BATTERY CHARGERS AND BATTERIES FOR DC AND AC BACK-UP

POWER SYSTEMS
Copyright Material IEEE Paper No. PCIC-2001-13 Jack Ripley Member, IEEE Battery Service Co. 11634 Wilcant Ln. Cypress (Houston), TX 77429 USA M.T. (Rick) Ansari Member, IEEE Saudi Aramco P.O. Box 97681 Daharan, 3131 1 Saudi Arabia

Jerry Dehn, P.E.

Member, IEEE Industrial Data Systems 5031 Woodham Drive Suite 360

Houston, TX 77073
USA

4bsfract - The purpose of this paper is to provide support in

specifying batteries and battery chargers for both DC and AC lack-up power systems. ndex Terms - Battery Charger, Battery, UPS Systems

. Record keeping . Battery Disposal

II. BATTERY TYPES

1.

INTRODUCTION

Many times in AC and DC power systems considerable dtention is given to the load parameters such as AC ripple In the DC bus, DC voltage regulation, and system RFI. However, too often the requirements conditioned by the )attery (i.e. DC voltage window) as well as the conditions .:hich cause premature battery failure are overlooked. In the llajority of cases when a DC system fails it is because the Jatteryfailed to perform. This could be the natural result of :n old battery finally just dying. In which case no one would le surprised, and in fact good preventative maintenance vould have identified a weak cell or cells allowing the battery o have been replaced before system failure. However, all 00 often the battery failed to provide its expected life Jecausethe conditions, which cause premature battery ailure, were not recognized and addressed in the .pecification phase. Todays industrial batteries are offered with a guaranteed i e of 90 days to 5 years full replacement and with prorated iarranties up to 25 years. With this wide product quality ange, the price range is also very wide. his paper details pertinent information relating to: Battery types Typical DC load recommendations Typical charger features Site and load conditions that effect battery maintenance and battery life Charger features which improve battery maintenance and battery life Requirements when parallel chargers andlor batteries are used. Manual methods for monitoring batteries Automatic battery monitoring

A brief description of the various battery types is given for the purpose of providing an understanding of the problems related to various types of batteries. There are three basic battery types being used today in industrial float service applications. The guaranteed life of each type ranges from 1-20 years for the flooded vented lead acid, 1-25 years for the flooded vented nickel cadmium and 1-20 years for the recombinant (valve regulated leadqsid VRLA) battery. Although not recommended for float service applications, a fourth type of battery is sometimes used; the flooded vented lead acid (SLI) (Starting, Lighting and Ignition) battery. 1) Starting, Lighting and Ignition Battery: The flooded vented lead acid (SLI) battery is either a standard automobile/truck battery, or a slightly modified derivative of the same. They are characterized by thin plates, (even the thick plate versions have much thinner plates than their stationary counterparts), high specific gravity electrolyte (1.260-1.300), high energy density and relatively short life (usually 1-3 years). These batteries are designed to be charged from an engine alternator. They are expected to be on charge 2-4 hours per day, everyday; and when they are not being charged they are expected to set idle (open circuited) and not connected to a load. This type of operation is considerably different from that typically seen by a stationary battery. When placed in a constant float charge application they experience unique problems. When charged at their desired voltage, but in a continuous float application, they experience overcharge, excessive gassing, accelerated plate shedding and resulting shortness of life. When the float charging voltage is reduced to alleviate this overcharging, they suffer from undercharge, plate sulfation and again, shortness of life. We will address some optional features, that can be specified for the charger to improve the life of SLI batteries

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in float service. However, even with the best chargers, they will probably have shorter lives than an identical SLI battery in your own family car. 2) Flooded Vented Lead Acid: The flooded vented lead acid stationary battery will last much longer than its SLI counterpart. Because it is usually designed for IO, 15 or even 20-year life, the plates are much thicker (less plate surface per pound of active material) and the specific gravity of the electrcllyte is considerably lower (usually 1.215 -1.250) which results in much lower grid and plate corrosion rate, especially at operating ambient temperatures higher than 25C. These cells are provided in either lead calcium or lead antimony grid construction. The lead calcium grid exhibits lower float currents and therefore lower water loss resulting in lower hydrogen emission. The lead antimony grid is typically I-year full/l5 year prorated as compared with a I-year fuW20 year prorated life of its lead calcium counterpart. However, at elevated temperatures (30C or greater) the lead antimony cell v d l outlast the lead calcium cell. The lead antimony cell is also offered in low antimony alloys of selenium or tin. The most popular is defined Commercially as Lead Selenium in which the grid is an alloy of lead, antimony and selenium. This produces a plate with float current characteristics very near the lead calcium but is not nearly as adversely effected by deep discharges, numbers of cycles or ambient temperature. 3) Flooded Vented Nickel Cadmium: The flooded vented nickel cadmium battery is distinguished by its rugged construction, high performance, very long service life, and immunity to corrosiomn of the active materials. It is the longest life battery in industrial applications. It is also the most forgiving of all batteries in response to overcharge, underc:harge, temperature extremes, vibration, etc. It also has the highest initial capital equipment cost as compared to all other industrial battery types. 4) Recombinant Lead Acid: The recombinant lead acid battery, commonly known as Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) is a float service stationary battery originally designed for short high rate discharges (10-15 minute UPS applications and under 1 minute switch gear applications). Some manufacturers have expanded part of their recombinant produd line to lend itself to long slow discharge (station and communication) applications. The products designed for short fast discharges are usually very good for gen set cranking. .4s with all lead acid batteries, care must be taken in applications involving wide temperature ranges, especially high temperatures. This type of battery is much more susceptible to higher operating temperatures above 30C. The VRLA battery can also undergo rapid destruction and failure if subjected to higher than recommended float voltage and unstable charging condition. For achieving long life, this battery should be used in a temperature-controlled environment with a stable ambient temperature of 20-25C. The recombinant battery meets higher shock and vibration specs than flooded lead acid batteries. Some designs are non-position sensitive and can be installed in vertical or horizontally stacked arrangement to minimize floor space

requirements. The recombinant battery is often referred to as maintenance free by suppliers but has been re-named non maintainable by many users. While it is maintenance free in the sense that you do not have to ever add water to the cell, it is non-maintainable in the sense that you cannot ever add water to the cell. Other maintenance functions such as periodic cleaning of the terminal connections, re-torquing of the terminal connections, etc. must still be performed. Two types of maintenance free construction are used. In both types the electrolyte is immobilized. In the Gelled type, silica is added to the sulfuric acid electrolyte to form a paste or gel. In the Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) type, the electrolyte is retained in a very fine fiberglass mat at about 80% saturation. The advantage of both types is the elimination of electrolyte stratification. The disadvantage is the inability to perform hydrometer readings for routine maintenance diagnostics or to add water as the electrolyte is depleted by normal gassing. Because all batteries become less capacitive as they deteriorate, a measure of the batteries ability to filter AC ripple can provide much of the same diagnostic information as the old hydrometer test. Another battery feature is more a matter of construction technique than of battery type. However, it is an item that is many times specified because it can result in improved battery life. This is a result of the type of cell formation used in the initial charging process. All battery plates must be Formed after casting. This is a process where the positive and the negative plates becomc electrically charged to form a battery cell. The simpler, less expensive method is to install the complete electrode group into the cell container, fill it with acid and then form (thc initial charging process) the cell. This method of Jar Forming causes each cell to form up independently, resultin5 in individual differences in the various parameters of eack cell. As more cells are interconnected in series or parallel tc form the total battery, these differences begin to add ur resulting in total battery deterioration. Another method of cell formation is Tank Forming. In tank formation many cell electrode groups are inter-connected an1 immersed in large tanks of acid and given their initial formint charge resulting in similar formation processes. The individual electrode groups are then installed in their individual cell containers. This process results in balancec cells and therefore much betters life, as the individual cell: are series or parallel interconnected to form the complet: battery.

111. TYPICAL DC LOAD RECOMMENDATIONS

The load parameters, which are typically specified, are:

. DC Voltage Regulation (usually +-1-2%)

. DC Ripple (usually I-2% rms)
Note 1. Recombinant batteries will have improved life if this ripple is kept under 100mV. Note 2. If communication equipment is part of the DC load it is desired to keep this ripple under 30mV. . RFI: The lower you specify this number the more

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expensive the rectifier. This is usually not a system concern except in communication equipment.

IV. TYPICAL CHARGER FEATURES

It is more common that a typical battery charger will be equipped with the following accessories: . DC Voltmeter . DC Ammeter . AC Input Circuit Breaker . DC Output Circuit Breaker . AC Failure Alarm Relay & LED . High Voltage Alarm Relay & LED . Low Voltage Alarm Relay & LED . Ground Fault Alarm Relay & LEDs . Charger Failure Alarm Relay & LED . FloaffEqualize Switch Various other options that may or may not be specified, depending upon the operating conditions and plant operating philosophies. . Circuit Breaker Open Alarms . AC Pilot LED . FloatlEqualize LEDs . High Voltage Shutdown . Charger in Current Limit Relay & LED . Low Charger Current Relay & LED . Battery Discharging Relay & LED . Discharge Pre Alarm Relay & LED . End of Discharge Relay & LED . Battery High Temp Relay & LED . Battery Disconnected Relay & LED . Load Disconnected Relay & LED . Common Alarm Relay & LED . Audible Alarm With Reset . Battery Negative Temperature Compensation With OnIOff Control

The negative temperature compensation circuit increases the battery charging voltage as the battery temperature falls and reduces the battery charging voltage as the battery temperature rises. The charging voltage compensation is typically 5 mV/C. 2) Number of Discharges: Not much can be done to reduce the number of discharges. This is primarily dependent on the reliability of the AC power supply to the charger. However, if a large number of discharge cycles are anticipated, it might be of value to consider either nickel cadmium or lead antimony. 3) Depth of Discharges: Numbers of cycles and depth of discharges do not have a serious impact on the life of nickel cadmium batteries. Depth of discharges do impact the life of lead acid batteries, with serious impact on the life of lead calcium batteries. 4) Site Shock Specifications: Site shock specification is usually referred to in relation to uniform building code (UBC) seismic zone 0-4. This has to do with the ability of the battery and battery rack to withstand an earthquake of a specific magnitude. Another shock condition, which is also of concern, is the low amplitude, low frequency vibration that is many times experienced around heavy equipment. The batterys ability to withstand vibration or shock varies with battery types. Following is a list from least sensitive to the most sensitive: . Nickel Cadmium . Recombinant (Gel) . Recombinant (AGM) . Lead Antimony (Wet) . Lead Calcium (Wet)

VI. CHARGER FEATURES WHICH IMPROVE BATTERY MAINTENANCE AND BATTERY LIFE
1) Regulation: The charger should maintain the output voltage of the battery charger to within +, - 1% maximum. Too high of a voltage drift can cause excessive heating within the battery. Recombinant batteries are more sensitive to this voltage drift than wet flooded batteries because the lost electrolyte due to gassing cannot be replaced, and consequently the battery will experience reduced capacity. 2) Voltage Settings: To get optimum life from any of the various battery types available, they must be kept fully charged without overcharging. The desired charging voltages of the various battery types (or similar types with different specific gravity electrolyte) are of course different. However, they can each be charged by the same battery charger by simply setting its float and recharge voltage to the desired setting: Float VIC Recharge VIC 2.33 Flooded SLI @ 1.265 Sp. G 2.25 Flooded L.A. Stationary 2.2 2.33 Flooded L.C. Stationary 2.20 2.30 Flooded NI Cad 1.42 1.60 VRLA 2.25 2.30

V. SITE AND LOAD CONDITIONS THAT

EFFECT BATTERY MAINTENANCE AND BATTERY LIFE
There are several site and load conditions that impact lattery life. The most important are: Ambient Temperature Number of Discharges Depth of Discharges Site Shock Specifications 1) Ambient Temperature: Lead acid batteries are much ]lore sensitive to high temperatures than nickel cadmium iatteries. Also lead calcium batteries are more sensitive than ead-antimony batteries. If the batteries are to be installed in :n area with temperature swings, the battery chargerkectifier ;hould be equipped with negative temperature :ompensation control to provide much improved battery life.

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The float recharge voltage selection can be accomplished by means of a simple toggle switch, a manual initiate timer, an automatically initiated timer, an automatic voltage sensing circuit, an automatic current sensing circuit or a measure of remaining battery Al-l capacity. There are times when in order to match the battery float and recharge voltages with the desired load voltage for the system, the number of cells in the battery may be increased or decreased as required. Also at various times it is desired to use cemP circuits or DC/DC converters. A counter electromotive force (cemf) circuit connects a series of diodes between the battery ;and load. This low loss device drops the higher battery voltage down to the desired load voltage. When the AC power to the charger is lost and the battery begins to discharge, the diodes are shorted out with DC contactors to prevent the DC load voltage from dropping to the end voltage and :;hutting down too soon. 3) Ripple: AC ripple imposed on the DC bus can not only can affect the [IC load, it also causes heat inside each battery cell. The following maximum ripple voltages should be considered: . 2% RMS (Wet Flooded Batteries) . lOOmV RMS Recombinant Batteries .30mV RMS Communication Loads Note: Whatever AC ripple is advertised assumes that a battery with AH capacity equal to four times the chargers current capacity is connected to the charger. In the event the desired ripple is wanted with a smaller battery connected or with no battery connlected, this must be specified. Reducing the AC ripple will require increasing the size of the chargers filter circuit. This will probably increase the cost and perhaps increase the charger enclosure size. 4) Negative Temperature Compensation: When the battery is to be used in an area where the ambient temperature varies outside the 21-26C temperature window much improvement in battery life and reduced battery maintenance can be accomplished by speciving negative temperature compensation on the charger. When a negative temperature compensation circuit is provided on a battery charger, a compensation on/oW switch should be included in order to assist in charger set-up and monitoring of regulation. All batteries have i3 negative temperature coefficient. This means that to maintain proper charge on the battery plates, the charger koltage should be increased approximately 0.23% per C drop in battery temperature and the charger voltage should be reduced approximately 0.23% per C rise in battery temperature. In some stationary applications, it is not uncommon to experience a wide range of ambient temperature conditions. With a range of -17 to +40C the charger voltage would need to be adjusted +9 to -4.2%. Failure to make these adjustments will result in increased battery maintenance and reduced battery life. To use a non-temperature compensated battery charger in the above example would effect the battery the same as

connecting a f l YO regulated battery charger across the batteries in a controlled temperature room and then raising the charger voltage 4.2% for half of the year and reducing the charger voltage 9% the other half. As you can imagine, this would rapidly destroy the battery. Note: If the battery is mounted in a different environment from the battery charger, the temperature sensing device must be remote mounted on a pilot cell at the battery. 5 ) Charger Sizing: If a relatively large capacity battery is being charged from a very small capacity battery charger (trickle charge), the plates of the battery will take on what is referred to as a surface charge. They will appear to be fully charged. However, because the charger is too small to provide sufficient energy to force adequate electron flow homogeneously through the plates, some of the plates in the plate group will accept a surface charge allowing a current path around their surface and through the electrolyte to the adjoining plate surface. Open circuit voltage tests, low load voltage tests or hydrometer tests of a battery in this condition will probably not reveal the problem; yet when high current loads are energized and draw large currents, the voltage of the undercharged battery will drop and the load will shut down. For most industrial applications the minimum charger size is approximately 10% of the battery AH capacity. The charger size should be increased to accommodate any additional continuous loads, i.e. lamps, instrumentation, heaters, etc., which are connected across the DC bus. Almost all battery chargers have a current limit circuit which protects the charger from destroying itself into a low impedance load (discharged battery). Attention should be given to whether this current is available at full voltage or at a reduced voltage. Some chargers advertise a rather high current limit capability, while in fact they will produce that current only at near zero volts. If the current limit capacity of the charger is going to have value, it must be at a voltage sufficient to recharge the battery and power the load. The recommended formula for charger sizing is: Ic=AH/EFF/HR+I load Ic=Charger current rating AH=AHs removed from battery EFF=Battery recharge efficiency (Typical 0.9 Lead Calcium, 0.85 Lead Antimony/Selenium, 0.7 Nickel Cadmium) HR=Hours to recharge I load=Continuous load current When a relatively large charger or chargers are provided across the DC bus care must be taken to assure that not too much current can be forced into a near discharged battery Of group of parallel batteries. A standard rule of thumb is not more than 25% of the batteries AH capacity should be provided as the charging current. (Not more than 25A charging current into a 100AH battery). Each charger has its own current shunt to control its curreni limiting function, however many times an additional curreni sensing device shall be provided in each battery string to force each charger into current limit when the desired maximum battery charging current is reached.

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VII. MANUAL METHODS FOR MONITORING BATTERIES

1) Visual Monitoring: Many factors regarding battery condition can be visually observed. Some of the more common things to be looked for are: . Terminal Corrosion . Loose Terminals Note: It is a good policy to re-torque the battery intercell connections every three years due to metal creepage in lead acid cells. . Electrolyte Level (Wet Flooded) . Room Temperature 2) Voltage: A calibrated volt-ohm meter can be used to measure and record the following battery parameters: . DC Voltage . AC Ripple 3) Hydrometer: A hydrometer specific gravity measurement of the electrolyte for wet flooded lead acid cells provides a reasonable measure of the batteries percent state of charge. The specific gravity reading is not an indication of the remaining battery potential capacity, but only the existing % of charge at the time. This test of course can only be performed on wet flooded batteries. Both an indication of the state of charge as well as an indication of the battery condition can be measured by the batteries ability to filter AC ripple. Thus by measuring the AC voltage ripple in mV across each cell with a simple digital AC voltmeter you can determine any weak cell or cells in the string. The higher the AC ripple, the weaker the cell.

. Float voltage and time at float . Equalize voltage and time at equalize . Temperature . Water loss (flooded) . No. of discharges . Depth of discharge
There are other battery monitors which also provide some maintenance function such as providing a small trickle current to help recharge a less than charged cell. There are also monitors which measure the current out of the battery integrating it with time to maintain a log of actual AHS remaining at any moment in time. This monitor is then set with a thrushold of 10% discharged when it is used to switch the charger voltage to equalize and measure the current back into the battery, again integrating it with time and dividing by the battery recharge efficiency and switching the charger back to float when the battery is fully recharged.

X. BATTERY DISPOSAL
The purpose of this section is to provide some help in dealing with the concerns of used battery disposal. We make no attempt to address the legal or technical aspects of the problem. We wish only to point out some of the areas of concern. Consult the environmental groups within your own company to provide the guidance needed to comply with present and future EPA and local regulations. It is our understanding that all batteries, which have been declared or documented as scrap, failed, waste, spent or any designation suggesting they are no longer useable batteries, are by EPA regulation considered hazardous waste and must be dealt with accordingly. This means the prgduct so designated, could only be moved by a licensed hazardous waste transporter and then only to an EPA approved (licensed) hazardous waste recycling facility. It is further our understanding that if the failed product is turned over to an EPA approved recycler, the EPA andlor local environmental agencies have seven (7) years in which they could tighten their requirements or controls and the recycler would have to go back and clean up the waste for the past seven years. If the recycler complied with this requirement, all would be well and good. However, if the recycler was unable or unwilling to comply with the new requirements, the Superfund could step in and perform the task and pass their clean up charges on to the original companies who had turned the failed product to the recycling company. It appears then that large corporations (potentially deep pockets), not only need to be concerned that the recycler is approved and in compliant with all current requirements, but also that the recycler is financially strong enough and sufficiently committed to maintain compliance with all future requirements. This is one of the primary reasons we have chosen to work so closely with major battery manufacturers when recycling. Again, we emphasize it is our understanding that if the

VIII. AUTOMATIC BATTERY MONITORING

At many sites it is desired to have automatic monitoring of the cells in the battery for both maintenance, warranty and cell or battery replacement. The primary parameters, which can be monitored, are: . Battery voltage . Battery Cell Voltage . Battery Temperature . Battery Cell Capacitance . Battery Cell Voltage Drop Under Load Another function, which can be automatically provided, is the ability to manually or automatically connect a DC load bank and measure the above parameters.

IX. RECORD KEEPING

There are many battery monitors available today, which provide considerable monitoring, and data logging for battery maintenance personnel. The following records are of value for both maintenance and warranty purposes:

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battery has already been documented as a failed battery, it can only be transported by a licensed hazardous waste transporter, and they can only transport the battery to a licensed hazardous waste recycling facility. Therefore, you may desire to have the Bill of Lading specify Used Batteries and not Failed, or Scrap batteries.

XI. CONCLUSION
As down time gets more expensive while maintenance budgets seem to diminish it is becoming increasingly important the power equipment as well as the monitoring equipment be specified in order to eliminate as many potential problems as possible. This becomes even more important with the increased use of VRL.A batteries. As discussed with careful attention during specification, many of the potential problems which effect premature system failure can be reduced or eliminated.

systems, alternative energy & solar electric systems, and stationary batteries. Rick is an instructor for the UPS, DC systems, and Batteries courses offered by Saudi Aramco for training and development of Company professionals. Rick has authored several papers on application of batteries and alternative energy systems. Rick received his BSEE from Oklahoma State University, Stillwater. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in Texas and a member of IEEE Power Engineering Society. J. W. Dehn, PE is an Engineering Manager for IDS Engineerings Houston Division. Mr. Dehn is an Electrical Engineer registered in the state of Texas, with job duties that include facilities automation, SCADA systems, PLC based control panel designs, ESD logic, motor controls, substation design, switchgear selection, preparation of grounding networks and instrumentation design for liquid and gas pipelines. He received a BSEE from the University of Oklahoma and is a member of ISA and IEEE.

NI. REFERENCES
1. George Wood Vinal, Storaqe Batteries by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1951 2. T. R. Crompton, 33atterv Reference Book 3. S. Uno Falk & Alwin J. Salkin Alkaline Storage Batteries 4. IEEE 446-1987, EEE Recommended Practice For Emerqency And Standby Power Systems For Industrial And Commercial Applications 5. IEEE 602-1986, EEE Recommended Practice For Electrical Systems In Health Care Facilities 6. IEEE 450-1980, EEE Recommended Practice For Maintenance, Testing And Replacement Of Large Lead Storacle Batteries For Generating Stations And Substations 7. IEEE 1106-1995, IEEE Recommended Practice For Installation, Maintenance, Testinq And Replacement Of Vented Nickel Cadmium Batteries For Stationary Applications

XIII. VITA
Jack Ripley is the president of Battery Service Co. of Cypress, (Houston) TX. His past experience includes engineering and management for battery, battery charger and UPS manufacturers for more than 30 years. Mr. Ripley received his BSEE from California State Polytechnic University. He is past president of EGSA and a member of

IEEE.
M.T. (Rick) Ansari is an Engineering Specialist in the Consulting Services Department of the Saudi Arabian Oil Company (Saudi Arabia), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. He is involved in the development of standards and specifications for industrial rectifiers, UPS systems, static switching devices, standby power systems, backup power

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