidates with a framework to understand some

In the Unit candidates study:

• the contribution of key sociological theories to an understanding of care

Scottish Further Education Unit 7

At Higher, the key elements of knowledge and understanding, analysis,

• Knowledge and understanding

Scottish Further Education Unit 8

The balance of assessment between knowledge and understanding and analysis

• Course – 50% knowledge and understanding, 50% analysis, application and

Satisfactory evidence of the achievement of all Outcomes and Performance

The Course assessment consists of 2 Question Papers. Each Question Paper

Scottish Further Education Unit 9

Link between Unit and Course assessment/added value

In Units at Higher candidates are required to demonstrate knowledge and

The Course assessment at Higher requires that candidates demonstrate the

Scottish Further Education Unit 10

The Course in Care (Higher)

The knowledge acquired in the areas of the understanding of human behaviour

• helps candidates to understand the inter-relationship between psychology,

Scottish Further Education Unit 11

The Course provides opportunities for candidates to:

• acquire specialist knowledge and understanding required to care for others

Scottish Further Education Unit 12

Unit Outcomes, PCs and Evidence Requirements

Unit Specification: statement of standards

This Unit is designed to provide candidates with a framework to understand some

1. Explain the contribution of key sociological theories to an understanding of

Acceptable performance in this Unit will be the satisfactory achievement of the

Scottish Further Education Unit 13

Explain the contribution of key sociological theories to an understanding of care in

Analyse aspects of society using sociological concepts and theories.

EVIDENCE REQUIREMENTS FOR THIS UNIT

Written and/or oral evidence is required to demonstrate the achievement of all

As candidates will increase their knowledge, understanding and skills throughout

The use of a cut-off score may be appropriate for this assessment.

An appropriate instrument of assessment would be a case study or case studies

Scottish Further Education Unit 14

• the role of sociology in understanding society

If reassessment is required, it should sample a different range of mandatory

Scottish Further Education Unit 15

Tutor Support Section

Scottish Further Education Unit 16

How to Use This Pack