RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, Beginners booklet

Guided by Dr G H R!bb!ni "ritten # Co$%iled by Dr Ri&'!n Te()ni(!l # logisti( su%%ort Dr A H!*ue

RESEARCH: a way of examining your practice Research is undertaken within most professions. More than a set of skills, it is a way of thinking: e amining critically the !arious aspects of your professional work. "t is a ha#it of $uestioning what you do, and a systematic e amination of the o#ser!ed information to find answers with a !iew to instituting appropriate changes for a more effecti!e professional ser!ice. DEFINITION OF RESEARCH %hen you say that you are undertaking a research study to find answers to a $uestion, you are implying that the process& '. is #eing undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies ( approaches)& *. uses procedures, methods and techni$ues that ha!e #een tested for their validity and reliability& +. is designed to #e unbiased and objective . Philosophies, means approaches e.g. $ualitati!e, $uantitati!e and the academic discipline in which you ha!e #een trained. Validity means that correct procedures ha!e #een applied to find answers to a $uestion. Reliability refers to the $uality of a measurement procedure that pro!ides repeata#ility and accuracy. Unbiased and objective means that you ha!e taken each step in an un#iased manner and drawn each conclusion to the #est of your a#ility and without introducing your own !ested interest. (Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something). Adherence to the three criteria mentioned a#o!e ena#les the process to #e called ,research-. Howe!er, the degree to which these criteria are e pected to #e fulfilled !aries from discipline to discipline and so the meaning of ,research- differs from one academic discipline to another. .he difference #etween research and non/research acti!ity is, in the way we find answers: the process must meet certain requirements to be called research.

%e can identify these re$uirements #y e amining some definitions of research. .he word research is composed of two sylla#les, re and search. re is a prefi meaning again, anew or o!er again search is a !er# meaning to e amine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to pro#e. .ogether they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles. Research is a structured enquiry that utili es acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and create new knowledge that is generally applicable. Scientific methods consist of systematic o#ser!ation, classification and interpretation of data. Although we engage in such process in our daily life, the difference #etween our casual day/ to/day generalisation and the conclusions usually recogni0ed as scientific method lies in the degree of formality, rigorousness, !erifia#ility and general !alidity of latter.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH Research is a process of collecting, analy0ing and interpreting information to answer $uestions. 1ut to $ualify as research, the process must ha!e certain characteristics: it must, as far as possi#le, #e controlled, ri!orous, syste"atic, valid and veri#iable, e"pirical and critical. $Ri!orous/you must #e scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to $uestions are relevant, appropriate and !ustified. Again, the degree of rigor

!aries markedly #etween the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences. $Syste"atic/this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an in!estigation follow a certain logical se$uence. .he different steps cannot #e taken in a hapha0ard way. Some procedures must follow others. $%alid and veri#iable/this concept implies that whate!er you conclude on the #asis of your findings is correct and can #e !erified #y you and others. $E"pirical/this means that any conclusion drawn, are #ased upon hard e!idence gathered from information collected from real life e periences or o#ser!ations. $Critical/critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research en$uiry. .he process of in!estigation must #e foolproof and free from draw#acks. .he process adopted and the procedures used must #e a#le to withstand critical scrutiny. "or a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics.

Types o# research
.he main different types of research can #e classified #y its purpose, its process and its outcome. .hese can in turn #e #roken down further:

.he purpose of the research can #e classified as:

o o o o

e ploratory descripti!e analytical predicti!e.

.he process of the research can #e classified as:

o o

$uantitati!e $ualitati!e.

.he outco"e of the research can #e classified as:

o o o

applied #asic or pure action.

2et us look at these in more detail. 3urpose of research

E&ploratory research .his is conducted when there are few or no earlier studies to which references can #e made for information. .he aim is to look for patterns, ideas or hypotheses rather than testing or confirming a hypothesis. "n e ploratory research the focus is on gaining insights and familiarity with the su#4ect area for more rigorous in!estigation later. "n an undergraduate dissertation it is likely that you will #e drawing on pre!ious studies and so pure e ploratory research is not generally appropriate for studies at this le!el 5 it is more appropriate for postgraduate research. Howe!er, it is possi#le that you may carry out an initial sur!ey to esta#lish areas of concern (e ploratory research) and then research these issues in more depth, perhaps through inter!iews, to pro!ide a deeper understanding (e planatory research).

Descriptive research .his descri#es phenomena as they e ist. "t is used to identify and o#tain information on the characteristics of a particular issue. "t may answer such $uestions as: %hat is the a#sentee rate amongst a particular group of workers6 %hat are the feelings of workers faced with redundancy6 .he data collected are often $uantitati!e, and statistical techni$ues are usually used to summarise the information. 7escripti!e research goes further than e ploratory research in e amining a pro#lem since it is undertaken to ascertain and descri#e the characteristics of the issue. An undergraduate dissertation may include descripti!e research, #ut it is likely that it will also include one of the following two types (e planatory or predicti!e) as you are re$uired in your dissertation to go #eyond description and to e plain or predict.

Analytical or e&planatory research .his is a continuation of descripti!e research. .he researcher goes #eyond merely descri#ing the characteristics, to analyse and e plain why or how something is happening. .hus, analytical research aims to understand phenomena #y disco!ering and measuring causal relations among them. "t may answer $uestions such as:
How can the num#er of complaints made #y customers #e reduced6 How can the a#sentee rate among employees #e reduced6 %hy is the introduction of empowerment seen as a threat #y

departmental managers6

'redictive research 3redicti!e research goes further #y forecasting the likelihood of a similar situation occurring elsewhere. "t aims to generalise from the analysis #y predicting certain phenomena on the #asis of hypothesised, general relationships. "t may attempt to answer $uestions such as:

%ill the introduction of an employee #onus scheme lead to higher le!els of

producti!ity6
%hat type of packaging will impro!e our products6

3redicti!e research pro!ides ,how-, ,why-, and ,where- answers to current e!ents as well as to similar e!ents in the future. "t is also helpful in situations where ,%hat if6- $uestions are #eing asked. 3rocess of research .here is no consensus a#out how to conceptualise the actual undertaking of research. .here are, howe!er, two main traditions of approaching a research topic 5 (uantitative and (ualitative. Each approach demands different research methods.

)uantitative research .he $uantitati!e approach usually starts with a theory or a general statement proposing a general relationship #etween !aria#les. %ith this approach it is likely that the researchers will take an o#4ecti!e position and their approach will #e to

treat phenomena as hard and real. .hey will fa!our methods such as sur!eys and e periments, and will attempt to test hypotheses or statements with a !iew to generalising from the particular. .his approach typically concentrates on measuring or counting and in!ol!es collecting and analysing numerical data and applying statistical tests.

)ualitative research .he alternati!e tradition is the $ualitati!e approach. Here the in!estigator !iews the phenomena to #e in!estigated as more personal and softer. He or she will use methods such as personal accounts, unstructured inter!iews and participant o#ser!ation to gain an understanding of the underlying reasons and moti!ations for peoples- attitudes, preferences or #eha!iours. %ith this approach, the emphasis is more on generating hypotheses from the data collection rather than testing a hypothesis. "n reading around the su#4ect you will find many alternati!e names for $ualitati!e and $uantitati!e research. "t is good to ha!e an understanding of these and to recognise them when you see them in research methods te t#ooks.

.he features and differences #etween the two research processes are detailed #elow. 8ou should note the following points:

9ualitati!e and $uantitati!e research methods are not clear/cut nor mutually e clusi!e 5 most research draws on #oth methods. 1oth approaches can generate $uantitati!e and $ualitati!e data. .he difference #etween the two methods is in the o!erall form and in the emphasis and o#4ecti!es of the study.

:utcome of research

Applied research

Applied research is pro#lem/oriented as the research is carried out to sol!e a specific pro#lem that re$uires a decision, for e ample, the impro!ement of safety in the workplace, or market research. ;or your dissertation it is not usually accepta#le to carry out applied research as it is !ery much limited to one esta#lishment or company and you are re$uired to look at issues of wider significance, perhaps to your industry as a whole or to a sector of it. 8ou may ha!e already carried out a

pro#lem/#ased piece of research related to your placement. "t is important to understand that the dissertation re$uires you to carry out some form of #asic research 5 see #elow.

*asic research

1asic research is also called #unda"ental or pure research, and is conducted primarily to impro!e our understanding of general issues, without any emphasis on its immediate application. "t is regarded as the most academic form of research since the principal aim is to make a contri#ution to knowledge, usually for the general good, rather than to sol!e a specific pro#lem for one organisation. .his may take the form of the following:
Discovery 5 where a totally new idea or e planation emerges from empirical

research which may re!olutionise thinking on that particular topic. An e ample of this would #e the Hawthorne e periments. (<illespie, '==')
Invention 5 where a new techni$ue or method is created. An e ample of this

would #e the in!ention of .9M (total $uality management).

Re#lection 5 where an e isting theory, techni$ue or group of ideas is re/

e amined possi#ly in a different organisational or social conte t. ;or e ample, to what e tent can Her0#erg-s theory of moti!ation #e applied to front/line workers in the contract catering sector6 (.orrington > Hall, '==?) ;or an undergraduate dissertation it is most likely that you will #e concentrating on reflection, as the scope of the pro4ect is unlikely to #e large enough to consider disco!ery or in!ention.

Action research .his is a form of research where action is #oth an outcome and a part of the research. .he researcher ,interferes- with or changes 5 deli#erately 5 what is #eing researched. .he critics of action research argue that since the researcher is changing what is #eing researched during the process of research, the work cannot #e replicated. "f it cannot #e replicated its findings cannot #e tested in other situations. .his pre!ents general knowledge #eing de!eloped and thus it cannot contri#ute to theory. Also, as the researcher is in!ol!ed in the change

process there is a loss of critical, detached o#4ecti!ity. .here are two approaches to action research: Classical action research #egins with the idea that if you want to understand something you should try changing it. Ne+ paradi!" research is #ased on a new model or framework for research. "t claims that research can ne!er #e neutral and that e!en the most static and con!entional research e poses the need for change in what is #eing researched. "t in!ol!es in$uiry into persons and relations #etween persons, and is #ased on a close relationship #etween researcher and those #eing researched. .he research is a mutual acti!ity of a ,co/ownership- in!ol!ing shared power with respect to the process and the outcomes of the research. .hose #eing researched can, for e ample, decide how the research will #e undertaken, in what form and with what $uestions #eing asked. .he researcher is a mem#er of a ,community- and #rings to it special skills and e pertise. .he researcher does not dictate what will happen. .his type of research is most easily carried out when working with indi!iduals or small groups. "t means that the researcher must #e highly skilled not only in research methods #ut also in the interpersonal skills of facilitating others. "t is not, therefore, usually appropriate for an undergraduate student who is carrying out a ma4or piece of research for the first time. Action research is often used #y educationalists who are trying to impro!e their own practice #y making changes to the deli!ery of their classes and #y o#ser!ing and asking students which actions work #est. As you can see, there are a num#er of types of research and not all may #e suita#le for you in your dissertation. .he key points to remem#er are as follows:

%hile the purpose of your dissertation may ha!e some elements of e ploratory or descripti!e research you should concentrate on research that will mainly fall into the e planatory area, or perhaps predicti!e research if you are !ery confident. E planatory research gi!es you the opportunity to demonstrate the skills of analysis and e!aluation which will help you to score highly in your final marks.

.he process of your research can either #e $uantitati!e or $ualitati!e and the different methods that can help you to carry out your research in this way are outlined more fully in @nit +.

"t is likely that you will #e carrying out #asic or pure research in the reflection mode (rather than applied or action research) as this will gi!e you the #est chance of showing that you can test out a theory in a new situation.

In(uiry ,ode: ;rom the process adopted to find answer to research $uestions 5 the two approaches are: - Structured approach - Unstructured approach Structured approach: .he structured approach to in$uiry is usually classified as quantitative research. Here e!erything that forms the research process/ o#4ecti!es, design, sample, and the $uestions that you plan to ask of respondents/ is predetermined. "t is more appropriate to determine the extent of a pro#lem, issue or phenomenon #y $uantifying the !ariation. e.g. how many people ha!e a particular pro#lem6 How many people hold a particular attitude6 Unstructured approach: .he unstructured approach to in$uiry is usually classified as qualitative research. .his approach allows fle i#ility in all aspects of the research process. "t is more appropriate to e plore the nature of a pro#lem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it. Main o#4ecti!e is to descri#e the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude. e,g, description of an o#ser!ed situation, the historical enumeration of e!ents, an account of different opinions different people ha!e a#out an issue, description of working condition in a particular industry.

Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and weaknesses. "n many studies you ha!e to com#ine #oth $ualitati!e and $uantitati!e approaches. ;or e ample, suppose you ha!e to find the types of cuisine A accommodation a!aila#le in a city and the e tent of their popularity. #ypes of cuisine is the $ualitati!e aspect of the study as finding out a#out them entails description of the culture and cuisine .he extent of their popularity is the $uantitati!e aspect as it in!ol!es estimating the num#er of people who !isit restaurant ser!ing such cuisine and calculating the other indicators that reflect the e tent of popularity.

THE RESEARCH 'ROCESS .he research process is similar to undertaking a 4ourney. ;or a research 4ourney there are two important decisions to make/ ') $hat you want to find out about or what research $uestions (pro#lems) you want to find answers to& *) %ow to go about finding their answers. .here are practical steps through which you must pass in your research 4ourney in order to find answers to your research $uestions. .he path to finding answers to your research $uestions constitutes research methodology. At each operational step in the research process you are re$uired to choose from a multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research methodology which will help you to #est achie!e your o#4ecti!es. #his is where your knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial role.

THE FI%E -.S/ %hen you start to think a#out your research pro4ect, a useful way of remem#ering the important $uestions to ask is to think of the fi!e ,%s-: %hat6 %hy6 %ho6 %here6 %hen6 :nce you ha!e thought a#out these fi!e ,%s- you can mo!e on to think a#out how you are going to collect your data. %hat6 %hat is your research6 .his $uestion needs to #e answered as specifically as possi#le. :ne of the hardest parts in the early stages is to #e a#le to define your pro4ect, so much research fails #ecause the researcher has #een una#le to do this. A useful tip is to sum up, in one sentence only, your research. "f you are una#le to do this, the chances are your research topic is too #road, ill thought out or too o#scure. %hy6 %hy do you want to do the research6 %hat is its purpose6 :kay, you might ha!e #een told to do some research #y your tutor or #y your #oss, #ut there should #e another reason why you ha!e chosen your particular su#4ect. "t might #e solely to do with the fact that you are interested in the topic. .his is a good start as you need to #e interested in your research if you are to keep up your enthusiasm and remain moti!ated. :r you might ha!e identified a gap in the research literature 5 this is good as it shows you ha!e carried out careful #ackground research. :r perhaps you want to try to o#tain funding for a particular ser!ice or enterprise and you need to do some research first to find out if there is demand for what you are proposing.

%hate!er your reason, think !ery carefully a#out why you are doing the research as this will affect your topic, the way you conduct the research and the way in which you report the results. "f you-re doing it for a uni!ersity dissertation or pro4ect, does your proposed research pro!ide the opportunity to reach the re$uired intellectual stan dard6 %ill your research generate enough material to write a dissertation of the re$uired length6 :r will your research generate too much data that would #e impossi#le to summarise into a report of the re$uired length6 "f you-re conducting research for funding purposes, ha!e you found out whether your proposed funding #ody re$uires the information to #e presented in a specific format6 "f so, you need to plan your research in a way which will meet that format. %ho6 %ho will #e your participants6 ("n this #ook, people who take part in research will #e called participants or respondents, rather than ,su#4ects-, which is a term that " ha!e ne!er liked.) At this stage of the research process, you needn-t worry too much a#out e actly how many participants will take part in your research as this will #e co!ered later (see Chapter ?). Howe!er, you should think a#out the type of people with whom you will need to get in touch with and whether it will #e possi#le for you to contact them. "f you ha!e to conduct your research within a particular time scale, there-s little point choosing a topic which would include people who are difficult or e pensi!e to contact. Also, #ear now pro!ides opportunities for contacting people cheaply, especially if you-re in mind that the "nternet a student with free internet access. %here6 %here are you going to conduct your research6 .hinking a#out this $uestion in geographical terms will help you to narrow down your research topic. Also, you need to think a#out the resources in terms of #udget and time that are a!aila#le to you. "f you-re a student who will not recei!e tra!el e penses or any other out of pocket e penses, choose a location close to home, college or uni!ersity. "f you-re a mem#er of a community group on a limited #udget, only work in areas within walking distance which will cut down on tra!el e penses. Also, you need to think a#out where you-ll #e carrying out your research in terms of !enue. "f you-re going to conduct inter!iews or focus groups, where will you hold them6 "s there a room at your institution which would

#e free of charge, or are you going to conduct them in participants- own homes6 %ould it #e safe for you to do so6 %ould you #e comforta#le doing so6 "f you-!e answered ,no- to either of these last two $uestions, may#e you need to think again a#out your research topic. "n '? years " ha!e encountered only one uncomforta#le situation in a stranger-s home. "t can happen and you must ne!er put yourself in a dangerous situation. .hink !ery carefully a#out whether your chosen topic and method might ha!e an influence on personal safety. %hen6 %hen are you going to do your research6 .hinking a#out this $uestion will help you to sort out whether the research pro4ect you ha!e proposed is possi#le within your time scale. "t will also help you to think more a#out your participants, when you need to contact them and whether they will #e a!aila#le at that time. ;or e ample, if you want to go into schools and o#ser!e classroom practice, you wouldn-t choose to do this research during the summer holiday. "t might sound o#!ious, #ut " ha!e found some students present a well/written research proposal which, in practical terms, will not work #ecause the participants will #e una!aila#le during the proposed data collection stage. :nce you ha!e thought a#out these fi!e ,%s-, try to sum up your proposed pro4ect in one sentence. %hen you ha!e done this, take it to se!eral people, including your #oss andAor tutor, and ask them if it makes sense. 7o they understand what your research is a#out6 "f they don-t, ask them to e plain their confusion, re!ise your statement and take it #ack to them. " can-t o!eremphasise the importance of this stage of the research process. "f you get it right now, you will find that the rest of your work should flow smoothly. Howe!er, if you get it wrong, your pro#lems could well escalate.

Steps in Research Process: 01 For"ulatin! the Research 'roble" 21 E&tensive 3iterature Revie+ 41 Developin! the objectives 51 'reparin! the Research Desi!n includin! Sa"ple Desi!n 61 Collectin! the Data 71 Analysis o# Data 81 9eneralisation and Interpretation :1 'reparation o# the Report or 'resentation o# Results$For"al +rite ups o# conclusions reached1

Step01 For"ulatin! the research proble" "t is the first and most crucial step in the research process / Main function is to decide what you want to find out about. / .he way you formulate a pro#lem determines almost e!ery step that follows. Sources of research pro#lems Research in social sciences re!ol!es around four 3s: B 3eople/ a group of indi!iduals B 3ro#lems/ e amine the e istence of certain issues or pro#lems relating to their li!es& to ascertain attitude of a group of people towards an issue B 3rograms/ to e!aluate the effecti!eness of an inter!ention B 3henomena/ to esta#lish the e istence of a regularity. "n practice most research studies are #ased upon at least a com#ination of two &s. E!ery research study has two aspects: '. Study population/

B 3eople: indi!iduals, organi0ations, groups, communities ( they provide you with the information or you collect information about them) 21 Subject area$ B 3ro#lems: issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles B 3rogram : content, structure, outcomes, attri#utes, satisfactions, consumers,Ser!ice pro!iders, etc. B 3henomenon: cause/and/effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon itself ('nformation that you need to collect to find answers to your research questions) (ou can examine the professional field of your choice in the context of the four &s in order to identify anything that looks interesting. Considerations in selectin! a research proble": .hese help to ensure that your study will remain managea#le and that you will remain moti!ated. '. Interest: a research endea!our is usually time consuming, and in!ol!es hard work and possi#ly unforeseen pro#lems. :ne should select topic of great interest to sustain the re$uired moti!ation. *. ,a!nitude "t is e tremely important to select a topic that you can manage within the time and resources at your disposal. Carrow the topic down to something managea#le, specific and clear. +. ,easure"ent o# concepts: Make sure that you are clear a#out the indicators and measurement of concepts (if used) in your study. D. 3evel o# e&pertise: Make sure that you ha!e ade$uate le!el of e pertise for the task you are proposing since you need to do the work yourself. ?. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the e isting #ody of knowledge, #ridges current gaps and is useful in policy formulation. .his will help you to sustain interest in the study. E. Availability o# data: 1efore finali0ing the topic, make sure that data are a!aila#le. F. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical pro#lems can #e o!ercome should #e thoroughly e amined at the pro#lem formulating stage.

Steps in #or"ulation o# a research proble" : %orking through these steps presupposes a reasona#le le!el of knowledge in the #road su#4ect area within which the study is to #e undertaken. %ithout such knowledge it is difficult to clearly and ade$uately ,dissect- a su#4ect area. Step 0 Identi#y a broad #ield or subject area o# interest to you1 Step 2 Dissect the broad area into sub areas1 Step 4 Select +hat is o# "ost interest to you1 Step 5 Raise research (uestions1 Step 6 For"ulate objectives1 Step 7 Assess your objectives1 Step 8 Double chec;1 So far we ha!e focused on the #asis of your study, the research problem. 1ut e!ery study in social sciences has a second element, the study population from whom the re$uired information to find answers to your research $uestions is o#tained. As you narrow the research pro#lem, similarly you need to decide !ery specifically who constitutes your study population, in order to select the appropriate respondents. Step 21 Revie+in! the literature: /Essential preliminary task in order to ac$uaint yourself with the a!aila#le body of knowledge in your area of interest. /2iterature re!iew is integral part of entire research process and makes !alua#le contri#ution to e!ery operational step. /Re!iewing literature can #e time/consuming, daunting and frustrating, #ut is also rewarding. "ts functions are: a. 1ring clarity and focus to your research pro#lem& #. "mpro!e your methodology& c. 1roaden your knowledge& d. Conte tualise your findings. a.*rin! clarity and #ocus to your research proble"&

.he process of re!iewing the literature helps you to understand the su#4ect area #etter and thus helps you to conceptualise your research pro#lem clearly and precisely. "t also helps you to understand the relationship #etween your research pro#lem and the #ody of knowledge in the area. b1I"prove your "ethodolo!y: A literature re!iew tells you if others ha!e used procedures and methods similar to the ones that you are proposing, which procedures and methods ha!e worked well for them, and what pro#lems they ha!e faced with them. .hus you will #e #etter positioned to select a methodology that is capa#le of pro!iding !alid answer to your research $uestions. c1*roaden your ;no+led!e base in your research area: "t ensures you to read widely around the su#4ect area in which you intend to conduct your research study. As you are e pected to #e an e pert in your area of study, it helps fulfill this e pectation. "t also helps you to understand how the findings of your study fit into the e isting #ody of knowledge. d11Conte&tualise your #indin!s: How do answers to your research $uestions compare with what others ha!e found6 %hat contri#ution ha!e you #een a#le to make in to the e isting #ody of knowledge6 How are your findings different from those of others6 ;or you to #e a#le to answer these $uestions, you need to go #ack to your literature re!iew. "t is important to place your findings in the conte t of what is already known in your field of en$uiry. 3rocedure for re!iewing the literature: i) search for e isting literature in your area of study& ii) re!iew the literature selected& iii) de!elop a theoretical framework& i!) de!elop a conceptual framework. )earch for existing literature: /.o effecti!ely search for literature in your field of en$uiry, it is imperati!e that you ha!e in mind at least some idea of #road su#4ect area and of the pro#lem you wish to in!estigate, in order to set parameters for your search.

/Ce t compile a #i#liography for this #road area. Sources are: '. #ooks *.4ournals *OO<S comprise a central part of any #i#liography. Ad!antage/material pu#lished generally is of good $uality and the findings are integrated with other research to form a coherent #ody of knowledge. 7isad!antage/material is not completely up to date, as it can take a few years #etween the completion of a work and pu#lication in the form of a #ook. Search for #ooks in your area of interest, prepare a final list, locate these #ooks in the li#raries or #orrow from other sources. E amine their content, if contents are not found to #e rele!ant to your topic, delete it from your reading list. =O>RNA3S Gournals pro!ide you with the most up/to/date information, e!en though there is a gap of two to three years #etween the completion of a research pro4ect and the pu#lication in a 4ournal. As with #ooks, you need to prepare a list of 4ournals for identifying literature rele!ant to your study. .his can #e done as follows: / locate the hard copies of the 4ournal that are appropriate to your study& / use the internet / look at the inde of research a#stracts in the rele!ant field to identify and read the articles. %hiche!er method you choose, first identify the 4ournals you want to look at in more detail for your re!iew of literature. Select the latest issue, e amine its content page to see if there is an article of rele!ance to your research topic. "f you feel a particular article is of rele!ance to you, read its a#stract. "f you think you are likely to use it, photocopy or prepare a summary and record it for reference for later use.

*eview the literature selected+ After identifying #ooks and articles as useful, the ne t step is to start reading them critically to pull together themes and issues that are associated. "f you do not ha!e a theoretical framework of themes in mind to start with, use separate sheets of paper for each article or #ook. :nce you de!elop a rough framework, slot the findings from the material so far re!iewed into that framework, using a separate sheet of paper for each theme of that framework. As you read further, go on slotting the information where it logically #elongs under the theme so far de!eloped. 8ou may need to add more themes as you go. Read critically with particular reference to the following aspects: B Cote whether the knowledge rele!ant to your theoretical framework is confirmed #eyond dou#t. B Cote the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their #asis, the methodologies adopted and the criticisms of them. B E amine to what e tent the findings can #e generali0ed to other situations. Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known/the gaps that e ist in the #ody of knowledge. ,evelop a theoretical framework+ As you ha!e limited time it is important to set parameters #y re!iewing the literature in relation to some main themes pertinent to your research topic. As you start reading the literature, you will reali0e that it deals with a num#er of aspects that ha!e a direct Hand indirect #earing on your research topic. @se these aspects as a #asis for de!eloping your theoretical framework. @ntil you go through the literature you cannot de!elop a theoretical framework and until you ha!e de!eloped a theoretical framework, you cannot effecti!ely re!iew the literature. 2iterature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information: / uni!ersal& / more specific( i.e. local trends or specific program) "n writing a#out such information you should start with the general information,gradually narrowing down to the specific. $riting up the literature reviewed: "n order to comply with the first function of literature re!iew

i.e. to provide theoretical background to your study+ /2ist the main themes that ha!e emerged while reading literature. /Con!ert them into su#headings. .hese su#headings should #e precise, descripti!e of the theme in $uestion, and follow a logical progression. /Cow, under each su#heading, record the main findings with respect to the theme in $uestion, highlighting the reasons for and against an argument if they e ist, and identify gaps and issues. "n order to comply with the second function of literature re!iew i.e. contextualising the findings of your study/ re$uires you to !ery systematically compare your findings with those made #y others. 9uote from these studies to show how your findings contradict, confirm or add to them. "t places your findings in the conte t of what others ha!e found out. .his function is undertaken when writing about your findings i.e. after analysis of your data. THE *I*3IO9RA'H? .he #i#liography should gi!e a clear, complete description of the sources that were used while preparing the report. "t is an alpha#etical list as per the author-s surname. '. ;or a 1ook Surname of author, name or two initials, .itle taken from titlepage/underlined or in italics, Edition (if more than one), !olume if more than one, place of pu#lication, pu#lishers, date on title page or copyright date. e.g. Iothari, C.R., *esearch -ethods.-ethods and #echniques,'=J=,Cew 7elhi :%iley Eastern 2imited,DJ+?A*D Ansari Road, 7aryagan4, Cew 7elhi ''K KKE. .hat is a research (uestion@ .his is the $uestion that you are trying to answer when you do research on a topic or write a research report. Should a research $uestion #e general or specific6 "t should #e as specific as possi#le. "n some cases, you may make two or more research $uestions to co!er a comple topic. .hat is an e&a"ple o# a research (uestion@

;or e ample, if you are studying the effects of sleep on refle es, you might formulate the following research $uestion: %hat are the effects of sleep on refle es6 A similar $uestion might #e: 7oes sleep ha!e an effect on refle es6 :r: "s ma imum refle efficiency achie!ed after eight hours of sleep6 .he goal of your research is to find the answer to the research $uestion.

FINER criteria for a good research question F Feasible Adequate number of subjects Adequate technical expertise Affordable in time and money Manageable in scope Getting the answer intrigues in estigator! peers and "ommunity# "onfirms! refutes or extends pre ious findings Amenable to a study that institutional re iew board will appro e 'o scientific (nowledge 'o clinical and health policy 'o future research

I N E R

Interesting $o el %thical &ele ant

Adapted with permission from )olters *luwer +ealth#

PICOT criteria P I ,opulation -patients. Inter ention -for inter ention studies only "omparison group 0utcome of interest 'ime )hat specific patient population are you interested in/ )hat is your in estigational inter ention/ )hat is the main alternati e to compare with the inter ention/ )hat do you intend to accomplish! measure! impro e or affect/ )hat is the appropriate follow1up time to assess outcome

C O T

Tips for developing research questions, hypotheses and ob ectives for research studies 2# ,erform a systematic literature re iew -if one has not been done. to increase (nowledge and familiarity with the topic and to assist with research de elopment# 3# 4earn about current trends and technological ad ances on the topic# 5# 6ee( careful input from experts! mentors! colleagues and collaborators to refine your research question as this will aid in de eloping the research question and guide the research study# 7# 8se the FI$%& criteria in the de elopment of the research question# 9# %nsure that the research question follows ,I"0' format# :# ;e elop a research hypothesis from the research question# <# ;e elop clear and well1defined primary and secondary -if needed. objecti es# =# %nsure that the research question and objecti es are answerable! feasible and clinically rele ant# FI$%& > feasible! interesting! no el! ethical! rele ant? ,I"0' > population -patients.!inter ention -for inter ention studies only.! comparison group! outcome of interest! time#

Step 4 The #or"ulation o# objectives /:#4ecti!es are the goals you set out to attain in your study. /.hey inform a reader what you want to attain through the study. /"t is e tremely important to word them clearly and specifically. :#4ecti!es should #e listed under two headings: a) <eneral o#4ecti!es ( aims)& #) Specific/o#4ecti!es. B .he general ob!ective is an o!erall statement of the thrust of your study. "t is also a statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to disco!er or esta#lish.

B .he specific.ob!ectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to in!estigate within the main framework of your study. /.hey should #e numerically listed. /%ording should clearly, completely and specifically Communicate to your readers your intention. /Each o#4ecti!e should contain only one aspect of the Study. /@se action oriented words or !er#s when writing o#4ecti!es. The objectives should start +ith +ords such as -to deter"ine/A -to #ind out/A -to ascertain/A -to "easure/A -to e&plore/ etc1 .he wording of o#4ecti!es determines the type of research (descripti!e, correlational and e perimental) and the type of research design you need to adopt to achie!e them.e.g. 7escripti!e studies: .#o describe the types of incentives provides by %otel /(0 to employees in -umbai. .#o find out the opinion of the employees about the medical facilities provided by five star hotels in -umbai. Correlatinal studies: /.o ascertain the impact of training on employee retention. .#o compare the effectivenesss of different loyalty programmes on repeat clientele. Hypothesis 5testing studies: .#o ascertain if an increase in working hours will increase the incidence of drug1alchohol abuse. .#o demonstrate that the provision of company accommodation to employees in -umbai hotels will reduce staff turnover.

CHARACTERISTICS OF O*=ECTI%ES Clear LComplete LSpecific L "dentify main L "dentify the !aria#les to direction of #e correlated relationship "MM,escriptive )tudiesMMMM" "..2orrelational )tudies (experimental and non.experimental)M." "MMMM%ypothesis testing studiesMMMMMMMMMM..." SMART Speci#ic ,easurable Attainable Realistic Ti"ebound Identi#yin! %ariables: "n a research study it is important that the concepts used should #e operationalised in measura#le terms so that the e tent of !ariations in respondents- understanding is reduced if not eliminated. .echni$ues a#out how to operationalise concepts, and knowledge a#out !aria#les, play an important role in reducing this !aria#ility. .heir knowledge, therefore is important in ,fine tuning- your research pro#lem. ;or e ample: /,Get Airways- is a perfect e ample of quality ca#in ser!ice. / ;ood in this restaurant is excellent. . .he middle class in "ndia is getting more prosperous. $hen people express these feelings or preferences, they do so on the basis of certain criteria in their minds. #heir !udgement is based upon indicators that lead them to conclude and express that opinion. .hese are !udgements that re$uire a sound #asis on which to proclaim. .his warrants the use of a measuring mechanism and it is in the process of measurement that knowledge a#out variables plays an important role.

The de#inition o# a variable: An image, perception or concept that can #e measured 5 hence capable of taking on different values/ is called a variable. The di##erence bet+een a concept and a variable: Concepts are mental images or perceptions and therefore their meaning !aries markedly from indi!idual to indi!idual. A concept cannot #e measured whereas a !aria#le can #e su#4ected to measurement #y crudeArefined or su#4ecti!eAo#4ecti!e units of measurement. "t is therefore important for the concept to #e con!erted into !aria#les . Concept %ariable /Su#4ecti!e impression / Measura#le though the /Co uniformity as to its degree of precision !aries @nderstanding among from scale to scale and 7ifferent people !aria#le to !aria#le. /As such cannot #e measured. e.g. e.g. B E cellent B High achie!er B Rich B Satisfaction B 7omestic !iolence / gender (maleAfemale) / age ( years y months) / weight ( //kg) / height ( // cms) / religion (Catholic, Hindu) / "ncome ( Rs ///per year)

ConceptsA indicators and variables: "f you are using a concept in your study, you need to consider its operationalisation/ that is, how it will #e measured. ;or this, you need to identify indicators/ a set of criteria reflective of the concept which can then #e con!erted into !aria#les. .he choice of indicators for a concept might !ary with researchers, #ut those selected must ha!e a logical link with the concept. 2oncepts3334'ndicators3333345ariables __________________________________________@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ Concepts Rich Indicators 2# Income 3# Assets Variables 2# Income 3#'otal alue of home,car, investments. Effectiveness 2#$o# of guests 2#$o#of guests ser ed in MonthCyear 3#"hanges in &atings a ) extent of b) pattern of _____________________________________________@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ Types o# "easure"ent scales -easurement is central to any enquiry. .he greater the refinement in the unit of measurement of a !aria#le, the greater the confidence, other things being equal, one can place in the findings. S.S.Ste!ens has classified the different types of into four categories: B Cominal or classificatory scale B :rdinal or ranking scale B "nter!al scale 3#$o# of excellent 1 per 2BB feedbac( diff# in before and after le els do 1 Working definition 2#IfA&s2BBBBB 3#IfA&s39BBBB ___________________________________________@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@

B Ratio scale The no"inal or classi#icatory scale: A nominal scale ena#les the classification of indi!iduals, o#4ects or responses into su#groups #ased on a commonAshared property or characteristic. A !aria#le measured on a nominal scale may ha!e one, two or more su#categories depending upon the e tent of !ariation. ;or e ample, -water- or ,tree- ha!e only one su#group, whereas the !aria#le NgenderO can #e classified into two su#/categories: male and female. ,%otels- can #e classified into / su# /categories. .he se$uence in which su#groups are listed makes no difference as there is no relationship among su#groups. The ordinal or ran;in! scale: 1esides categori0ing indi!iduals, o#4ects, responses or a property into su#groups on the #asis of common characteristic, it ranks the su#groups in a certain order. #hey are arranged either in ascending or descending order according to the extent a subcategory reflects the magnitude of variation in the variable. "or example, ,incomecan #e measured either $uantitati!ely (in rupees and paise) or $ualitati!ely using su#categories ,a#o!e a!erage-, ,a!erage- and ,#elow a!erage-. #he 6distance7 between these subcategories are not equal as there is no quantitative unit of measurement. ,Socioeconomic status- and ,attitude- are other !aria#les that can #e measured on ordinal scale. The interval scale: An inter!al scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. "n addition, it uses a unit of measurement with an ar#itrary starting and terminating points. "or example, Celsius scale: ;ahrenheit scale: Attitudinal scales: KK C to 'KKK C +*K ; to *'*K ; 'K/*K *'/+K +'/DK etc The ratio scale:

A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and inter!al scales plus its own property: the ero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which means it has a fixed starting point. Since the difference #etween inter!als is always measured from a 0ero point, this scale can #e used for mathematical operations. .he measurement of !aria#les like income, age, height and weight are e amples of this scale. A person who is DK year old is twice as old as one who is *K year old. Constructin! hypotheses .hat is a hypothesis@ A hypothesis is a statement that can #e pro!ed or dispro!ed. A research $uestion can #e made into a hypothesis #y changing it into a statement. ;or e ample, the third research $uestion a#o!e can #e made into the hypothesis: Ma imum refle efficiency is achie!ed after eight hours of sleep. .hat is a null hypothesis@ A null hypothesis (a##re!iated HK) is a hypothesis to #e dispro!ed. .he hypothesis a#o!e can #e turned into a working null hypothesis simply #y adding NnotO. Ma imum refle efficiency is not achie!ed after eight hours of sleep. Another null hypothesis is: Sleep does not ha!e an effect on refle es. Cull hypotheses are used in the sciences. "n the scientific method, a null hypothesis is formulated, and then a scientific in!estigation is conducted to try to dispro!e the null hypothesis. "f it can #e dispro!ed, another null hypothesis is constructed and the process is repeated. As an e ample, we might #egin with the null hypothesis: Sleep does not affect refle es. "f we can dispro!e this, we find that sleep does ha!e an effect. %e might then go to the ne t null hypothesis: 7ifferent amounts of sleep ha!e the same effect on refle es. "f we can dispro!e this, we can go to: Ma imum refle efficiency is not achie!ed after eight hours of sleep. And so on. At each stage in the in!estigation, we conduct e periments designed to try to dispro!e the null hypothesis.

.hat is the relationship bet+een the null hypothesis and the thesis state"ent o# a research report@ A generali0ed form of the final hypothesis (not the null hypothesis) can #e used as a thesis statement. ;or e ample, if our final pro!ed hypothesis is: Ma imum refle efficiency is achie!ed after eight hours of sleep we might generali0e this to a thesis statement such as: #his investigation demonstrated that sleep has an effect on reflex efficiency and that, in fact, maximum reflex efficiency is achieved after a specific period of sleep. As a researcher you do not know a#out a phenomenon, #ut you do have a hunch to form the #asis of certain assumption or guesses. 8ou test these #y collecting information that will ena#le you to conclude if your hunch was right. .he !erification process can ha!e one of the three outcomes. 8our hunch may pro!e to #e: '. right& *. partially right& or +. wrong. %ithout this process of !erification, you cannot conclude anything a#out the !alidity of your assumption. Hence, a hypotheses is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an idea about a &henomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not know. A researcher calls these assumptionsA hunches hypotheses and they #ecome the #asis of an en$uiry. "n most studies the hypotheses will #e #ased upon your own or someone else-s o#ser!ation. Hypotheses #ring clarity, specificity and focus to a research pro#lem, #ut are not essential for a study. 8ou can conduct a !alid in!estigation without constructing formal hypotheses.

Inductive reasoning wor(s the other way!

mo ing from specific obser ations to broader generaliEations and theories# Informally! we sometimes call this a Dbottom upD approach -please note that itFs Dbottom upD and not Dbottoms upD which is the (ind of thing the bartender says to customers when heFs trying to close for the nightG.# In inducti e reasoning! we begin with specific obser ations and measures! begin to detect patterns and regularities! formulate some tentati e hypotheses that we can explore! and finally end up de eloping some general conclusions or theories#

!eductive reasoning wor(s from the

more general to the more specific# 6ometimes this is informally called a Dtop1 downD approach# )e might begin with thin(ing up a theor about our topic of interest# )e then narrow that down into more specific h potheses that we can test# )e narrow down e en further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses# 'his ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data 11 a confirmation -or not. of our original theories#

.hese two methods of reasoning ha!e a !ery different PfeelP to them when youQre conducting research. "nducti!e reasoning, #y its !ery nature, is more open/ended and e ploratory, especially at the #eginning. 7educti!e reasoning is more narrow in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming hypotheses. E!en though a particular study may look like itQs purely deducti!e (e.g., an e periment designed to test the hypothesi0ed effects of some treatment on some outcome), most social research in!ol!es #oth inducti!e and deducti!e reasoning processes at some time in the pro4ect. "n fact, it doesnQt take a rocket scientist to see that we could assem#le the two graphs a#o!e into a single circular one that continually cycles from theories down to o#ser!ations and #ack up again to theories. E!en in the most constrained e periment, the researchers may o#ser!e patterns in the data that lead them to de!elop new theories. .ritin! Hypotheses a student lesson 'urpose: to learn when and how to write hypotheses. Most students #elie!e that they are going to #e e perimenting anytime they are gi!en a la#oratory assignment in science. Howe!er, more often than not, students are doing something other than e periments. .his is not necessarily #ad. A good deal of science is o#ser!ational and descripti!e. ;or e ample, the study of #io/di!ersity usually in!ol!es looking at wide !ariety of specimens and may#e sketching and recording their uni$ue characteristics. Howe!er, there are other times when we science teachers are trying to teach students how scientists work and how we can !erify things which others may say or #elie!e is so without any proof. .o learn a#out what is not known or to !erify a notion, the so/called Pscientific methodP might #e carried out and an actual e periment may #e conducted. "t does not matter that your e periment has #een done a thousand times #efore or that your teacher already knows the results. %hat matters is that you donQt know the results and that you can independently find a !erifia#le answer. "n real e periments, real hypotheses should #e written #efore the actual e periment. .hat Is a Real Hypothesis@ A hypothesis is a tentati!e statement that proposes a possi#le e planation to some phenomenon or e!ent. A useful hypothesis is a testable statement which may include a prediction. A hypotheses should not #e confused with a theory. .heories are general

e planations #ased on a large amount of data. ;or e ample, the theory of e!olution applies to all li!ing things and is #ased on wide range of o#ser!ations. Howe!er, there are many things a#out e!olution that are not fully understood such as gaps in the fossil record. Many hypotheses ha!e #een proposed and tested. .hen Are Hypotheses >sed@ .he key word is testable. .hat is, you will perform a test of how two !aria#les might #e related. .his is when you are doing a real e periment. 8ou are testing !aria#les. @sually, a hypothesis is #ased on some pre!ious o#ser!ation such as noticing that in Co!em#er many trees undergo color changes in their lea!es and the a!erage daily temperatures are dropping. Are these two e!ents connected6 How6 Any la#oratory procedure you follow without a hypothesis is really not an e periment. "t is 4ust an e ercise or demonstration of what is already known. Ho+ Are Hypotheses .ritten@ '. Chocolate may cause pimples. *. Salt in soil may affect plant growth. +. 3lant growth may #e affected #y the color of the light. D. 1acterial growth may #e affected #y temperature. ?. @ltra !iolet light may cause skin cancer. E. .emperature may cause lea!es to change color. All of these are e amples of hypotheses #ecause they use the tentati!e word Pmay.P. Howe!er, their form is not particularly useful. @sing the word may does not suggest how you would go a#out pro!ing it. "f these statements had not #een written carefully, they may not ha!e e!en #een hypotheses at all. ;or e ample, if we say P.rees will change color when it gets cold.P we are making a prediction. :r if we write, P@ltra!iolet light causes skin cancer.P could #e a conclusion. :ne way to pre!ent making such easy mistakes is to formali0e the form of the hypothesis.

The #unctions o# hypotheses: B .he formulation of hypothesis pro!ides a study with focus. "t tells you what specific aspects of a research pro#lem to in!estigate.

B A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to collect, there#y pro!iding focus to the study. B As it pro!ides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances o#4ecti!ity in a study. B A hypothesis may ena#le you to add to the formulation of a theory. "t ena#les you to specifically conclude what is true or what is false.

Step 51 'RE'ARIN9 THE RESEARCH DESI9N *esearch design is the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. .he function of research design is to pro!ide for the collection of rele!ant information with minimal e penditure of effort, time and money. .he preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research pro#lem, in!ol!es the consideration of the following: '. :#4ecti!es of the research study. *. Method of 7ata Collection to #e adopted +. Source of informationRSample 7esign D. .ool for 7ata collection ?. 7ata Analysis// $ualitati!e and $uantitati!e '. Objectives o# the Research Study :#4ecti!es identified to answer the research $uestions ha!e to #e listed making sure that they are: a) num#ered, and #) statement #egins with an action !er#. *. ,ethods o# Data Collection .here are two types of data 3rimary 7ata Secondary 7ata R collected for the first time Rthose which ha!e already #een collected and analysed #y someone else.

Methods of 3rimary 7ata Collection O*SER%ATION ,ETHOD Commonly used in #eha!ioural sciences "t is the gathering of primary data #y in!estigator-s own direct o#ser!ation of rele!ant people, actions and situations without asking from the respondent. e.g. B 8 hotel chain sends observers posing as guests into its coffee shop to check on cleanliness and customer service. B 8 food service operator sends researchers into competing restaurants to learn menu items prices, check portion si es and consistency and observe point.of purchase merchandising. B 8 restaurant evaluates possible new locations by checking out locations of competing restaurants, traffic patterns and neighborhood conditions. :#ser!ation can yield information which people are normally unwilling or unable to provide. e.g. :#ser!ing numerous plates containing uneaten portions the same menu items indicates that food is not satisfactory. Types o# Observation '. Structured 5 for descripti!e research *. @nstructuredRfor e ploratory research +. 3articipant :#ser!ation D. Con/ participant o#ser!ation ?. 7isguised o#ser!ation 3i"itations / feelings, #eliefs and attitudes that moti!ate #uying #eha!iour and infre$uent #eha!iour cannot #e o#ser!ed. / e pensi!e method Because of these limitations, researchers often supplement observation with survey research.

S>R%E? ,ETHOD Approach most suited for gathering descripti!e information. )tructured )urveys: use formal lists of $uestions asked of all respondents in the same way. 9nstructured )urveys: let the inter!iewer pro#e respondents and guide the inter!iew according to their answers. Sur!ey research may #e 7irect or "ndirect. ,irect 8pproach: .he researcher asks direct $uestions a#out #eha!iours and thoughts. e.g. %hy don-t you eat at Mac7onalds6 'ndirect 8pproach: .he researcher might ask: N%hat kind of people eat at Mac7onald-s6O ;rom the response, the researcher may #e a#le to disco!er why the consumer a!oids Mac7onald-s. "t may suggest factors of which the consumer is not consciously aware.

AD%ANTA9ES / Can #e used to collect many different kinds of information / 9uick and low cost as compared to o#ser!ation and e perimental method. 3I,ITATIONS /Respondent-s reluctance to answer $uestions asked #y unknown inter!iewers a#out things they consider pri!ate. /1usy people may not want to take the time /may try to help #y gi!ing pleasant answers /una#le to answer #ecause they cannot remem#er or ne!er ga!e a thought to what they do and why /may answer in order to look smart or well informed.

CONTACT ,ETHODS: "nformation may #e collected #y Mail .elephone 3ersonal inter!iew ,ail )uestionnaires: 8dvantages+ / can #e used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost per respondent. / respondents may gi!e more honest answers to personal $uestions on a mail $uestionnaire / no inter!iewer is in!ol!ed to #ias the respondent-s answers. / con!enient for respondent-s who can answer when they ha!e time / good way to reach people who often tra!el Li itations: / not fle i#le / take longer to complete than telephone or personal inter!iew / response rate is often !ery low / researcher has no control o!er who answers. Telephone Intervie+in!: / $uick method / more fle i#le as inter!iewer can e plain $uestions not understood #y the respondent / depending on respondent-s answer they can skip some 9s and pro#e more on others / allows greater sample control / response rate tends to #e higher than mail Dra+bac;s /Cost per respondent higher /Some people may not want to discuss personal 9s with inter!iewer /"nter!iewer-s manner of speaking may affect the respondent-s answers /7ifferent inter!iewers may interpret and record response in a !ariety of ways /under time pressure ,data may #e entered without actually inter!iewing 'ersonal Intervie+in! "t is !ery fle i#le and can #e used to collect large amounts of information.

.rained inter!iewers are can hold the respondent-s attention and are a!aila#le to clarify difficult $uestions. .hey can guide inter!iews, e plore issues, and pro#e as the situation re$uires. 3ersonal inter!iew can #e used in any type of $uestionnaire and can #e conducted fairly $uickly. "nter!iewers can also show actual products, ad!ertisements, packages and o#ser!e and record their reactions and #eha!iour. #his takes two forms. 'ndividual :roup . 'ntercept interviewing . "ocus :roup 'nterviewing

Intercept intervie+in!: %idely used in tourism research. /allows researcher to reach known people in a short period of time. / only method of reaching people whose names and addresses are unknown /in!ol!es talking to people at homes, offices, on the street, or in shopping malls. /inter!iewer must gain the inter!iewee-s cooperation /time in!ol!ed may range from a few minutes to se!eral hours( for longer sur!eys compensation may #e offered) //in!ol!es the use of !udgmental sampling i.e. inter!iewer has guidelines as to whom to NinterceptO, such as *?S under age *K and F?S o!er age EK 7raw#acks: /Room for error and #ias on the part of the inter!iewer who may not #e a#le to correctly 4udge age, race etc. /"nter!iewer may #e uncomforta#le talking to certain ethnic or age groups.

Focus 9roup Intervie+in! "t is rapidly #ecoming one of the ma4or research tool to understand people-s thoughts and feelings. "t is usually conducted #y in!iting si to ten people to gather for a few hours with a trained moderator to talk a#out a product, ser!ice or organi0ation. .he meeting is held in a pleasant place, and refreshments are ser!ed to create a rela ed en!ironment. .he moderator needs o#4ecti!ity, knowledge of the su#4ect and industry, and some understanding of group and consumer #eha!iour. .he moderator starts with a #road $uestion #efore mo!ing to more specific issues, encouraging open and easy discussion to #ring out true feelings and thoughts. At the same time, the inter!iewer focuses the discussion, hence the name focus group interviewing. .often held to help determine the sub!ect areas on which questions should be asked in a later, large.scale, structured.direct interview Comments are recorded through note taking or !ideotaped and studied later to understand consumer- #uying process. .his method is especially suited for managers of hotels and restaurants, who ha!e easy access to their customers. e.g. )ome hotel managers often invite a group of hotel guests from a particular market segment to have a free breakfast with them. -anagers get the chance to meet the guests and discuss what they like about the hotel and what the hotel could do to make their stay more en!oyable and comfortable. #he guests appreciate this recognition and the manager gets valuable information. *estaurant managers use the same approach by holding discussion meetings over lunch or dinner. Dra+bac;s /Cost: may cost more than telephone sur!ey /Sampling: group inter!iew studies keep small sample si0e to keep time and cost down, therefore it may #e difficult to generali0e from the results. / "nter!iewer #ias.

EB'ERI,ENTA3 ,ETHOD Also called ;mpirical *esearch or 2ause and ;ffect -ethod, it is a data/#ased research, coming up with conclusions which are capa#le of #eing !erified with o#ser!ation or e periment. E perimental research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain !aria#les affect other !aria#les in some way. e.g. .#enderisers ( independent variable) affect cooking time and texture of meat(dependent variable) . . #he effect of substituting one ingredient in whole or in part for another such as soya flour to flour for making high protein bread. .,evelop recipes to use products. Such research is characteri0ed #y the e perimenter-s control o!er the !aria#les under study and the deli#erate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. "n such a research, it is necessary to get at facts first hand, at their source, and acti!ely go a#out doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. / Researcher must pro!ide self with a working hypothesis or guess as to the pro#a#le results. / .hen work to get enough facts (data) to pro!e or dispro!e the hypothesis. / He then sets up e perimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to #ring forth the desired information. E!idence gathered through e perimental or empirical studies today is considered to #e the most powerful support possi#le for a gi!en hypothesis. 2owe,1elle&'=?J,;xperimental 2ookery, Gohn %illey > Sons, Cew 8ork, pp +D/DE

DETER,ININ9 SA,'3E DESI9N Researchers usually draw conclusions a#out large groups #y taking a sample 8 )ample is a segment of the population selected to represent the population as a whole. "deally, the sample should #e representati!e and allow the researcher to make accurate estimates of the thoughts and #eha!iour of the larger population. 7esigning the sample calls for three decisions: $ho will #e sur!eyed6 (#he )ample) B .he researcher must determine what type of information is needed and who is most likely to ha!e it. %ow many people will #e sur!eyed6 ()ample )i e) B 2arge samples gi!e more relia#le results than small samples. Howe!er it is not necessary to sample the entire target population. How should the sample #e chosen6 ()ampling) B Sample mem#ers may #e chosen at random from the entire population (probability sample) B .he researcher might select people who are easier to o#tain information from (nonprobability sample) #he needs of the research pro!ect will determine which method is most effective Types o# Sa"ples 'robability sa"ples )imple random sample+ E!ery mem#er of the population has a known and e$ual chance of #eing selected. )tratified random sample +3opulation is di!ided into mutually e clusi!e groups such as age groups and randomsamples are drawn from each group. 2luster(area)sample+ .he population is di!ided into mutually e clusi!e groups such as #locks, and the researcher draws a sample of the group to inter!iew.

Nonprobability sa"ples 2onvenience sample+ .he researcher selects the easiest population mem#ers from which to o#tain information. <udgment sample+ .he researcher uses hisAher 4udgement to select population mem#ers who are good prospects for accurate information. =uota sample+ .he researcher finds and inter!iews a prescri#ed num#er of people in each of se!eral categories.

.::2 ;:R 7A.A C:22EC.":C (RESEARCH "CS.R@MEC.S) .he construction of a research instrument or tool for data collection is the most important asp of a research pro4ect #ecause anything you say #y way of findings or conclusions is #ased upo the type of information you collect, and the data you collect is entirely dependent upon the $uestions that you ask of your respondents. .he famous saying a#out computers/ Ngar#age in gar#age outO/ is also applica#le for data collection. #he research tool provides the input into a study and therefore the quality and validity of the output (the findings), are solely dependent o it. !uidelines to "onstruct a Research Tool+ #he underlying principle behind the guidelines suggested below is to ensure the validity of your instrument by making sure that your questions relate to the ob!ectives of your study. )tep '+ 2learly define and individually list all the specific ob!ectives or research =uestions for your study. )tep ''+ "or each ob!ective or research questions, list all the associated questions #hat you want to answer through your study. )tep '''+ #ake each research question listed in step '' and list the information *equired to answer it. )tep '5+ "ormulate question(s) to obtain this information.

The )uestionnaire: Structured sur!eysA inter!iews employ the use of a $uestionnaire. 8 questionnaire consists of a set of questions presented to a respondent for answers. #he respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the answers themselves. "t is called an 'nterview )chedule when the researcher asks the questions (and if necessary, explain them) and record the respondent7s reply on the interview schedule. 1ecause there are many ways to ask $uestions, the $uestionnaire is !ery fle i#le. 9uestionnaire should #e de!eloped and tested carefully #efore #eing used on a large scale. .here are three #asic types of $uestionnaire: B Closed 5ended B :pen/ended B Com#ination of #oth 01Closed Cended )uestionnaire: /Closed ended $uestions include all possi#le answersAprewritten response categories, and respondents are asked to choose among them. / e.g. multiple choice $uestions, scale $uestions / .ype of $uestions used to generate statistics in $uantitati!e research. / As these follow a set format, and most responses can #e entered easily into a computer for ease of analysis, greater num#ers can #e distri#uted. 21 Open$ended )uestionnaire: / :pen/ended $uestions allow respondents to answer in their own words. / 9uestionnaire does not contain #o es to tick #ut instead lea!es a #lank section for the respondent to write in an answer. /%hereas closed 5ended $uestionnaires might #e used to find out how many people use a ser!ice open/ended $uestionnaires might #e used to find out what people think a#out a ser!ice. /As there are no standard answers to these $uestions, data analysis is more comple . / As it is opinions which are sought rather than num#ers, fewer $uestionnaires need to #e distri#uted. 41 Co"bination o# both

/.his way it is possi#le to find out how many people use a ser!ice and what they think of the ser!ice in the same form. /1egins with a series of closed 5ended $uestions, with #o es to tick or scales to rank, and then finish with a section of open/ended $uestions or more detailed response. Ho+ to construct (uestionnaires B 7eciding which $uestionnaire to use/ / closed or open ended, . self or interviewer administered B %ording and structure of $uestions / 9uestions should #e kept short and simple//a!oid double barreled i.e. two $uestions in one 5ask two 9s rather than one. / A!oid negati!e $uestions which ha!e not in them as it is confusing for respondent to agree or disagree. / 9uestion should not contain &restige Bias 5 causing em#arrassment or forcing the respondent to gi!e false answer in order to look good. 9uestions a#out educational $ualification or income might elicit this type of response / @se indirect $uestions for sensiti!e issues/ in indirect $uestions respondents can relate their answer to other people . / @sing closed/ ended $uestions/ try to make sure that all possi#le answers are co!ered so that respondents are not constrained in their answer. N7on-t InowO category also needs to #e added. /A!oiding 2eading 9uestion: 7on-t lead the respondent to answer in a certain way. e.g. NHow often do you wash your car6O assumes that respondent has a car and he washes his car. "nstead, ask a filter $uestion to find if he has a car, and then, ,"f you wash your car, how many times a year6B 2ength and ordering of the 9uestions: / Ieep the $uestionnaire as short as possi#le / Ask easy 9s. %hich respondents will en4oy answering / "f com#ined $uestionnaire, keep open ended 9s for the end. / Make 9s as interesting as possi#le and easy to follow #y !arying type and length of $uestion

/ <roup the $uestions. "nto specific topic as this it makes it easier to understand and follow. / 2ayout and spacing is important as cluttered 9uestionnaire is less likely to #e answered.

S.E3S "C 7ES"<C"C< A 9@ES.":CCA"REA "C.ERT"E% <@"7E

7esigning a good $uestionnaire always takes se!eral drafts. "n the first draft we should concentrate on the content. "n the second, we should look critically at the formulation and se$uencing of the $uestions.

.hen we should scrutini0e the format of the $uestionnaire.

S.E3S "C 7ES"<C"C< A 9@ES.":CCA"RE

we should do a test/run to check whether the $uestionnaire gi!es us the information we re$uire and whether inter!iewers as well as respondents feel at ease with it. @sually the $uestionnaire will need some further adaptation #efore we can use it for actual data collection.

Step 0 Content

.ake your o#4ecti!es and !aria#les as a starting point. 7ecide what $uestions will #e needed to measure or (in the case of $ualitati!e studies) to define your !aria#les and reach your o#4ecti!es.

%hen de!eloping the $uestionnaire, you should reconsider the !aria#les you ha!e chosen and, if necessary, add, drop or change some. 8ou may e!en change some of your o#4ecti!es at this stage.

Step 2 For"ulatin! (uestions

;ormulate one or more $uestions that will pro!ide the information needed for each !aria#le.

.ake care that $uestions are specific and precise enough so that different respondents don-t interpret them differently. ;or e ample, a $uestion such as: .%here do community mem#ers usually seek treatment when they are sick6, cannot #e asked in general.

Each respondent may ha!e something different in mind when answering the $uestion: :ne informant may think of measles with complications, and say he goes to the hospital, another of cough, and say he goes to the pri!ate pharmacy E!en if #oth think of the same disease, they may ha!e different degrees of seriousness in mind and thus answer differently "n all cases, self/care may #e o!erlooked

.he $uestion therefore, as a rule, has to #e #roken up into different parts and made so specific that all informants focus on the same thing. ;or e ample, one could: Concentrate on illnesses that ha!e occurred in the family o!er the past 'D days and ask what has #een done to treat these from the onset& or Concentrate on selected diseases, ask whether they ha!e occurred in the family o!er the past onset. months (chronic or serious diseases ha!e a longer recall period than minor ailments) and what has #een done to treat each of them from the

Check whether each $uestion measures one thing at a time. ;or e ample: the $uestion, . 7o you think that the war situation leads to mental pro#lems that re$uire treatment #y health staff6, #rings three topics, which should #e split up in  mental pro#lems resulting from the war,  treatment re$uired, and  who should pro!ide the treatment.

A!oid leading $uestions. A $uestion is leading if it suggests a certain answer.

;or e ample: the $uestion, .7o you think that people ha!e to gi!e #ri#es at hospital U to #e seen #y a doctor6. hardly lea!es room for ,no- or for other options. A #etter $uestion would #e: .Ha!e you recently !isited hospital U6. .his would #e followed #y a series of other pro#ing $uestions such as, .1y whom were you seen6 %hat were the complaints6 How much were you asked to pay 6 Are the fees fi ed6 7o they include an e amination #y the doctor if the condition of a patient is serious6 7o all patients ha!e e$ual access to a doctor in case of need 6 %as this what you e pected6.

Sometimes, a $uestion is leading #ecause it presupposes a certain condition. ;or e ample: %hat action did you take the last time your child had diarrhoea6 presupposes the child has had diarrhoea. A #etter set of $uestions would #e: .Has your child e!er had diarrhoea 6. ("f yes:) .%hen was the last time6. .7id you do anything to treat it6. ("f yes:) .%hat6.

A!oid words with dou#le or !aguely defined meanings or that are emotionally laden. Concepts such as dirty (clinics), la0y (patients), or unhealthy (food), for e ample, should #e omitted.

Ask sensiti!e $uestions in a socially accepta#le way: 9uestions relating to a#ortion, se ual practices of adolescents, or A"7S and mental illness in the family are usually sensiti!e. Such $uestions should #e formulated in such a way that the $uestion does not 4udge or em#arrass the respondent. ;or e ample: .Many teenagers ha!e had a#ortions for unwanted pregnancies. 7o you know girls who had this pro#lem6 Ha!e you e!er had an a#ortion6. you could ask: .

"f your friend was considering a#ortion for her daughter who #ecame pregnant while in school, what would you ad!ise her6.

A common weakness in $uestionnaires is the inappropriate transformation of research $uestions into inter!iew $uestions. 8ou cannot ask informants: .%ould a woman-s educational status influence her health6. .hat is e actly what you ha!e to find out #y relating indi!idual women-s le!el of education to a num#er of health conditions. Ask the $uestions

.o yourself or

.o a friend , and check whether the answers you get are the type of responses you
want. Step 4 Se(uencin! the (uestions 7esign your inter!iew schedule or $uestionnaire to #e Ninformant friendlyO .he se$uence of $uestions must #e logical for the informant and allow, as much as possi#le,for a Nnatural con!ersationO, e!en in more structured inter!iews. At the #eginning of the inter!iew a limited num#er of $uestions concerning ,#ackground !aria#les-. (e.g., age, education, marital status) may #e asked. As informants may #e reluctant to pro!ide personal information and may #ecome worried a#out confidentiality, or #ored #y a list of unrelated and, to them, senseless $uestions, you should restrict yourself to an essential minimum. 8ou may postpone $uestions on religion until later when cultural $uestions are #eing asked. Socio/economic statusA occupationA income $uestions can also #etter #e postponed until later when you can link them to pro#lems (e.g., low ser!ice utili0ation).

Start with an interesting #ut non/contro!ersial $uestion (prefera#ly open) that is directly related to the su#4ect of the study. .his type of #eginning should help to raise the informants. "nterest and lessen suspicions concerning the purpose of the inter!iew.

3ose more sensiti!e $uestions as late as possi#le in the inter!iew (e.g., $uestions pertaining to income, political matters, se ual #eha!iour, or stigma e perienced in case of stigmatising diseases).

 @se simple, e!eryday language. "f inter!iews are carried out in English (or any other secondary language), local terminology should #e used for crucial concepts that do not ha!e the e act e$ui!alent in the secondary language.

Step 5 For"attin! the (uestionnaire %hen you finalise your $uestionnaire, #e sure that: A separate, introductory page is attached to each $uestionnaire, e plaining the purpose of the study, re$uesting the informant-s consent to #e inter!iewed and assuring confidentiality of the data o#tained. Each $uestionnaire has a heading and space to insert the num#er, date and location of the inter!iew, and, if re$uired, the name of the informant. 8ou may add the name of the inter!iewer, to facilitate $uality control. 2ayout is such that $uestions #elonging together appear together !isually. "f the $uestionnaire is long, you may use su#headings for groups of $uestions. Sufficient space is pro!ided for answers to open/ended $uestions, categories such as other and for comments on pre/categorised $uestions. Step D: ;ormatting the $uestionnaire

1o es for pre/categorised answers are placed in a consistent manner (e.g., on the right half of the page).

"f you use a computer, the right margin of the page should #e reser!ed for #o es intended for computer codes. (Consult an e perienced facilitator when designing your $uestionnaire.) 8our $uestionnaire should not only #e "C;:RMAC. / #ut also RESEARCHER ;R"EC728V

Step 6 Translation

"f inter!iews will #e conducted in one or more local languages, the $uestionnaire should #e translated in order to standardi0e the way $uestions will #e asked.

After ha!ing it translated you should ha!e it retranslated into the original language #y a different person. 8ou can then compare the two !ersions for differences and make decisions concerning the final phrasing of difficult concepts.

>pen questions

'n the open question, the respondent is not given a list of possible answers. $hen it is desirable to focus on (emphasi e) some aspect of special interest, then the open question may refer to these special interests in broad, general terms. 2losed questions >ffer a list of options that are exhaustive. cover all possibilities. 't is easily achieved, where necessary, by adding a residual or dumping category at the end of the list of options 'f possible offer a list of options that bare mutually exclusive.any one option excludes all the others >ffer only a small number of options. ?eep the number of options in a closed question to the minimum consistent with the needs and ob!ectives of the study. =uestion structure 2losed question. the closed question offers a list of possible options (answers) from which the respondents must select at least one answer. 8nswers not included in the list are not permitted >pen question. the open question asks the respondent to answer in his1her own words

)uestionnaire 3ay$out Make the $uestionnaire easier to use during the inter!iew <i!e #etter guidance to the inter!iewer 3re!ent confusion as how to indicate the response to a $uestion Make it less likely that $uestions, answers or instructions will #e o!erlooked. 9uestions and instructions should #e clearly separated Ieep ample space for writing down the answers especially if the $uestion is open. Ieep sufficient space #etween $uestions and items Make it easier at the analysis stage to interpret the answer .he $uestionnaire should #e printed clearly and professionally

"t should #e !isually easy to read "t is customary for first few lines of a $uestionnaire to include the la#el ,confidential-, the respondent-s "7 num#er, title of the study, a #rief introduction

A thank you statement should #e gi!en at the end Any filter $uestion (for $uestions do not apply on some respondents) must understand which $uestion to go to ne t

Step 7 're$testin! "deas and topics should #e tested on colleagues @se a pilot test on a small group similar to your sample %hether wording is clear %hether direction is clear 7elete or re!ise $uestions those most respondents did not understand "f most people circle one choice con!ert to more specific choices in the final !ersion 'ilotin! the )uestionnaire :nce you ha!e constructed your $uestionnaire, you must pilot it. .his means that you must test it out to see if it is o#taining the result you re$uire. .his is done #y asking people to read it through and see if there are any am#iguities which you ha!e not noticed. .hey should also #e asked to comment a#out the length, structure and wording of the $uestionnaire Alter the $uestions accordingly

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN CHECKLIST

Make your $uestionnaire as short as possi#le. Make sure people will #e a#le to answer your $uestions. 7on-t assume knowledge or make it seem that you e pect a certain le!el of knowledge #y the way your $uestions are worded. Start with easy to answer $uestions. Ieep comple $uestions for the end. Ask for personal information at the end. @se a mi of $uestion formats. 7on-t cause offence, frustration, sadness or anger. A!oid dou#le/#arreled $uestions. A!oid words with emotional connotations. A!oid negati!e $uestions. A!oid 4argon and technical words. A!oid words with multiple meanings. A!oid leading $uestions. A!oid !ague words such as ,often- and ,sometimes-. 3ro!ide all possi#le responses in a closed $uestion. Consider as many alternati!es as possi#le. @se specific time frames when asking a#out #eha!iour. @se specific place frames, e.g. ,"n which country were you #orn6-

Step 6 CO33ECTIN9 DATA Ha!ing formulated the research pro#lem,, de!eloped a study design, constructed a research instrument and selected a sample, you then collect the data from which you will draw inferences and conclusions for your study. 7epending upon your plans, you might

commence inter!iews, mail out a $uestionnaire, conduct e periments andAor make o#ser!ations. Collecting data through any of the methods may in!ol!e some ethical issues in relation to the participants and the researcher : / .hose from whom information is collected or those who are studied #y a researcher #ecome participants of the study. / Anyone who collects information for a specific purpose, adhering to the accepted code of conduct, is a researcher. a) Ethical issues concerning research participants: .here are many ethical issues in relation to participants of a research acti!ity. i) Collecting information: 8our re$uest for information may put pressure or create an iety on a respondent. "s it ethical6 Research is re$uired to impro!e conditions. 3ro!ided any piece of research is likely to help society directly or indirectly, it is accepta#le to ask $uestions, if you first obtain the respondents7 informed consent. "f you cannot 4ustify the rele!ance of the research you are conducting, you are wasting your respondents- time, which is unethical. ii)Seeking consent: "n e!ery discipline it is considered unethical to collect information without the knowledge of the participant, and their e pressed willingness and informed consent. 'nformed consent implies that su#4ects are made ade$uately aware of the type of information you want from them, why the information is #eing sought, what purpose it will #e put to, how they are e pected to participate in the study, and how it will directly or indirectly affect them. "t is important that the consent should #e !oluntary and without pressure of any kind. iii) 3ro!iding incenti!es: Most people do not participate in a study #ecause of incenti!es, #ut #ecause they reali0e the importance of the study. "s it ethical to pro!ide incenti!es to respondents to share information with you #ecause they are gi!ing their time 6

<i!ing a present #efore data collection is unethical. i!) Seeking sensiti!e information: Certain types of information can #e regarded as sensiti!e or confidential #y some people and thus an in!asion to their pri!acy, asking for such information may upset or em#arrass a respondent. ;or most people, $uestions on drug use, pilferage, income, age, marital status etc are intrusi!e. "n collecting data you need to #e careful a#out the sensiti!ities of your respondents. "t is not unethical to ask such $uestions pro!ided that you tell your respondents the type of information you are going to ask clearly and frankly, and gi!e them sufficient time to decide if they want to participate, without any ma4or inducement. !) .he possi#ility of causing harm to participant: %hen you collect data from respondents or in!ol!e su#4ects in an e periment, you need to e amine carefully whether their in!ol!ement is likely to harm them in any way. %arm includes l research that might include ha ardous experiments, discomfort, anxiety, harassment, invasion of privacy, or demeaning or dehumani ing procedures. "f it is likely to, you must make sure that the risk is minimal i.e. the e tent of harm or discomfort is not greater that ordinarily encountered in daily life. "f the way information is sought creates an iety or harassment, you need to take steps to pre!ent this. !i) Maintaining confidentiality: Sharing information a#out a respondent with others for purposes other than research is unethical. Sometimes you need to identify your study population to put your findings into conte t. "n such a situation you need to make sure that at least the information pro!ided #y respondents is kept anonymous. "t is unethical to identify an indi!idual-s responses. .herefore you need to ensure that after the information has #een collected, the source cannot #e known.

#) Ethical issues relating to the researcher:

i) A!oiding #ias: 1ias on the part of the researcher is unethical. 1ias is a deli#erate attempt to either to hide what you ha!e found in your study, or highlight something disproportionately to its true e istence. ii) 3ro!ision or depri!ation of a treatment: 1oth the pro!ision and depri!ation of a treatmentA inter!ention may pose an ethical dilemma for you as a researcher. "s it ethical to pro!ide a study population with an inter!entionA treatment that has not yet #een conclusi!ely pro!en effecti!e or #eneficial6 1ut if you do not test, how can you pro!e or dispro!e its effecti!eness or #enefits6 .here are no simple answers to these dilemmas. Ensuring informed consent, ,minimum risk- and frank discussion as to the implications of participation in the study will help to resol!e ethical issues. iii) @sing inappropriate research methodology: "t is unethical to use a method or procedure you know to #e inappropriate e.g. selecting a highly #iased sample, using an in!alid instrument or drawing wrong conclusions. i!) "ncorrect reporting: .o report the findings in a way that changes or slants them to ser!e your own or someone else-s interest, is unethical. !) "nappropriate use of the information: .he use of information in a way that directly or indirectly ad!ersely affects the respondents is unethical. "f so, the study population needs to #e protected. Sometimes it is possi#le to harm indi!iduals in the process of achie!ing #enefits for the organi0ations. An e ample would #e a study to e amine the feasi#ility of restructuring an organi0ation. Restructuring may #e #eneficial to the organi0ation as a whole #ur may #e harmful to some indi!iduals. Should you ask respondents for information that is likely to #e used against them6 "t is ethical to ask $uestions pro!ided you tell respondents of the potential use of the information, including the possi#ility of it #eing used against some of them, and you let them decide if they want to participate.

Step 7 'ROCESSIN9 AND ANA3?SIN9 DATA 3rocessing and analysing data in!ol!es a num#er of closely related operations which are performed with the purpose of summari0ing the collected data and organi0ing these in a manner that they answer the research $uestions (o#4ecti!es).

.he 7ata 3rocessing operations are: '. Editing/ a process of e amining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possi#le. *. Classification/ a process of arranging data in groups or classes on the #asis of common characteristics. 7epending on the nature of phenomenon in!ol!ed a) 2lassification according to attributes: here data is analysed on the #asis of common characteristics which can either #e : descriptive such as literacy, sex, religion etc. or : numerical such as weight, height, income etc. Such classification can #e either: Simple classification+ where we consider only one attri#ute, and di!ide the uni!erse into two classesRone class consisting of items possessing the gi!en attri#ute and the other class consisting of items which do not possess the gi!en attri#ute. .a#le '. Hotel Employees with M1A 7egree 8es M1A 7egree *' Co = .otal +K

-anifold classification+ Here we consider two or more attri#utes simultaneously, and di!ide the data into a num#er of classes. .a#le *. Educational 9ualification of Hotel Employees

Hes M MIA ;egree I#6c# +K+A 23 29 F J 29 M 5 B

$o F : B

'otal M 29 29 F 29 29

#) 2lassification according to class @intervals: is done with data relating to income, age, weight, tariff, production, occupancy etc. Such $uantitati!e data are known as the statistics of variables and are classified on the #asis of class 5inter!als. e.g. persons whose income are within Rs *KK' to Rs DKKK can form one group or class, those with income within Rs DKK' tK Rs EKKK can form another group or class and so on. .he num#er of items which fall in a gi!en class is known as the fre$uency of the gi!en class. .a#le +. 3ocket Money Recei!ed #y "HM Students

Income &ange &s#2BB213BBB &s#3BB215BBB &s#5BB217BBB 'otal 3B 2BB

+. .a#ulation/.a#ulation is the process of summari0ing raw data and displaying the same in compact form for further analysis. "t is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows. .a#ulation is essential #ecause: a) "t conser!es space and reduces e planatory and descripti!e statement to a minimum. #) "t facilitates the process of comparison. c) "t facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions. d) "t pro!ides the #asis for !arious statistical computations. .a#ulation may also #e classified as simple and comple ta#ulation. Simple ta#ulation generally results in one/way ta#les which supply answers to $uestions a#out one characteristic of data only. Comple ta#ulation usually results on two/way ta#les (which gi!e information a#out two inter/related characteristics of data), three 5way ta#les or still higher order ta#les, also known as manifold ta#les.

Frequency 2B = 3

L 9B 7B 2B

7ata Analysis Methods 9ualitati!e 7ata Analysis: 9ualitati!e data analysis is a !ery personal process with few rigid rules and procedures. ;or this purpose, the researcher needs to go through a process called 2ontent 8nalysis. Content Analysis means analysis of the contents of an inter!iew in order to identify the main themes that emerge from the responses gi!en #y the respondents ..his process in!ol!es a num#er of steps: Step '. 'dentify the main themes. .he researcher needs to carefully go through the descripti!e responses gi!en #y respondents to each $uestion in order to understand the meaning they communicate. ;rom these responses the researcher de!elop #road themes that reflect these meanings 3eople use different words and language to e press themsel!es. "t is important that researcher select wording of the theme in a way that accurately represents the meaning of the responses categori0ed under a theme. .hese themes #ecome the #asis for analy0ing the te t of unstructured inter!iews. Step *. 8ssign codes to the main themes+ "f the researcher wants to count the num#er of times a theme has occurred in an inter!iew, heAshe needs to select a few responses to an open/ ended $uestion and identify the main themes. HeAshe continues to identify these themes from the same $uestion till a saturation point is reached. %rite these themes and assign a code to each of them, using num#ers or keywords. Step +. 2lassify responses under the main themes+ Ha!ing identified the themes Ce t step is to go through the transcripts of all the inter!iews and classify the responses under the different themes. Step D. 'ntegrate themes and responses into the text of your report+ Ha!ing identified responses that fall within different themes, the ne t step is to integrate into the te t of your report. %hile discussing the main themes that emerged from their study, some researchers use !er#atim responses to keep the feel of the response. .here are others who count how fre$uently a theme has occurred, and then pro!ide a sample of the responses. "t entirely depends upon the way the researcher wants to communicate the findings to the readers.

9uantitati!e 7ata Analysis: .his method is most suita#le for large well designed and well administered sur!eys using properly constructed and worded $uestionnaire. 7ata can #e analysed either manually or with the help of a computer. -anual ,ata 8nalysis+ .his can #e done if the num#er of respondents is reasona#ly small, and there are not many !aria#les to analyse. Howe!er, this is useful only for calculating fre$uencies and for simple cross/ta#ulations. Manual data analysis is e tremely time consuming. .he easiest way to do this is to code it directly onto large graph paper in columns. 7etailed headings can #e used or $uestion num#ers can #e written on each column to code information a#out the $uestion. .o manually analyse data (fre$uency distri#ution), count !arious codes in a column and then decode them. "n addition, if you want to carry out statistical tests, they ha!e to #e calculated manually. %owever, the use of statistics depends on your expertise and the desire1need to communicate the findings in a certain way. ,ata 8nalysis 9sing a 2omputer+ "f you want to analyse data using computer, you should #e familiar with the appropriate program. "n this area, knowledge of computer and statistics plays an important role. .he most common software is S3SS for windows. Howe!er, data input can #e long and la#orious process, and if data is entered incorrectly, it will influence the final results. Step: RE'ORTIN9 THE FINDIN9S: %riting the report is the last, and for many, the most difficult step of the research process. .he report informs the world what you ha!e done, what you ha!e disco!ered and what conclusions you ha!e drawn from your findings. .he report should #e written in an academic style. 2anguage should #e formal and not 4ournalistic.

%ritten Research 3ro4ect Report ;ormat: .raditional written reports tend to #e produced in the following format. Title Pa#e $Title o# the Research 'rojectA $Na"e o# the researcherA $'urpose o# the research projectA e1!1 DA research project sub itted in partial $ul$ill ent o$ the re%uire ents o$ &'PS(M) *SMMU) $or the de#ree o$ Masters o$ Public health) epide iolo#y $Date o# 'ublication Table o$ "ontents In this section is listed the contents o# the reportA either in chapters or in subheadin!s e1!1 Contents 'a!e No Introduction 0 Chapter I Chapter II Chapter III Chapter I% Theoretical Fra"e+or; and Revie+ o# Related 3iterature Research Desi!n Data Analysis and Interpretation Su""ary and Conclusion

Su!!estions #or Further Research Re#erencesE *iblio!raphy Appendices Appendi& I )uestionnaire #or E"ployees Appendi& II )uestionnaire #or ,ana!ers List o$ Tables This section includes title and pa!e nu"ber o# all tables e1!1 Table No1 Title 'a!e No1 0 Inco"e levels o# Respondents

2 A!e distribution o# Respondents

List ($ +i#ures This section contains title and pa!e nu"ber o# all !raphsA pie charts etc1 e1!1 Fi!ure No1 Title 'a!e No 01 'ie Chart sho+in! a!e distribution o# respondents 21 *ar 9raph sho+in! popularity o# "enu ite"s 8cknowledgements Here the researcher may acknowledge "nstitute 3rincipal, ;aculty <uide/#oth research guide and technical guide, research participants, friends etc. 'ntroduction This section introduces the research settin! out ai"s and objectives1 It includes a rationale #or the research1 Theoretical +ra e,or- and Revie, o$ Literature In this section is included all your bac;!round research +hich "ay be obtained #ro" the literature revie+1 ?ou "ust indicate #ro" +here all the in#or"ation has co"eA so re"e"ber to ;eep a co"plete record o# everythin! you read1 I# you do not do thisA you could be accused o# pla#iaris Harvard syste"1 Research desi#n: This section includes all practical details #ollo+ed #or research 1 A#ter readin! thisA any interested party should be able to replicate the research study1 The "ethods used #or data collectionA ho+ "any people too; partA ho+ they +ere chosenA +hat tool +as used #or data collectionA ho+ the data +as analysed etc1 Data Analysis and 'nterpretation: +hich is a #or" o# intellectual the#t1 .hen you are re#errin! to a particular boo; or journal articleA use the

I# you have conducted a lar!e (uantitative surveyA this section "ay contain tablesA !raphsA pie charts and associated statistics1 I# you have conducted a (ualitative piece o# research this section "ay be descriptive prose1

Su

ary and "onclusion:

In this section you su" up your #indin!s and dra+ conclusions #ro" the"A perhaps in relation to other research or literature1 Reco endations

I# you have conducted a piece o# research #or a hotel or any other client or!aniFationA this section could be the "ost i"portant part o# the report1 A list o# clear reco""endations +hich have been developed #ro" the research is included$ so"eti"es this section is included at the be!innin! o# the report1 Su##estion $or +urther Research It is use#ul in both acade"ic reports and +or;$related reports to include a section +hich sho+s ho+ the research can be continued1 'erhaps so"e results are inconclusiveA or perhaps the research has thro+n up "any "ore research (uestions +hich need to be addressed1 It is use#ul to include this section because it sho+s that you are a+are o# the +ider picture and that you are not tryin! to cover up so"ethin! +hich you #eel "ay be lac;in! in your o+n +or;1 List o$ Re$erences .*iblio#raphy $ List o$ re$erences contains details only o$ those ,or-s cited in the te/t0 $ A biblio#raphy includes sources not cited in the te/t but ,hich are relevant to the subject01lar#er dissertations or thesis2 $ S"all research projects +ill need only a re#erence section1 This includes all the literature to +hich you have re#erred in your report1 The popular re#erencin! syste" 3arvard Syste +or *oo-s lists boo;s and periodicals in the #ollo+in! "anner

'.Authors surname ( alpha#etically), followed #y their initials, *.7ate of pu#lication +..itle of #ook in italics D.3lace of pu#lication, 3u#lisher. e.g. 3hilip, ..E.& '=JE, -odern 2ookery for #eaching and #rade, Mum#ai, :rient 2ongman. +or 4ournal Article: .he title of the article appears in in!erted commas and name of the 4ournal comes in italics, followed #y !olume num#er and pages of the article. e.g. 3hilip, ..E.& N"nfluence of 1ritish Ra4 on "ndian CuisineO& <ournal of %ospitality ;ducation& ?:?/'' Appendices: "f you ha!e constructed a $uestionnaire or "nter!iew schedule for your research, it may #e useful to include them in your report as an appendi . Appendices do not count towards your total num#er of pagesAwords. "t is a useful way of including rele!ant material so that the e aminer can gain a deeper understanding of your work #y reading it. 2ertification &age+ 2;*#'"'28#; 2ertified that this research pro!ect titled............................................................................. is the bonafide record of work carried out by......................... for final year -&%.;pidemiology and Biostatistics ......................... ........................... ............... #echnical :uide *esearch 2oordinator &rincipal &lace................ ,ate..............

%alidity
.he degree to which the data measured what they were intended to measure the #est a!aila#le appro imation to the truth of a gi!en proposition, inference, or conclusion Talidity has #een descri#ed as Qthe agreement #etween a test score or measure and the $uality it is #elie!ed to measureQ (Iaplan and Saccu00o, *KK'). "n other words, it measures the gap #etween what a test actually measures and what it is intended to measure. Closeness of the measurement to the true !alue Accuracy How close is a test result to the truth 3roportion of all tests, #oth positi!e and negati!e, that are correct

.his gap can #e caused #y two particular circumstances: (a) the design of the test is insufficient for the intended purpose, and (#) the test is used in a conte t or fashion which was not intended in the design.

Talidity .he degree to which the inference drawn from a study, warranted when account is taken of the study methods, the representati!eness of the study sample, and nature of the population from which it is drawn .wo !arieties of study !alidity are distinguished

"nternal !alidity: .he degree to which the results of a study are correct for the sample of patients #eing studied. "t is related to the design of the e perimentWrandomnessX "t is determined #y how well the design, data collection, data analysis are carried out and is threatened #y all of the #iases and random !ariation. "nternal !alidity is necessary #ut not sufficient for the study ;or internal !alidity any of the following $ualities are noted ;ace !alidity: %hen a test, $uestion or measure is considered #y the researcher to #e logically rele!ant to what !aria#le he wants to measure , we may say that the $uestion, test or measure has face !alidity. Consensual !alidity: %hen se!eral e perts agree that the measure is !alid we consider that consensual !alidity e ists. Most cases measures that achie!es consensual !alidity also ha!e face !alidity. Researcher should not feel discouraged if consensual !alidity is not o#tained for his logical propositions. .ruth is #ound to pre!ail in due course. Content !alidity: %hen a new measure is used for a !aria#le, 4udgment a#out its ,goodness of fit- are often made #y comparing the results o#tained from this new measure with those of a standard measure. .he degree to which the results of the second measure match with the results of the criterion gi!e the criterion !alidity. Criterion !alidity issues are important su#4ects of discussion when de!eloping new techni$ues or deciding new indicators. Construct !alidity: A construct !alidity is a concept which can not #e directly measured or o#ser!ed. ;or e ample religiosity , work moti!ation, patriotism. Such constructs are measured using se!eral other measures. %hen results of these measures confirm the concept, we conclude that construct !alidity is present. Con!ergent !alidity: %hen finding of a measure selected corro#orate or support each other. .his corro#oration may #e concurrent or predicti!e Concurrent !alidity: is confirmed when data collected at the same time corro#orate. 3redicti!e !alidity: is confirmed when data collected or o#tained sometimes in the future support the !alidity of measure.

7iscriminate !alidity: where measures selected can discriminate or differentiate correctly #etween the construct under study and other constructs. "nternal !alidity "nternal !alidity is the degree to which the results of a study are correct for the sample of patients #eing studied. "t is internal #ecause it applies to the conditions of the particular group of patients #eing o#ser!ed and not necessarily to others. .he groups are selected and compared in such a manner that the o#ser!ed differences #etween them on the dependent !aria#les under study may #e only attri#uted to the hypothesi0ed effect under in!estigation "t is related to the design of the e periment, such as in the use of random assignment of treatments. .he internal !alidity of research is determined #y how well the design, data collection, and analyses are carried out and is threatened #y all of the #iases and random !ariation. "nternal !alidity is necessary #ut not sufficient for a study

E ternal !alidity "t is the degree to which the results of an o#ser!ation remain true for other setting. E ternal !alidity occurs when the causal relationship disco!ered can #e generali0ed to other people, time, conte ts Representati!e sampling will allow generali0ation and hence gi!e e ternal !alidity E ternal !alidity "s the degree to which the results of an o#ser!ation remain true for other settings E ternal !alidity is the e tent to which the results of a study apply to people not in it .his aspect of !alidity is only meaningful with regard to a specified e ternal target population E ternal !alidity occurs when the causal relationship disco!ered can #e generali0ed to other people, times and conte ts. Correct sampling will allow generali0ation and hence gi!e e ternal !alidity.

Threats Talidity as concluded is not always accepted #y others and perhaps rightly so. .ypical reasons why it may not #e accepted include: "nappropriate selection of measures/ insta#le characteristics (insta#ility of measures). "nsufficient data collected to make !alid conclusions. Measurement done in too few conte ts, few measurement !aria#les. "nade$uate selection of target su#4ects (selection, mortality). Su#4ects gi!ing #iased answers or trying to guess what they should say (maturation). Selection/maturation interaction method not !alid (testing, instrumentation). :peration of e periment not rigorous. :ther unplanned e!ents going on during the study period may contri#ute to changes Relia#ility .he degree of sta#ility e hi#ited when a measurement is repeated under identical conditions. .he degree to which the results o#tained #y a measurement, procedure can #e replicated. .o ha!e the same result when repeated (repeata#ility) .he e tent to which result is reproduci#le (reproduci#ility) Reasons for !ariation

%ithin o#ser!er !ariation 1etween o#ser!er !ariation Random su#4ect !ariation 1iased su#4ect !ariation

Errors in Epidemiology

(a) Error is une$ual in one of these groups leading to a false interpretation of the pattern of disease / falsely detecting differences

(#) Error is une$ual in one of these groups leading to a false interpretation of the pattern of disease / here failure to detect differences

A false or mistaken result may #e o#tained in an epiedmiological study. 7ifferent kinds of error can occur in epidemiology.

Random or chance error 1ias or systematic error

1ias and chance are not mutually e clusi!e. "n most situations #oth are present. .he main reason for distinguishing the two is that they are handled differently. Random Error

Random error is the proportion of !ariation in a measurement generally regarded as due to chance. the play of chance may always affect the results o#ser!ed simply #ecause of random !ariation from sample to sample. Random error can ne!er #e completely eliminated& can #e reduced. Measurement error, #iological !ariation, sampling error are the ma4or sources of random error.

Systematic Error 7e!iation of results or inferences from truth, or processes leading to such de!iation. A process at any stage of inference tending to produce results that depart systematically from the true !alues. Any trend in the collection, analysis, interpretation, pu#lication, or re!iew of data that can lead to conclusions that are systematically different from the truth. "t is consistently wrong in a particular direction. 7oes not necessarily carry an imputation of pre4udice or other su#4ecti!e factor. 1ias in theory can #e pre!ented #y conducting studies properly or corrected through proper data analysis

Typin# and *indin# o$ Research Project Report: 'aper *ond 'aper G need not be e&ecutive bondH SiFe :16inches B 00 inches ,ar!in 3e#t$ 016 inch Top$ 0 inch *otto" 0 inch Ri!ht 0 inch Font Ti"es Ne+ Ro"an Font SiFe 02 Spacin! 016 *indin! *lac;E *ottle !reenENavy blue Re&in 9old E"bossin! on Cover Research Title Student &a e &a e o$ 'nstitute 5ear o$ Sub ission