POLITECNICO DI TORINO

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

OIL AND GAS TRANSPORT

REPORT ON

PIPELINE SYSTEM DESIGN

By
Aruna Jayamanjula Somadasa, MISNAGAMA GAMAGE
Sri Lanka-S194373

-13th March 2014-

Page 2 of 42

TABLE OF CONTENT
.......................................................................................................................................................... 3
TRANSPORT OF WATER..................................................................................................................... 4
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM............................................................................................................... 5
PIPE LINE SIZING............................................................................................................................. 6
1.1Altimetry..................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2Design Flow Rate...................................................................................................................... 6
1.3Evaluation of Pipe Diameter...................................................................................................... 7
PRESSURE PROFILES................................................................................................................... 12
1.4Gravity Flow System Design.................................................................................................... 12
1.5Pumped Flow System Design.................................................................................................. 18
TRANSPORT OF OIL.......................................................................................................................... 24
PROPERTIES OF OIL .................................................................................................................... 25
PRESSURE PROFILE..................................................................................................................... 27
1.6Gravity Flow System................................................................................................................ 27
1.7Pumped Flow System.............................................................................................................. 31
1.8Determination of Pipe Diameters............................................................................................. 33
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS............................................................................................................. 34
CORROSION PROTECTION........................................................................................................... 35
HYDROSTATIC TESTING............................................................................................................... 36
RESULTS & CONCLUSION................................................................................................................ 37
RESULTS & CONCLUSION............................................................................................................. 38
REFERNCES....................................................................................................................................... 41

Page 3 of 42

TRANSPORT OF WATER

Page 4 of 42

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

The Anuradhapura Water Supply Scheme, the hypothetical water supply scheme, is to provide
portable water for the community in the city Anuradhapura in north central province of Sri Lanka. The
water source is situated at Pilimathalawa town which is a town situated on the mountain range of the
central province of Sri Lanka. The Pilimatalawa town is located at 440m AMSL whereas
Anuradhapura is located at 15m AMSL. Total length of the pipeline will be 126.5 km.
The municipality area of Anuradhapura has approximately 13,000 inhabitants. The annual average
temperature of city Pilimatalawa is 27C whereas in Anuradhapura it is 27.5C, thus it is assumed that
the temperature of water is remained constant at temperature 27C for the design purposes. The
annual average per capita water consumption in Sri Lanka is estimated as 85 m 3/cap/year.

Page 5 of 42

PIPE LINE SIZING

1.1

Altimetry

In this hypothetical water supply scheme the source is located at an elevation of 440m AMSL whereas
the city is located at an elevation of 15 m AMSL. Thus in general the source is located at a higher
elevation than the city, so the gravity flow will support the water supply, though there are fluctuations
in the elevation in between. The path selected for laying pipes is a mountainous terrain. The elevation
profile of the proposed pipeline path is given by Fig 2.1 below.

Fig 2.1: Elevation Profile of the Proposed Pipeline

1.2

Design Flow Rate

The proposed water supply scheme is to provide water for 13,000 inhabitants (INH) in the
municipality area of Anuradhapura. The average daily demand was determined based on the annual
average per capita consumption (APCC) estimated for Sri Lanka is 85 m3/capita/year.

Hence,

APCC
INH SF m3/s .. 2.1
365 24 3600

Design Flow rate

Q=

Assume Safety Factor

SF = 1.30

Design Flow rate

Q=

85
13,000 1.30 m3/s
365 24 3600
Q 0.0456 m3/s

This is known as the nominal flow rate (Q nom), but it is required to evaluate the effects on the pipeline
due to the seasonal changes of the flow rate between the maximum flow rate and minimum flow rate.
The maximum flow rate,

Qmax =1.2 Qnom

Page 6 of 42

Qmax = 1.2 0.0456

Qmax = 0.0547 m 3 / s
Similarly the minimum flow rate,

Qmin = 0.8 Qnom

Qmax = 0.8 0.0456

Qmax = 0.0365m 3 / s

1.3

Evaluation of Pipe Diameter

In order to determine the pipe diameter two possible approaches are available; Single-scenario
approach and flexible approach. In single-scenario or inflexible approach it is assumed that there are
no any other parameter which would affect the diameter of the pipes other than the consequences
caused by friction losses and subsequent pressure heads. Whereas in the flexible approach the
evaluations are carried out by keeping options open, thus the designer or the decision maker can
respond adequately if and when uncertainty dissolves.

1.3.1 Rigid Approach

In determining the diameter of the pipeline several equations including Darcy-Weisbach and Colbrook
& White equations have to be used. The fundamental concept behind this evaluation is described
from the equations 2.2 to 2.6. The basic data required are,
Total Length of the Pipeline,
The elevation difference between two cities,

L =126,500 m

h = hAnuradhapura hPilimatalawa
h = 440-15
h = 425 m

The relationship between the pressure drop (P) and the friction factor can be expressed by using the
Darcy-Weisbach Equation1 given by,

P = f

V2 L
2 D

. 2.2

Where,
The pressure drop between two points A and B, P = gh

The flow velocity,

V =

Q
A

V =

4Q
D 2

. 2.3

Thus substitute the expressions for P and V to equation 2.2 gives,

Page 7 of 42

8Q 2 L
2D4 D
8Q 2 L
D5 = f
2 gh

gh = f

D =5 f

8Q 2 L
2 gh

Substituting values of Q, L and h gives a working expression (with D in metres):

D = 0.5518 5 f

..2.4

The friction factor is not constant for any particular pipe since many commercial pipes available in the
market lie in the range governed by the roughness and Reynolds number, but it depends on the flow
rate. The Colebrook-White equation4 combines the smooth- and rough-wall turbulence laws into a
single formula and is considered as the main formula for the friction factor in turbulent flow.

2.51
= 2 log 10
+

f
3.7 D Re f

The above equation can be expressed as follows as the working expression for the iterations.
f =

Where, the Reynolds Number is given by,

2 log + 2.51
10

3.7 D Re f

Re =

VD

Re =

4 Q
D

2.5

Substituting values of Q, and gives a working expression (with D in metres):

Re =

57,858
D

Substituting the value of Re and on equation 2.5 gives the iterative formula:

f =

1
5
5

2 log 1.3154 10 + 4.3382 10 D

10

3.7 D
f

.... 2.6

Iterate expression 2.4 and 2.6 until the convergence is reached;

Page 8 of 42

D = 0.34793 m

Assume

f = 0.1

Iteration 1:

f = 0.015147

D = 0.23854 m

Iteration 2:

f = 0.016852

D = 0.24368 m

Iteration 3:

f = 0.016747

D = 0.24338 m

Iteration 4:

f = 0.016753

D = 0.24340 m

Iteration 5:

f = 0.016753

D = 0.24340 m

Comparing the available sizes of the carbon steel pipes in the market, 0.25m diameter STD pipe is
selected for the design purposes.
Velocity Check
According to the expression for volumetric flow rate given by equation (2.3):

V =

4 0.065
0.25 2

V =1.324ms-1
The velocity is within the range 0.5 2.0ms-1, thus the selected pipe diameter is acceptable.
Flow Regime
The flow regime is defined by the Reynolds number.

Re =

VD

Re =

1000 1.324 0.25

0.001002

Re = 330,339 >10,000

Since the Reynolds number is moderate (104<Re<106)4, the water flow is turbulent.

Table 2.1: The Characteristics of the Selected Pipe 2

Nominal Size
mm
250

in
10

Outside Diameter

Schedule

Wall Thickness

(mm)
273.1

STD 40

(mm)
9.27

Page 9 of 42

1.3.2

Flexible Approach

In the flexible approach as mentioned earlier the options keep open and the final value for the
diameter is determined while eradicating most of the uncertainties considering the technical
consequences only. Rest of the calculations or the evaluation criterions would based on the flexible
approach only.
In order to carry out the evaluations it is required to determine the friction factor which will be carried
out as per scenario tree given in fig 2.3.
Decision Required

V=0.50 m/s

V=0.75 m/s

V=1.00 m/s

V=1.25 m/s

V=1.50 m/s

V=1.75 m/s

V=2.00 m/s

Flow Rate

Pipe Diameter

Friction Factor

Qmax =0.0547m3/s

D1

f1

Qnom =0.0456m3/s

D2

f2

Qmin =0.0364m3/s

D3

f3

Qmax =0.0547m3/s

D4

f4

Qnom =0.0456m3/s

D5

f5

Qmin =0.0364m3/s

D6

f6

Qmax =0.0547m3/s

D7

f7

Qnom =0.0456m3/s

D8

f8

Qmin =0.0364m3/s

D9

f9

Qmax =0.0547m3/s

D10

f10

Qnom =0.0456m3/s

D11

f11

Qmin =0.0364m3/s

D12

f12

Qmax =0.0547m3/s

D13

f13

Qnom =0.0456m3/s

D14

f14

Qmin =0.0364m3/s

D15

f15

Qmax =0.0547m3/s

D16

f16

Qnom =0.0456m3/s

D17

f17

Qmin =0.0364m3/s

D18

f18

Qmax =0.0547m3/s

D19

f19

Qnom =0.0456m3/s

D20

f20

Qmin =0.0364m3/s

D21

f21

Fig 2.2: Scenario Tree for Determination of Friction Factor

The primary decision requires is to determine an acceptable range of values or a value for the velocity
of fluid flow (i.e. water) within the pipes. The mostly acceptable flow velocities in the pipe flow would
lie between 0.5 ms-1 and 2.0 ms-1. Then adopted procedure will be as follows.

Assume the velocities in the range of 0.5 2.0 ms-1

Calculate the pipe diameters for each flow rate (Qmax. Qnom, Qmin) by using equation 2.3,

V =
D=

4Q
D 2
4Q

.2.7

Page 10 of 42

Calculate the Reynolds number for each velocity and diameter by using following equation

Re =

VD

..2.8

Then friction factor can be calculated by following an iterative approach and equation 2.5.

Table 2.2: The Friction Factor for Nominal Flow Rate (Q nom)
Reynolds
Number,
Re

Roughness,
(m)

ff0

Laminar
Component

Turbulent
Component

ff

0.50

Estimated
Pipe
Diameter,
D(m)
0.3406667

121,666.68

0.00005

0.00003967

0.00002063

0.0181183

0.75

0.2781532

149,010.64

0.00005

0.00004858

0.00001684

0.0177152

1.00

0.2408877

172,062.67

0.00005

0.00005610

0.00001459

0.0175062

1.25

0.2154565

192,371.91

0.00005

0.00006272

0.00001305

0.0173916

1.50

0.1966840

210,732.87

0.00005

0.00006871

0.00001191

0.0173303

1.75

0.1820940

227,617.51

0.00005

0.00007421

0.00001103

0.0173019

2.00

0.1703333

243,333.36

0.00005

0.00007934

0.00001032

0.0172951

Assumed
Velocity,
V (m/s)

Comparison of calculated friction factor values for three different flow rates are shown in the following
figure.

Fig 2.3: Comparison of Friction Factor for Different Flow Rates

Then the evaluation of static pressures along the pipeline would be estimated as follows.

Page 11 of 42

PRESSURE PROFILES
1.4

Gravity Flow System Design

Applying the theory of Energy Balance on the Pipe flow, the mechanical energy per unit mass of the
pipe flow system can be expressed by the Bernoulli equation3. The energy entering to the piped
system with the fluid in motion remains in the fluid or it is dissipated by loss of mechanical potential
energy (piezometric energy, kinetic energy, gravitational energy) or is dissipated by friction. The
Bernoulli equation in combination with the first principle of thermodynamics can be written as follows.

p2 dp V22 V12

q + Lm = + + ( gh2 gh1 ) + Lw
2
p1 2

.. 3.1

The terms used in the above equation are as follows;

= The heat energy

Lm
p2

= The mechanical energy

dp

= The piezometric energy

p1

Vi 2
2

= The Kinetic energy

ghi

= The gravitational energy

Lw

= Energy Losses, etc.

For adiabatic systems of incompressible fluids without pumps q and Lm will be equal to zero and
equation 3.1 will become,
0=

V 2
2

+ gh + Lw

p1 V12
p V2
+
+ gh1 = 2 + 2 + gh2 + Lw .. 3.2

Piezometric Energy

Piezometric energy is the energy contained in a unit mass of fluid in the pipe caused due to the
pressure difference between two points of the pipe line. Generally the total energy expressed in terms
of total head (H) caused by the addition of the Piezometric head (P/g) and gravitational head (h) due
to fluid flow in a pipeline is defined as the hydraulic grade line (HGL). If the HGL drops below pipe
elevation this means negative gauge pressures (i.e. less than atmospheric). This is generally
undesirable. The HGL below the pipeline is impossible.

Gravitational Energy

The energy contained in a unit mass of the fluid in the pipe due to its elevation with respect to a
reference elevation is called as the gravitational energy. This can be easily obtained by multiplying the
elevation of a certain position with respect to a reference elevation with the gravitational acceleration.
This would be parallel to the centerline of the laid pipe by the magnitude of g.

Page 12 of 42

Kinetic Energy

The kinetic energy is the energy stored in a unit mass of the fluid due to its motion and would be given
by V2/2. Since, it is assumed that the cross-section of the pipeline remain unchanged, the velocity of
flow of the fluid would remain constant too. Thus the velocity difference between two fluid molecules
at two different positions would be zero. So the kinetic energy difference will be zero or the kinetic
energy of the fluid remains unchanged.

Energy Losses

The pipeline systems are subjected to two main losses;

Wall friction losses: This contributes a continuous fall of energy over a large distance. Most of
the pipes available in the market are having a certain surface or wall roughness, which
causes a continuous stress or resistance on the fluid flow leading to an energy loss
proportional to velocity square, length, inverse of pipe diameter and wall roughness values
and regime of flow. The Darcy-Weisbach equation defined by equation 2.2 can be used to
determine the wall friction loss. The value for the friction factor has already been calculated.

Minor losses: The minor losses are mainly occurs due to abrupt changes in geometry of the
pipeline such as,
o

Pipe entrance or exit,

Sudden expansion or contraction,

Bends, elbows, tees and other fittings

Valves, open of partially closed

Gradual expansion or contractions.

Some of these losses may lead to considerable energy losses though they are meant to be
minor losses. Following expression can be used to evaluate the minor losses caused due to
any of above losses.

= Ki

V2
2

.. 3.3

The loss coefficient or local flow resistance coefficient (Ki) for each type of minor losses at
different fittings can be found by manufactures specifications or available printed publications.
The local flow resistance coefficient can be evaluated by using the method and tables
described in ref. 7.
Table 3.1: The Evaluation of Local losses
Local Flow Resistance Coefficient, K

Dia.
(m)

Vel.
(m/s)

Friction
Factor, fT

Tee Flow
thru
branch

Pipe
Entrance
- Inward
Projectin
g

90o
Mitre
Bend

Clos
e
Patte
rn
retur
n
bend

90o
Elbow

45o
Elbo
w

Tee Flow
thru
run

30fT

16fT

20fT

60fT

0.78

60fT

50fT

Kmax

0.150*

2.00

0.015

0.45

0.24

0.3

0.9

0.78

0.9

0.75

0.9

0.375**

0.50

0.013

0.39

0.20
8

0.26

0.78

0.78

0.78

0.65

0.78

* - Minimum diameter obtained for the entire range with Qmin and Vmax;

Minor
Loss
(Pa)

P/Patm

1800

0.018

97.5

0.001

** - Maximum diameter obtained for the entire range with Qmax and Vmin

Page 13 of 42

Last column of the Table 3.1 calculates the relative pressure loss with respect to the atmospheric
pressure since at any point inside the pipe pressure would be higher than the atmospheric pressure.
Thus this illustrates that the pressure loss due to pipe fittings is negligible compared to the pressure
within the pipe. Thus for this hypothetical system design energy loss due to pipe fittings does not
consider. Hence the total energy loss can be estimated using equation 2.2 only without modifications.
Hence final equation for the energy evaluation for the incompressible fluid system for adiabatic
system of flow under gravity will be given by following expression.

p 2 = p1 + g ( h1 h2 ) f

V 2 L
. 3.4
2 D

The application of this expression for the flow conditions defined by the three flow periods (Q max, Qnom,
and Qmin) would give following three static pressure profiles.

Fig 3.1: Static Pressure Profile for Qmax under Gravity Flow System

Page 14 of 42

Fig 3.2: Static Pressure Profile for Qnom under Gravity Flow System

Fig 3.3: Static Pressure Profile for Qmin under Gravity Flow System

Page 15 of 42

By examining different pressure profiles it can be observed that when the flow velocity is lower than
1m/s, the minimal pressure along the pipeline is lower than that at the end of the pipeline. This implies
that the energy loss due to friction prevails energy provided by the elevation head when the flow
velocity is higher than 1 m/s. Higher the velocity, higher is the friction loss. As the friction loss
increases the energy requires to restore it increases, which leads to increase the operation cost and
the pump cost too though the cost of pipe reduces. Further, as the velocity lowers the diameter of the
pipes would reduce while reducing the cost of pipes and pipe installation cost too. Considering above
qualitative considerations out of all, the pressure profiles derived due to flow velocities 0.50m/s,
0.75m/s and 1.00m/s are only considered for further evaluations. Computational analysis has
developed for the velocity 1m/s and nominal flow rate only.

Commercial Pipe Diameter

Even though the calculations were carried out based on the velocity averaged pipe diameters all the
diameters are not commercially available. The commercially available pipe diameters are 15, 20, 25,
32, 40, 50, 65, 80, 100, 125, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400mm, etc. Thus in order to carry out feasible
evaluations calculations has to be carried out based on the commercially available pipe diameters
only.
Table 3.2: The Commercial Diameters
Assumed
Velocity, V (m/s)

Estimated Pipe
Diameter, D(m)

Commercial
Pipe Diameter, D
(m)

Nominal
Velocity, Vn (m)

ff

Velocity
Check

0.50

0.3406667

0.35

0.47

0.0181805

Fail

0.75

0.2781532

0.30

0.64

0.0178508

OK

1.00

0.2408877

0.25

0.93

0.0175533

OK

Thus only two diameters are available for further evaluation.

Fig 3.4: Static Pressure Profile for Qnom under Gravity Flow System for Commercial Pipe Dia.
Page 16 of 42

1.5
1.5.1

Pumped Flow System Design

Pressure Profiles

In a pumped flow system, the deficiency of the energy to supply fluid to a location with a higher
potential will be provided by the mechanical energy of the pump. Thus the required energy will be
provided to the fluid to flow to a position with higher potential. Consider the case where the fluid flow
velocity is 0.93m/s and flow rate is at nominal flow rate. Figure 3.4 illustrates the pressure profile
under gravity flow condition and the proposed locations of the valves and pumps. The valve located at
the end of the system is a control valve. The objective of the Pumped flow system design is to design
the proposed pump station and the valves. But in this hypothetical system study only the pump station
will be designed and a control valve is selected based on the pipe sizes determined as a means of the
estimated pumps and flow rates.

Fig 3.5 Static Pressure Profile for v=0.93m/s and Q=Qnom under Gravity Flow System
The mathematical expression provided under equation 3.4 can be modified as follows in order to
determine the pressures of the system in subsequent positions with the application of a pump.

p 2 = p1 + g ( h1 h2 ) f
Where,

V 2 L
+ Lm
2 D

the mechanical energy provided by the pump,

Lm = H p g

The head provided by the pump = Hp

Thus final working expression would be,

p 2 = p1 + g ( h1 h2 ) f

V 2 L
+ H p g
2 D

. 3.5

Page 17 of 42

The designer decided to maintain 1 bar (101,325 Pa) pressure at the highest elevation of the
proposed pipeline (which is at 16.70km position) and install the pump at 11.00km point. Thus
pressure profiles for the pumped flow systems would be as follows.

Page 18 of 42

1.5.2 Pump Estimation

In order to design the pump station two basic performance curves have to be determined first, they
are the system characteristic curve and the pump characteristic curve.

Hydraulic Power (PHyd)

Hydraulic power of the pump can be evaluated using following formula,

PHyd = Q ( Ppumped Pgravity )

Pump Head (H)

Pump head can be determined using following formula,

H =

PHyd
Qg

Hydraulic power and pump head calculated for the three velocity of the nominal flow rate is given
following table.

Pump Characteristics

System
Characteristics

Table 3.2: The System and Pump Characteristics

Flow Velocity, V (m/s)

Pipe Diameter, D (m)
Flow Rate, Q (m3/s)
Hydraulic Power, Phyd
(kW)
Head, H (m)
Max Pump Head, Hp (m)
Max. Flow Rate, Qp
(m3/s)
Max Pressure, Pp (bar)
No of Pumps
Installation
Max Total Head, Htp (m)
Speed (rpm)
Suction Dia (m)
Discharge Dia (m)
Pump Model

0.64
0.30
0.0456

0.93
0.25
0.0456

31.00

46.00

68.00
46.50

102.00
46.00

0.280

0.205

12.00
02 + 02 SB*
In Series
93.00
1,480.00
0.30
0.30
APEXPUMPS
GC 300-400

12.00
03 + 03 SB
In Series
138.00
1,480.00
0.25
0.25
APEXPUMPS
GC 250-400

Note: *SB-Stand by Pump

Page 19 of 42

1.5.3 Valve Design

Unlike valves in a piping system that primarily serve to shut off, drain, fill, or divert, control valves are
a part of an automated control system. They are considered the final control element in an
automated and usually very sophisticated control loop. Aside from the control valve, the loop
consists of a transmitter that measures the variable to be controlled (usually pressure, flow, level, or
temperature) and a controller. The traditional method of valve sizing can be given as follows.
Qmax = C vr

P
G

. 3.6

This equation use to find the maximum flow rate assuming no viscosity correction is necessary.
Equation 3.7 can be used to predict actual flow rate based on equation 3.6 and viscosity factor
correction.

Q pred =
Where, Cv
Cvr
P
Fv
G
Qmax
Qpred

Qmax
. 3.7
Fv

= valve sizing coefficient for liquid determined experimentally for each size and style
of valve, using water at standard conditions as the test fluid.
= corrected sizing coefficient required for viscous applications.
= differential pressure in psi
= viscosity correction factor
= Specific gravity of fluid (water at 600F=1.00)
= designation for maximum flow rate, assuming no viscosity correction required, gpm
= predicted flow rate after incorporating viscosity correction, gpm

The most common use of the basic liquid sizing equation is to determine the proper valve size for a
given set of service conditions. The valve sizing procedure can be illustrated as follows.

Fig 3.8: Procedure for Traditional Method of Valve Sizing

Page 20 of 42

1.5.4 Determination of Commercial Pipe Diameter

After evaluating all the above mentioned conditions, an estimation of the commercial pipe diameters
can be made as follows for the pumped flow system.
Table 3.3: The Characteristics of the Selected Pipes4
Nominal

Outside

Size
mm

250

in

10

Wall

Max Allowable

Diameter

Thickness

Operating

(mm)

(mm)

Pressure
(MPa)

273.1

Schedule

STD 40

9.27

Comparison

PROS

CONS

Lower initial cost on

Higher

pipe installation.

referring

initial
to

cost
pump

installation

8.4

and

operational cost due

to

high

energy

consumption.
Lower

initial

referring
300

12

323.9

STD 40

10.31

7.9

to

installation

cost
pump

High initial cost on

pipe installation.

and

operational cost due

to

lower

energy

consumption.

Page 21 of 42

Sump as needed for

discharge

Centrifugal
Check Valve
Pump
Gate Valve
Suction Pipe to
the Pump Station

Source @ City
Pilimatalawa

Water
Treatment Plant

Discharge to
Distribution
Main

Pig Trap
Air Compressor for Hydro-pneumatic
Tank when required

Regulating
Valve

Motor Control Centre

Pump Station for Layout

Refer sketch - x
Sketch -X: Layout of Pump Station

Regulation
Valves

Control Valve
Reservoir at
City
Anuradhapura

Fig 3.9: Layout of the Proposed Water Supply Scheme

TRANSPORT OF OIL

PROPERTIES OF OIL
In this hypothetical designing the source and the final destination of the oil supply system remained
unchanged. Further, in order to maintain a better comparison the flow rate is also fixed to the value
taken for the water supply system designing.
In fact, there are actually over 160 different oils traded on the market, but only three out of them are
considered as the most prominent primary oils which take the serious attention of the market. West
Texas Intermediate (WTI) is an extremely high quality crude oil which is greatly valued for the fact
that it is of such premium quality, more and better gasoline can be refined from a single barrel than
from most other types of oil available on the market. The WTI API Gravity is 39.6 degrees, which
makes it a light crude oil, with only 0.24 percent sulfur, which makes it a sweet crude oil. These
combined qualities as well as location make WTI a prime crude oil to be refined in the United States,
which is by far, the largest gasoline consuming country on the planet. The vast majority of WTI crude
oils are refined in the Midwest and Gulf Coast regions.
Brent Blend is actually a combination of different oils from 15 fields throughout the Scottish Brent and
Ninian systems located in the North Sea. Its API Gravity is 38.3 degrees, which makes it a light
crude oil, but clearly not quite as light as WTI. It also contains about 0.37 percent sulfur, which
makes it a sweet crude oil, but then again, not quite as sweet than WTI. Brent Blend is quite
excellent for making gasoline and middle distillates, both of which are utilized in large quantities in
Northwest Europe, where Brent blend crude oil is most often refined. Brent Blend production, much
like that of WTI, is also on the decline, but it remains a major benchmark for other crude oils in Europe
or Africa.
OPEC Basket oil is a collective seven different crude oils from Algeria, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia,
Nigeria, Dubai', Venezuela and the Mexican Isthmus. Because OPEC oil has a much higher
percentage of sulfur within its natural make-up and therefore is not nearly as sweet as WTI or even
Brent Blend and since it is also not naturally as light.
Further hydrocarbon can be classified according to its composition as well.
Table 4.1: The Composition of Hydrocarbon5
Fraction
Gases
Light Naphtha
Heavy Naphtha
Kerosene
Light Gas Oil
Heavy Gas Oil
Residuum

No of Carbons
1-4
5-7
6-10
10-15
13-18
16-40
>40

Boiling Point
<0
27-93
93-177
177-293
204-343
315-565
>565

The type of oil selected for this study is the CPC (Caspian Pipeline Consortium) blend crude oil
produced by Chevron Company, which is a light crude oil.

Table 4.2: The Properties of CPC Blend of Chevron 6

Property
Gravity, API
Gravity SG
Sulfur, wt%
Total Nitrogen, ppm
Acid Number, mg KOH/g
Pour Point, C
Charact. Factor (K-FACTOR)
Viscosity, cSt at 40C (104F)
Viscosity, cSt at 50C (122F)
Vanadium, ppm
Nickel, ppm
MCR, wt%
Ramsbottom Carbon, wt%
Asphaltenes, (H.C7) wt%

Measured
45.30
0.80
0.56
332.20
0.06
-15.00
12.14
1.84
1.57
1.33
1.56
0.70
0.61
0.07

Same equations used in the water supply system design can be used for the design of oil system
since oil is also an incompressible fluid. Since the viscosity of oil has become a governing parameter
in oil flow, calculation of oil flow through pipes is a much more complicated process. Because, the
viscosity of oil varies with temperature changes. Thus during following calculations the temperature
between Pilimathalawa and Anuradhapura is considered as constant at 27 oC.

PRESSURE PROFILE
1.6

Gravity Flow System

The change of density and viscosity causes effects on the friction factor and consequently the
Reynolds number.

Fig 5.1: Comparison of the Friction Factor for Oil

The calculations similar to the water supply system can be carried out in order to determine the oil
flow system.

Fig 5.2: Static Pressure Profile for Qnom under Gravity Flow System

Fig 5.3: Static Pressure Profile for Qmax under Gravity Flow System

Fig 5.4: Static Pressure Profile for Qmin under Gravity Flow System

Pressure profiles with similar trend to that for water can also be obtained for the oil. Considering
similar qualitative considerations out of all, the pressure profiles derived due to flow velocities
0.50m/s, 0.75m/s and 1.00m/s are only considered for further evaluations. Computational analysis
has developed for the velocity 1m/s and nominal flow rate only.

Commercial Pipe Diameter

Thus similar commercial pipe diameters 250 and 300mm for 0.93m/s and 0.64m/s flow velocities are
obtained for further evaluations.

Fig 5.5: Pressure Profile of Oil for Qnom under Gravity Flow System for Commercial Pipe Diameters
Figure 5.5 illustrates that the pressure comparison between water and oil flow systems and almost
similar trends of pressure profile with a change only due to the magnitude of viscosity and density of
the two liquids.

1.7

Pumped Flow System

The location where the pump has to be installed to provide the energy deficiency is unchanged for oil
too. Thus the pressure profiles for the pumped flow system for oil transport can be obtained by using
similar concepts adopted for water transport.

Pump Characteristics

System
Characteristics

Table 5.1: The System and Pump Characteristics

Flow Velocity, V (m/s)

Pipe Diameter, D (m)
Flow Rate, Q (m3/s)
Hydraulic Power, Phyd
(kW)
Head, H (m)
Max Pump Head, Hp (m)
Max. Flow Rate, Qp
(m3/s)
Max Pressure, Pp (bar)
No of Pumps
Installation
Max Total Head, Htp (m)
Speed (rpm)
Suction Dia (m)
Discharge Dia (m)
Pump Model

0.64
0.30
0.0456

0.93
0.25
0.0456

26.00
69.00
46.50

40.00
104.00
46.00

0.280
12.00
02 + 02 SB*
In Series
93.00
1,480.00
0.30
0.30

0.205
12.00
03 + 03 SB
In Series
138.00
1,480.00
0.25
0.25

APEXPUMPS
GC 300-400

APEXPUMPS
GC 250-400

Since pumps with model APEXPUMPS GC 300-400 and GC 250-400 can be used for both oil and
water supply same pump installation can be used for oil transport too according to the system and
pump characteristics displayed in table 5.1.

1.8

Determination of Pipe Diameters

Thus similar pipe diameters estimated for the water transport can also be used for the transport of oil
too, since total change of parameters is slightly varies between two liquids.
Table 5.1: Proposed Pipe Diameters
Nominal

Outside

Size

Diameter

Schedule

Wall

Max Allowable

Thickness

Operating Pressure

mm

in

(mm)

(mm)

(MPa)

250

10

273.1

STD 40

9.27

8.4

300

12

323.9

STD 40

10.31

7.9

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

CORROSION PROTECTION
Pipeline corrosion can be both external and internal. Internal corrosion, apart from exceptional
cases of corrosive fluid components such as H2S, is usually a gradual process resulting in a lowering
of pipeline efficiency and is characterized by indentations and pits. Regular line cleaning with scraper
pigs can be utilized to care for the internal surface of most installations. Internal corrosion can also be
controlled by injecting a corrosion inhibitor into the transported fluid. Another method of reducing
internal corrosion is by internally lining the pipe. While there are few examples of existing liquid
hydrocarbon pipeline systems using epoxy coatings, they give good protection, long life, and have a
low friction factor.

External corrosion is a major factor in the design and operation of a pipeline system; external
corrosion can reduce the life of a pipeline and impair its safety. External corrosion is mitigated by
application of a pipe coating and the installation of a cathodic protection system. The external
coating increases the pipe-to-soil electro-chemical resistance, and the cathodic protection (impressed
current or galvanic anodes) system makes the pipe cathodic with respect to the surrounding soil.
There are a number of methods and materials available for external coatings, offering different
benefits and a range of cost. Methods include over-the-ditch after welding, and precoating pipe joints
at the pipe mill before shipping or in plants located near the jobsite before stringing.
Materials for over-the-ditch include cleaning and priming followed by one or more sequential layers of
hot-applied asphalt or coal-tar enamel, felt wrap, and a final wrap of kraft paper. The most recent
applications of plant-applied materials are fusion-bonded, thin-film epoxy (FBE), followed by an
extruded copolymer adhesive and an extruded polyethylene jacket. Consideration for selection of a
coating should include, in addition to installation and shipping costs, quality and integrity of the
completed coating system as installed and other concerns, such as chemical resistance to soil
conditions, stray electrical currents, maximum service temperature, storage and handling, et cetera.
Specialty coating systems for thermally insulated pipelines in high-temperature service may require an
exterior jacket impervious to intrusion by water vapor.

HYDROSTATIC TESTING
All newly installed pipelines, including pipe segments that have been replaced in existing pipelines,
undergo hydrostatic testing before being put into service. Hydrostatic testing involves isolating that
portion of the pipeline undergoing testing, filling it with water, and then pressurizing the line to a
specified pressure to check for leaks.
U.S. federal safety regulations for pipelines require that pipelines used to transport hazardous or
highly volatile liquids be tested at a pressure equal to 125% of the maximum allowable operating
pressure (MAOP) for at least four continuous hours and for an additional four continuous hours at a
pressure equal to 110% or more of the MAOP, if the line cannot also be visually inspected for leakage
during the test.
A batching pig driven ahead of the water is used to remove any air and forms an efficient seal to
isolate that portion undergoing testing. Without a pig in downhill portions of the line, the water will run
down underneath the air, trapping pockets at the highest points within the pipe. Long pipelines will
normally be tested in sections; short pipelines may be tested as single units. Temporary connections
for filling and draining the pipeline are used, and a pump is used to pressure up the line. Once the
specified pressure is attained, the pump is shut off and the static leak test commences. A leak is
indicated if the pressure falls over the period of the test. Once hydrostatic testing is completed, the
water is removed and typically delivered to a wastewater treatment facility (e.g., a publicly owned
sewage treatment works) for treatment. While the majority of the water will be removed simply by
draining the water at appropriate locations along the segment undergoing a test, some water will still
remain and will contaminate the subsequent product unless it is removed.
Typically a pig is used that is designed specifically to capture water and deliver it to a point where it
can be removed. This dewatering pig serves a dual purpose, removing water and also removing
construction debris that may still remain in the pipeline and could be very damaging to downstream
pumps, if not removed. Often, the pig is propelled along the pipeline by the products the pipeline was
designed to carry, and once the pig and the water it has captured have been removed, the pipeline is
considered to be fully operational.

RESULTS & CONCLUSION

RESULTS & CONCLUSION

All the factors have been fixed other than the density and viscosity of two liquids in order to make fair
comparison between liquid flows through a pipeline.

Fig 8.1: Comparison of Friction Factor for Water and Oil

Figure 8.1 compares the results obtained for the friction factor for different flow rates of the two
liquids. According to the principle behind the friction factor, higher the viscosity of the fluid the friction
factor should be higher. The viscosity of water is lower than that of the oil. Thus according to the
principles the friction factor of oil should be higher than that of the water. This has been clearly proved
by the results illustrated in the figure 8.1.

Fig 8.2: Comparison of Pressure Profile for Gravity Flow System for Water and Oil
As the friction factor increases the energy loss due to friction or friction loss in a pipeline is would
become higher. Thus the static pressure of the system would be reduced compared to a fluid flow
system with lower friction factor. This phenomenon is clearly illustrates by figures 8.2 through 8.4.

Fig 8.3: Comparison of Pressure Profile for Pumped Flow System as V=0.64m/s for Water and Oil

Fig 8.4: Comparison of Pressure Profile for Pumped Flow System as V=0.93m/s for Water and Oil

As a consequence the external energy which have to provided to the system by mechanical means
has been increased which described by the head required to restore the energy for continuous supply
of fluid throughout the system.
Thus it can be concluded that since both water and oil are incompressible fluid same set of equations
can be used in both cases. But the results obtained for the two systems changes slightly due to the
density and viscosity differences of the system which gives results complying with the fundamentals.
Further, since the system is only a hypothetical study, only the prominent effects to the fluid flow had
been considered whereas the minor losses has been neglected. Thus the head losses calculated
would be an under estimate.
Both systems can be operated under identical situations but the special measures have to be taken in
the case of oil system with that for water. These would include leak-detection, pigging, safety control,
environmental safety, and close monitoring and operation.

REFERNCES
1. White F.M., Fluid Mechanics, 07th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2011.
2.

Atlas Steel, Pressure Rating Tables for Carbon Steel Pipes, 2012, www.atlassteels.com.au

3.

Sassi, G., The course material on Oil and Gas Transportation, MSc (Petroleum Engineering) degree
program, Politecnico di Torino, Italy, 2013.

4.

Ruggeri, Bernardo, Oil and Gas Production 2013/2014 Lecture Notes, MSc in Petroleum Engineering
Program, Politecnico di Torino, Italy.

5. http://crudemarketing.chevron.com/crude/central_asian/cpc_blend_tengiz.aspx

White, F.M., Fluid Mechanics, 7th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2011.

Atlas Steel, Pressure Rating Tables for Carbon Steel Pipes, 2012, www.atlassteels.com.au
3
Sassi, G., The course material on Oil and Gas Transportation, MSc (Petroleum Engineering) degree program, Politecnico di
Torino, Italy, 2013.
4
Atlas Steel, Pressure Rating Tables for Carbon Steel Pipes, 2012, www.atlassteels.com.au
5
Ruggeri, Bernardo, Oil and Gas Production 2013/2014 Lecture Notes, MSc in Petroleum Engineering Program,
Politecnico di Torino, Italy.
2

http://crudemarketing.chevron.com/crude/central_asian/cpc_blend_tengiz.aspx