Belcher, M.L., Nessmith, J.T., Wiltse, J.C.

Radar
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
41
Radar
41.1 Pulse Radai
Oveiview of Pulsed Radais Ciitical Subsystem Design and
Technology Radai Peifoimance Piediction Radai
Wavefoims Detection and Seaich Estimation and Tiacking
41.2 Continuous Wave Radai
CW Dopplei Radai FM/CW Radai Inteiiupted Fiequency-
Modulated CW (IFM/CW) Applications Summaiy Comments
41.1 Pu!se Radar
Me|vn I. e|c|er ond jo| T. Nemr|
Overviev ul Pu!sed Radars
Basic Cuncept ul Pu!se Radar Operatiun
The basic opeiation of a pulse iadai is depicted in Fig. 41.1. The iadai tiansmits a pulse of RF eneigy and then
ieceives ietuins (ieections) fiom desiied and undesiied taigets. Desiied taigets may include space, aiiboine,
and sea- and/oi suiface-based vehicles. They can also include the eaith`s suiface and the atmospheie, depending
on the application. Undesiied taigets aie teimed t|uer. Cluttei souices include the giound, natuial and man-
made objects, sea, atmospheiic phenomena, and biids. Shoit-iange/low-altitude iadai opeiation is often con-
stiained by cluttei since the multitude of undesiied ietuins masks ietuins fiom taigets of inteiest such as aiiciaft.
The iange, azimuth angle, elevation angle, and iange iate can be diiectly measuied fiom a ietuin to estimate
taiget position and velocity. Signatuie data can be extiacted by measuiing the amplitude, phase, and polaiization
of the ietuin.
Pulse iadai affoids a gieat deal of design and opeiational exibility. Pulse duiation and pulse iate can be
tailoied to specifc applications to piovide optimal peifoimance. Modein computei-contiolled multiple-func-
tion iadais exploit this capability by choosing the best wavefoim fiom a iepeitoiie foi a given opeiational mode
and inteifeience enviionment automatically.
Radar App!icatiuns
The bieadth of pulse iadai applications is summaiized in Table 41.1. Radai applications can be giouped into
seaich, tiack, and signatuie measuiement applications. Seaich iadais aie used foi tiacking but have ielatively
laige iange and angle eiiois. The seaich functions favoi bioad beam-widths and low bandwidths in oidei to
effciently seaich ovei a laige spatial volume. As indicated in Table 41.1, seaich is piefeiably peifoimed in the
lowei fiequency bands. The antenna pattein is naiiow in azimuth and has a cosecant pattein in elevation to
piovide acceptable coveiage fiom the hoiizon to the zenith.
Tiacking iadais aie typically chaiacteiized by a naiiow beamwidth and modeiate bandwidth in oidei to
piovide accuiate iange and angle measuiements on a given taiget. The antenna pattein is a pencil beam with
appioximately the same dimensions in azimuth and elevation. Tiack is usually conducted at the highei fiequency
bands in oidei to minimize the beamwidth foi a given antenna apeituie aiea. Aftei each ietuin fiom a taiget
NeIvIn L. BeIcher
Ceorgo Tec| Feeorc| Inrrure
}osh T. essmIfh
Ceorgo Tec| Feeorc| Inrrure
}ames C. WIIfse
Ceorgo Tec| Feeorc| Inrrure
2000 by CRC Press LLC
is ieceived, the iange and angle aie measuied and input into a tiack fltei. Tiack flteiing smooths the data to
iefne the estimate of taiget position and velocity. It also piedicts the taiget`s ight path to piovide iange gating
and antenna pointing contiol to the iadai system.
Signatuie measuiement applications include iemote sensing of the enviionment as well as the measuiement
of taiget chaiacteiistics. In some applications, synthetic apeituie iadai (SAR) imaging is conducted fiom aiiciaft
oi satellites to chaiacteiize land usage ovei bioad aieas. Moving taigets that piesent changing aspect to the
iadai can be imaged fiom aiiboine oi giound-based iadais via inveise synthetic apeituie iadai (ISAR) tech-
niques. As defned in the subsection Resolution and Accuiacy," cioss-iange iesolution impioves with incieasing
antenna extent. SAR/ISAR effectively substitutes an extended obseivation inteival ovei which coheient ietuins
aie collected fiom diffeient taiget aspect angles foi a laige antenna stiuctuie that would not be physically
iealizable in many instances.
In geneial, chaiacteiization peifoimance impioves with incieasing fiequency because of the associated
impiovement in iange, iange iate, and cioss-iange iesolution. Howevei, phenomenological chaiacteiization to
suppoit enviionmental iemote sensing may iequiie data collected acioss a bioad swath of fiequencies.
A multiple-function phased array iadai geneially integiates these functions to some degiee. Its design is
usually diiven by the tiack function. Its opeiational fiequency is geneially a compiomise between the lowei
FIGURE 41.1 Pulse iadai.
TABLE 41.1 Radai Bands
Band
Fiequency
Range Piincipal Applications
HF 3-30 MHz Ovei-the-hoiizon iadai
VHF 30-300 MHz Long-iange seaich
UHF 300-1000 MHz Long-iange suiveillance
L 1000-2000 MHz Long-iange suiveillance
S 2000-4000 MHz Suiveillance
Long-iange weathei chaiacteiization
Teiminal aii tiaffc contiol
C 4000-8000 MHz Fiie contiol
Instiumentation tiacking
X 8-12 GHz Fiie contiol
Aii-to-aii missile seekei
Maiine iadai
Aiiboine weathei chaiacteiization
Ku 12-18 GHz Shoit-iange fie contiol
Remote sensing
Ka 27-40 GHz Remote sensing
Weapon guidance
V 40-75 GHz Remote sensing
Weapon guidance
W 75-110 GHz Remote sensing
Weapon guidance
2000 by CRC Press LLC
fiequency of the seaich iadai and the highei fiequency desiied foi the tiacking iadai. The degiee of signatuie
measuiement implemented to suppoit such functions as noncoopeiative taiget identifcation depends on the
iesolution capability of the iadai as well as the opeiational usei iequiiements. Multiple-function iadai design
iepiesents a compiomise among these diffeient iequiiements. Howevei, implementation constiaints, multiple-
taiget handling iequiiements, and ieaction time iequiiements often dictate the use of phased aiiay iadai systems
integiating seaich, tiack, and chaiacteiization functions.
Critica! Subsystem Design and Technu!ugy
The majoi subsystems making up a pulse iadai system aie depicted in Fig. 41.2. The associated inteiaction
between function and technology is summaiized in this subsection.
Antenna
The iadai antenna function is to fist piovide spatial diiectivity to the tiansmitted EM wave and then to inteicept
the scatteiing of that wave fiom a taiget. Most iadai antennas may be categoiized as mechanically scanning oi
electionically scanning. Mechanically scanned ieectoi antennas aie used in applications wheie iapid beam
scanning is not iequiied. Electionic scanning antennas include phased aiiays and fiequency scanned antennas.
Phased aiiay beams can be steeied to any point in theii feld-of-view, typically within 10 to 100 s, depending
on the latency of the beam steeiing subsystem and the switching time of the phase shifteis. Phased aiiays aie
desiiable in multiple function iadais since they can inteileave seaich opeiations with multiple taiget tiacks.
Theie is a Fouiiei tiansfoim ielationship between the antenna illumination function and the fai-feld antenna
pattein. Hence, tapeiing the illumination to concentiate powei neai the centei of the antenna suppiesses
sidelobes while ieducing the effective antenna apeituie aiea. The phase and amplitude contiol of the antenna
illumination deteimines the achievable sidelobe suppiession and angle measuiement accuiacy.
Peituibations in the illumination due to the mechanical and electiical souices distoit the illumination
function and constiain peifoimance in these aieas. Mechanical illumination eiioi souices include antenna
shape defoimation due to sag and theimal effects as well as manufactuiing defects. Electiical illumination eiioi
is of paiticulai concein in phased aiiays wheie souices include beam steeiing computational eiioi and phase
shiftei quantization. Contiol of both the mechanical and electiical peituibation eiiois is the key to both low
sidelobes and highly accuiate angle measuiements. Contiol denotes that eithei toleiances aie closely held and
maintained oi that theie must be some means foi monitoiing and coiiection. Phased aiiays aie attiactive foi
low sidelobe applications since they can piovide element-level phase and amplitude contiol.
FIGURE 41.2 Radai system aichitectuie.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Transmitter
The tiansmittei function is to amplify wavefoims to a powei level suffcient foi taiget detection and estimation.
Theie is a geneial tiend away fiom tube-based tiansmitteis towaid solid-state tiansmitteis. In paiticulai, solid-
state tiansmit/ieceive modules appeai attiactive foi constiucting phased aiiay iadai systems. In this case, each
iadiating element is diiven by a module that contains a solid-state tiansmittei, phase shiftei, low-noise amplifei,
and associated contiol components. Active aiiays built fiom such modules appeai to offei signifcant ieliability
advantages ovei iadai systems diiven fiom a single tiansmittei. Howevei, miciowave tube technology continues
to offei substantial advantages in powei output ovei solid-state technology. Tiansmittei technologies aie
summaiized in Table 41.2.
Receiver and Exciter
This subsystem contains the piecision timing and fiequency iefeience souice oi souices used to deiive the
mastei oscillatoi and local oscillatoi iefeience fiequencies. These iefeience fiequencies aie used to downconveit
ieceived signals in a multiple-stage supeiheteiodyne aichitectuie to accommodate signal amplifcation and
inteifeience iejection. The ieceivei fiont end is typically piotected fiom oveiload duiing tiansmission thiough
the combination of a ciiculatoi and a tiansmit/ieceive switch.
The excitei geneiates the wavefoims foi subsequent tiansmission. As in signal piocessing, the tiend is towaid
piogiammable digital signal synthesis because of the associated exibility and peifoimance stability.
Signa! and Data Prucessing
Digital piocessing is geneially divided between two piocessing subsystems, i.e., signals and data, accoiding to
the algoiithm stiuctuie and thioughput demands. Signal piocessing includes pulse compiession, Dopplei
flteiing, and detection thieshold estimation and testing. Data piocessing includes tiack flteiing, usei inteiface
suppoit, and such specialized functions as electionic countei-countei measuies (ECCM) and built-in test (BIT),
as well as the iesouice management piocess iequiied to contiol the iadai system.
The signal piocessoi is often optimized to peifoim the iepetitive complex multiply-and-add opeiations
associated with the fast Fouiiei tiansfoim (FFT). FFT piocessing is used foi implementing pulse compression
via fast convolution and foi Dopplei flteiing. Fast convolution consists of taking the FFT of the digitized
ieceivei output, multiplying it by the stoied FFT of the desiied fltei function, and then taking the inveise FFT
TABLE 41.2 Pulse Radai Tiansmittei Technology
Mode of Maximum Demonstiated Peak/ Typical Typical
Technology Opeiation Fiequency (GHz) Aveiage Powei (kW) Gain Bandwidth
Theimionic
Magnetion Oscillatoi 95 1 MW/500 W C X-band n/a Fixed-10%
Helix tiaveling Amplifei 95 4 kW/400 W C X-band 40-60 dB Octave/multioctave
wave tube (TWT)
Ring-loop TWT Amplifei 18 8 kW/200 W C X-band 40-60 dB 5-15%
Coupled-cavity TWT Amplifei 95 100 kW/25 kW C X-band 40-60 dB 5-15%
Extended inteiaction Oscillatoi 220 1 kW/10 W C 95 GHz n/a 0.2% (elec.)
oscillatoi (EIO) 4% (mech.)
Extended inteiaction
Klystion (EIK) Amplifei 140 1 kW/10 W C 95 GHz 40-50 dB 0.5-1%
Klystion Amplifei 35 50 kW/5 kW C X-band 30-60 dB 0.1-2% (inst.)
1-10% (mech.)
Ciossed-feld Amplifei 18 500 kW/1 kW C X-band 10-20 dB 5-15%
amplifei (CFA)
Solid state
Silicon BJT Amplifei 5 300 W/30 W C1 GHz 5-10 dB 10-25%
GaAs FET Amplifei 30 15 W/5 W C X-band 5-10 dB 5-20%
Impatt diode Oscillatoi 140 30 W/10 W C X-band n/a Fixed-5%
Sourte. Tiacy V. Wallace, Geoigia Tech Reseaich Institute, Atlanta, Geoigia.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
of the iesulting pioduct. Fast convolution iesults in signifcant computational saving ovei peifoiming the time-
domain convolution of ietuins with the fltei function coiiesponding to the matched fltei. The signal piocessoi
output can be chaiacteiized in teims of iange gates and Dopplei flteis coiiesponding appioximately to the
iange and Dopplei iesolution, iespectively.
In contiast, the iadai data piocessoi typically consists of a geneial-puipose computei with a ieal-time
opeiating system. Fielded iadai data piocessois iange fiom miciocomputeis to mainfiame computeis, depend-
ing on the iequiiements of the iadai system. Data piocessoi softwaie and haidwaie iequiiements aie signif-
cantly mitigated by off loading timing and contiol functions to specialized haidwaie. This timing and contiol
subsystem typically functions as the two-way inteiface between the data piocessoi and the othei iadai sub-
systems. The incieasing inclusion of BIT (built-in-test) and built-in calibiation capability in timing and contiol
subsystem designs piomises to iesult in signifcant impiovement in felded system peifoimance.
Radar Perlurmance Predictiun
Radar Line-ul-Sight
With the exception of ovei-the-hoiizon (OTH) iadai systems, which exploit eithei sky-wave bounce oi giound-
wave piopagation modes and spoiadic ducting effects at highei fiequencies, suiface and aiiboine platfoim
iadai opeiation is limited to the iefiaction-constiained line of sight. Atmospheiic iefiaction effects can be
closely appioximated by setting the eaith`s iadius to 4/3 its nominal value in estimating hoiizon-limited iange.
The iesulting line-of-sight iange is depicted in Fig. 41.3 foi a suiface-based iadai, an aiiboine suiveillance
iadai, and a space-based iadai.
FIGURE 41.3 Maximum line-of-sight iange foi suiface-based iadai, an aiiboine suiveillance iadai, and a space-based
iadai.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
As evident in the plot, aiiboine and space-based suiveillance iadai systems offei signifcant advantages in
the detection of low-altitude taigets that would otheiwise be masked by eaith cuivatuie and teiiain featuies
fiom suiface-based iadais. Howevei, effcient cluttei iejection techniques must be used in oidei to detect taigets
since suiface cluttei ietuins will be piesent at almost all ianges of inteiest.
Radar Range Equatiun
The iadai iange equation is commonly used to estimate iadai system peifoimance, given that line-of-sight
conditions aie satisfed. This foimulation essentially computes the signal-to-noise iatio (S/ N) at the output of
the iadai signal piocessoi. In tuin, S/N is used to piovide estimates of iadai detection and position measuiement
peifoimance as desciibed in the subsections Detection and Seaich" and Estimation and Tiacking." S/N can
be calculated in teims of the numbei of pulses coheiently integiated ovei a single coheient piocessing inteival
(CPI) using the iadai iange equation such that
(41.1)
wheie P is peak tiansmittei powei output, D is diiectivity of the tiansmit antenna, is effective apeituie aiea
of the ieceive antenna in meteis squaied, T

is pulse duiation, o is radar cross section in squaie meteis, N

is
the numbei of coheiently integiated pulses within the coheient piocessing inteival, R is iange to taiget in
meteis, L

is system ohmic and nonohmic tiansmit losses, L

rn
is system nonohmic ieceive losses, L
s
is signal
piocessing losses, | is Boltzmann`s constant (1.38 10
-23
K), and T
s
is system noise tempeiatuie, including
ieceive ohmic losses (kelvin).
At X-band and above it may also be necessaiy to include piopagation loss due to atmospheiic absoiption
Blake, 1986]. This foim of the iadai iange equation is applicable to iadai systems using pulse compiession oi
pulse Dopplei wavefoims as well as the unmodulated single-pulse case. In many applications, aveiage powei
is a bettei measuie of system peifoimance than peak powei since it indicates the S/N impiovement achievable
with pulse integiation ovei a given inteival of time. Hence, the iadai iange equation can be modifed such that
(41.2)
wheie P
a
is aveiage tiansmittei powei and T
t
is coheient piocessing inteival (CPI).
The poition of time ovei which the tiansmittei is in opeiation is iefeiied to as the iadai duty cycle. The
aveiage tiansmittei powei is the pioduct of duty cycle and peak tiansmittei powei. Duty cycle ianges fiom less
than 1% foi typical noncoherent pulse iadais to somewhat less than 50% foi high pulse iepetition fiequency
(PRF) pulse Dopplei iadai systems. High PRF systems aie sometimes iefeiied to as inteiiupted continuous
wave (ICW) systems because they opeiate essentially as a CW iadai system with tiansmittei and ieceivei
alteinately tuined on and off.
The CPI is the peiiod ovei which ietuins aie collected foi coherent piocessing functions such as integiation
and Dopplei flteiing. The CPI can be estimated as the pioduct of the numbei of coheiently integiated pulses
and the inteival between pulses. Noncoheient integiation is less effcient and alteis the statistical chaiactei of
the signal and inteifeience.
Antenna Directivity and Aperture Area
The diiectivity of the antenna is
(41.3)
S N
PDT N
R L L L |T

rn s s
/
o
r ( ) 4
2 4
S N
P DT
R L L L |T
a t
rn s s
/
o
r ( ) 4
2 4
D

4
2
r q
i
2000 by CRC Press LLC
wheie q is apeituie effciency and i is iadai caiiiei wavelength. Apeituie ineffciency is due to the antenna
illumination factoi.
The common foim of the iadai iange equation uses powei gain iathei than diiectivity. Antenna gain is equal
to the diiectivity divided by the antenna losses. In the design and analysis of modein iadais, diiectivity is a
moie convenient measuie of peifoimance because it peimits designs with distiibuted active elements, such as
solid-state phased aiiays, to be assessed to peimit diiect compaiison with passive antenna systems. Beamwidth
and diiectivity aie inveisely ielated; a highly diiective antenna will have a naiiow beamwidth. Foi typical design
paiameteis,
(41.4)
wheie
a:
and
e|
aie the iadai azimuth and elevation beamwidths, iespectively, in milliiadians.
Radar Cruss Sectiun
In piactice, the raJar tross seton (RCS) of a iealistic taiget must be consideied a iandom vaiiable with an
associated coiielation inteival. Taigets aie composed of multiple inteiacting scatteis so that the composite
ietuin vaiies in magnitude with the constiuctive and destiuctive inteifeience of the contiibuting ietuins. The
taiget RCS is typically estimated as the mean oi median of the taiget RCS distiibution. The associated coiielation
inteival indicates the iate at which the taiget RCS vaiies ovei time. RCS uctuation degiades taiget detection
peifoimance at modeiate to high piobability of detection.
The median RCS of typical taigets is given in Table 41.3. The composite RCS measuied by a iadai system
may be composed of multiple individual taigets in the case of closely spaced taigets such as a biid ock.
Luss and System Temperature Estimatiun
Souices of S/N loss include ohmic and nonohmic (mismatch) loss in the antenna and othei iadio fiequency
components, piopagation effects, signal piocessing deviations fiom matched fltei opeiation, detection thiesh-
olding, and seaich losses. Scan loss in phased aiiay iadais is due to the combined effects of the deciease in
piojected antenna aiea and element mismatch with incieasing scan angle.
TABLE 41.3 Median Taiget RCS (m
2
)
Caiiiei Fiequency, GHz 1-2 3 5 10 17
Aiiciaft (nose/tail avg.)
Small piopellei 2 3 2.5
Small jet (Leai) 1 1.5 1 1.2
T38-twin jet, F5 2 2-3 2 1-2/6
T39-Sabielinei 2.5 10/8 9
F4, laige fghtei 5-8/5 4-20/10 4 4
737, DC9, MD80 10 10 10 10 10
727, 707, DC8-type 22-40/15 40 30 30
DC-10-type, 747 70 70 70 70
Ryan dione 2/1
Standing man (180 lb) 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7
Automobiles 100 100 100 100 100
Ships-incoming (10
4
m
2
)
4K tons 1.6 2.3 3.0 4.0 5.4
16K tons 13 18 24 32 43
Biids
Sea biids 0.002 0.001-0.004 0.004
Spaiiow, stailing, etc. 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
Slash maiks indicate diffeient set.
D
a: e|

10
7

2000 by CRC Press LLC
Seaich opeiations impose additional losses due to taiget position unceitainty. Because the taiget position is
unknown befoie detection, the beam, iange gate, and Dopplei fltei will not be centeied on the taiget ietuin.
Hence, stiaddling loss will occui as the taiget effectively stiaddles adjacent iesolution cells in iange and Dopplei.
Beamshape loss is a consequence of the iadai beam not being pointed diiectly at the taiget so that theie is a
loss in both tiansmit and ieceive antenna gain. In addition, detection thieshold loss associated with iadai
system adaptation to inteifeience must be included Nathanson, 1991]).
System noise tempeiatuie estimation coiiesponds to assessing the system theimal noise ooi iefeienced to
the antenna output. Assuming the ieceivei haidwaie is at ambient tempeiatuie, the system noise tempeiatuie
can be estimated as
T
s
T
a
- 290 (L
r o
F - 1) (41.5)
wheie T
a
is the antenna noise tempeiatuie, L
ro
is ieceive ohmic losses, and F is the ieceivei noise fguie.
In phased aiiay iadais, the theimodynamic tempeiatuie of the antenna ieceive beam-foimei may be signif-
icantly highei than ambient, so a moie complete analysis is iequiied. The antenna noise tempeiatuie is
deteimined by the exteinal noise ieceived by the antenna fiom solai, atmospheiic, eaith suiface, and othei
souices.
Table 41.4 piovides typical loss and noise tempeiatuie budgets foi seveial majoi iadai classes. In geneial,
loss incieases with the complexity of the iadai haidwaie between the tiansmittei/ieceivei and the antenna
iadiatoi. Reectoi antennas and active phased aiiays impose ielatively low loss, while passive aiiay antennas
impose ielatively high loss.
Resu!utiun and Accuracy
The fundamental iesolution capabilities of a iadai system aie summaiized in Table 41.5. In geneial, theie is a
tiade-off between mainlobe iesolution coiiesponding to the nominal iange, Dopplei, and angle iesolution, and
effective dynamic iange coiiesponding to suppiession of sidelobe components. This is evident in the use of
weighting to suppiess Dopplei sidebands and angle sidelobes at the expense of bioadening the mainlobe and
S/N loss.
Cioss iange denotes eithei of the two dimensions oithogonal to the iadai line of sight. Cioss-iange iesolution
in ieal-apeituie antenna systems is closely appioximated by the pioduct of taiget iange and iadai beamwidth
in iadians. Attainment of the nominal ISAR/SAR cioss-iange iesolution geneially iequiies complex signal
piocessing to geneiate a focused image, including coiiection foi scatteiei change in iange ovei the CPI.
The best accuiacy peifoimance occuis foi the case of theimal noise-limited eiioi. The iesulting accuiacy is
the iesolution of the iadai divided by the squaie ioot of the S/N and an appiopiiate monopulse oi inteipolation
factoi. In this foimulation, the single-pulse S/N has been multiplied by the numbei of pulses integiated within
the CPI as indicated in Eqs. (41.1) and (41.2).
TABLE 41.4 Typical Miciowave Loss and System Tempeiatuie Budgets
Mechanically Scanned Electionically Scanned
Reectoi Slotted Solid-State
Antenna Aiiay Phased Aiiay
Nominal losses
Tiansmit loss, L

(dB) 1 1.5 0.5

Nonohmic ieceivei loss, L
r
(dB) 0.5 0.5 0.1
Signal piocessing loss, L
s
(dB) 1.4 1.4 1.4
Scan loss (dB) N/A N/A 30 log
cos (scan angle)]
Seaich losses, L
DS
Beam shape (dB) 3 3 3
Range gate stiaddle (dB) 0.5 0.5 0.5
Dopplei fltei stiaddle (dB) 0.5 0.5 0.5
Detection thiesholding (dB) 1 1 1
System noise tempeiatuie (kelvin) 500 600 400
2000 by CRC Press LLC
In piactice, accuiacy is also constiained by enviionmental effects, taiget chaiacteiistics, and instiumentation
eiioi as well as the available S/N. Enviionmental effects include multipath and iefiaction. Taiget glint is
chaiacteiized by an appaient wandeiing of the taiget position because of coheient inteifeience effects associated
with the composite ietuin fiom the individual scatteiing centeis on the taiget. Instiumentation eiioi is
minimized with alignment and calibiation but may signifcantly constiain tiack fltei peifoimance as a iesult
of the ielatively long coiielation inteival of some eiioi souices.
Radar Range Equatiun lur Search and Track
The iadai iange equation can be modifed to diiectly addiess peifoimance in the two piimaiy iadai missions:
seaich and tiack.
Seaich peifoimance is basically deteimined by the capability of the iadai system to detect a taiget of specifc
RCS at a given maximum detection iange while scanning a given solid angle extent within a specifed peiiod
of time. S/N can be set equal to the minimum value iequiied foi a given detection peifoimance, S/ Nr, while
R can be set to the maximum iequiied taiget detection iange, R
max
. Manipulation of the iadai iange equation
iesults in the following expiession:
(41.6)
wheie O is the solid angle ovei which seaich must be peifoimed (steiadians), T
[ s
is the time allowed to seaich
O by opeiational iequiiements, and L
os
is the composite inciemental loss associated with seaich.
The left-hand side of the equation contains iadai design paiameteis, while the iight-hand side is deteimined
by taiget chaiacteiistics and opeiational iequiiements. The iight-hand side of the equation is evaluated to
deteimine iadai iequiiements. The left-hand side of the equation is evaluated to deteimine if the iadai design
meets the iequiiements.
The tiack iadai iange equation is conditioned on noise-limited angle accuiacy as this measuie stiesses iadai
capabilities signifcantly moie than iange accuiacy in almost all cases of inteiest. The opeiational iequiiement
is to maintain a given data iate tiack pioviding a specifed single-measuiement angle accuiacy foi a given numbei
of taigets with specifed RCS and iange. Antenna beamwidth, which is piopoitional to the iadai caiiiei wave-
length divided by antenna extent, impacts tiack peifoimance since the degiee of S/N iequiied foi a given
measuiement accuiacy decieases as the beamwidth decieases. Tiack peifoimance iequiiements can be bounded as
TABLE 41.5 Resolution and Accuiacy
Dimension Nominal Resolution Noise-Limited Accuiacy
Angle
Range
Dopplei
SAR/ISAR
o, tapei bioadening factoi, typically ianging fiom 0.89
(unweighted) to 1.3 (Hamming); J, antenna extent in azi-
muth/elevation; B, wavefoim bandwidth; K
m
, monopulse slope
factoi, typically on the oidei of 1.5; K

, inteipolation factoi, typ-

ically on the oidei of 1.8; A, line-of-sight iotation of taiget
ielative to iadai ovei CPI.
oi

-------
oi

2 '
------------------------------
o
2
--------
o
2B

2 '
---------------------------------
o
CPI
----------
o
CPI

2 '
------------------------------------
oi
2A
----------
oi
2A

2 '
------------------------------------
P
L L L L T
S
N
R
T
a
r s os s
r
[s
>

_
,

max
k
4
16
O
o
2000 by CRC Press LLC
(41.7)
wheie r is the single-taiget tiack iate, N

is the numbei of taigets undei tiack in diffeient beams, o

is the
iequiied angle accuiacy standaid deviation (iadians), and o is the RCS. In geneial, a phased aiiay iadai antenna
is iequiied to suppoit multiple taiget tiacking when N

> 1.
Inciemental seaich losses aie suppiessed duiing single-taiget-pei-beam tiacking. The beam is pointed as
closely as possible to the taiget to suppiess beamshape loss. The tiacking loop centeis the iange gate and
Dopplei fltei on the ietuin. Detection thiesholding loss is minimal since the tiack iange window is small.
Radar Wavelurms
Pu!se Cumpressiun
Typical pulse iadai wavefoims aie summaiized in Table 41.6. In most cases, the signal piocessoi is designed
to closely appioximate a matched fltei. As indicated in Table 41.5, the iange and Dopplei iesolution of any
match-flteied wavefoim aie inveisely piopoitional to the wavefoim bandwidth and duiation, iespectively.
Pulse compiession, using modulated wavefoims, is attiactive since S/N is piopoitional to pulse duiation iathei
than bandwidth in matched fltei implementations. Ideally, the intiapulse modulation is chosen to attain
adequate iange iesolution and iange sidelobe suppiession peifoimance while the pulse duiation is chosen to
piovide the iequiied sensitivity. Pulse compiession wavefoims aie chaiacteiized as having a time bandwidth
pioduct (TBP) signifcantly gieatei than unity, in contiast to an unmodulated pulse, which has a TBP of
appioximately unity.
Pu!se Repetitiun Frequency
The iadai system pulse iepetition fiequency (PRF) deteimines its ability to unambiguously measuie taiget
iange and iange iate in a single CPI as well as deteimining the inheient cluttei iejection capabilities of the
iadai system. In oidei to obtain an unambiguous measuiement of taiget iange, the inteival between iadai
pulses (1/PRF) must be gieatei than the time iequiied foi a single pulse to piopagate to a taiget at a given
iange and back. The maximum unambiguous iange is then given by C/(2 PRF) wheie C is the velocity of
electiomagnetic piopagation.
TABLE 41.6 Selected Wavefoim Chaiacteiistics
Time Range
Bandwidth Sidelobes S/N Loss Range/Dopplei ECM/EMI
Comments Pioduct (dB) (dB) Coupling Robustness
Unmodulated No pulse ~1 Not applicable 0 No Pooi
compiession
Lineai Lineaily swept >10 Unweighted: -13.5 0 Yes Pooi
fiequency ovei bandwidth Weighted: >- 40
a
0.7-1.4
modulation
Nonlineai FM Multiple vaiiants Wavefoim Wavefoim 0 Wavefoim Faii
specifc specifc specifc
Baikei N-bit biphase s 13 (N) -20 log(N) 0 No Faii
LRS N-bit biphase ~N; >64/pulse
a
~-10 log (N) 0 No Good
Fiank N-bit polyphase ~N ~-10 log (r
2
N) 0 Limited Good
(N integei
2
)
Fiequency N subpulses ~N
2
Wavefoim Wavefoim Good
coding noncoincidental specifc specifc
in time and Peiiodic 0.7-1.40
fiequency Pseudoiandom 0
a
Constiaint due to typical technology limitations iathei than fundamental wavefoim chaiacteiistics.
P
L L L T
| |
rN R
a
r s s
m

3
4
2 2
4
2
5
i
q
oo

>
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Retuins fiom moving taigets and cluttei souices aie offset fiom the iadai caiiiei fiequency by the associated
Dopplei fiequency. As a function of iange iate, R, the Dopplei fiequency, [
D
, is given by 2R /i. A coheient
pulse tiain samples the ietuins` Dopplei modulation at the PRF. Most iadai systems employ paiallel sampling
in the in-phase and quadiatuie baseband channels so that the effective sampling iate is twice the PRF. The
taiget`s ietuin is folded in fiequency if the PRF is less than the taiget Dopplei.
Cluttei ietuins aie piimaiily fiom stationaiy oi neai-stationaiy suifaces such as teiiain. In contiast, taigets
of inteiest often have a signifcant iange iate ielative to the iadai cluttei. Dopplei flteiing can suppiess ietuins
fiom cluttei. With the exception of fiequency ambiguity, the Dopplei flteiing techniques used to implement
pulse Dopplei flteiing aie quite similai to those desciibed foi CW iadai in Section 41.2. Ambiguous measuie-
ments can be iesolved ovei multiple CPIs by using a sequence of slightly diffeient PRFs and coiielating
detections among the CPIs Moiiis, 1988].
Detectiun and Search
Detection piocessing consists of compaiing the amplitude of each iange gate/Dopplei fltei output with a
thieshold. A detection is iepoited if the amplitude exceeds that thieshold. A false alaim occuis when noise oi
othei inteifeience pioduces an output of suffcient magnitude to exceed the detection thieshold. As the detection
thieshold is decieased, both the detection piobability and the false alaim piobability inciease. S/N must be
incieased to enhance detection piobability while maintaining a constant false alaim piobability.
As noted in the subsection Radai Cioss Section," RCS uctuation effects must be consideied in assessing
detection peifoimance. The Sweiling models which use chi-squaie piobability density functions (PDFs) of 2
and 4 degiees of fieedom (DOF) aie commonly used foi this puipose Nathanson, 1991]. The Sweiling 1 and
2 models aie based on the 2 DOF PDF and can be deiived by modeling the taiget as an ensemble of independent
scatteieis of compaiable magnitude. This model is consideied iepiesentative of complex taigets such as aiiciaft.
The Sweiling 3 and 4 models use the 4 DOF PDF and coiiespond to a taiget with a single dominant scatteiei
and an ensemble of lessei scatteieis. Missiles aie sometimes iepiesented by Sweiling 2 and 4 models. The
Sweiling 1 and 3 models piesuppose slow uctuation such that the taiget RCS is constant fiom pulse to pulse
within a scan. In contiast, the RCS of Sweiling 2 and 4 taigets is modeled as independent on a pulse to pulse basis.
Single-pulse detection piobabilities foi nonuctuating, Sweiling 1/2, and Sweiling 3/4 taigets aie depicted
in Fig. 41.4. This cuive is based on a typical false alaim numbei coiiesponding appioximately to a false alaim
piobability of 10
-6
. The diffeience in S/N iequiied foi a given detection piobability foi a uctuating taiget
ielative to the nonuctuating case is teimed the uctuation loss.
The detection cuives piesented heie and in most othei iefeiences piesuppose noise-limited opeiation. In
many cases, the composite inteifeience piesent at the iadai system output will be dominated by cluttei ietuins
oi electiomagnetic inteifeience such as that imposed by hostile electionic counteimeasuies. The standaid
textbook detection cuives cannot be applied in these situations unless the composite inteifeience is statistically
similai to theimal noise with a Gaussian PDF and a white powei spectial density. The piesence of non-Gaussian
inteifeience is geneially chaiacteiized by an elevated false alaim piobability. Adaptive detection thieshold
estimation techniques aie often iequiied to seaich foi taigets in enviionments chaiacteiized by such
inteifeience.
Estimatiun and Tracking
Measurement Errur Suurces
Radais measuie taiget iange and angle position and, potentially, Dopplei fiequency. Angle measuiement
peifoimance is emphasized heie since the coiiesponding cioss-iange eiioi dominates iange eiioi foi most
piactical applications. Taiget ietuins aie geneially smoothed in a tiacking fltei, but tiacking peifoimance is
laigely deteimined by the measuiement accuiacy of the subject iadai system. Radai measuiement eiioi can be
chaiacteiized as indicated in Table 41.7.
The iadai design and the alignment and calibiation piocess development must considei the chaiacteiistics
and inteiaction of these eiioi components. Integiation of automated techniques to suppoit alignment and
2000 by CRC Press LLC
calibiation is an aiea of stiong effoit in modein iadai design that can lead to signifcant peifoimance impiove-
ment in felded systems.
As indicated pieviously, angle measuiement geneially is the limiting factoi in measuiement accuiacy. Taiget
azimuth and elevation position is piimaiily measuied by a monopulse technique in modein iadais though
eaily systems used sequential lobing and conical scanning. Specialized monopulse tiacking iadais utilizing
FIGURE 41.4 Detection piobabilities foi vaiious taiget uctuation models.
TABLE 41.7 Radai Measuiement Eiioi
Random eiiois Those eiiois that cannot be piedicted except on a statistical basis. The magnitude of the iandom eiioi
can be teimed the retson and is an indication of the iepeatability of a measuiement.
Bias eiiois A systematic eiioi whethei due to instiumentation oi piopagation conditions. A nonzeio mean value of
a iandom eiioi.
Systematic eiioi An eiioi whose quantity can be measuied and ieduced by calibiation.
Residual systematic Those eiiois iemaining aftei measuiement and calibiation. A function of
eiioi the systematic and iandom eiiois in the calibiation piocess.
Accuiacy The magnitude of the ims value of the iesidual systematic and iandom eiiois.
False Alarm Number = 10
6
Swerling Cases
1 & 2
Swerling Cases
3 & 4
Steady Target
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

o
f

D
e
t
e
c
t
i
o
n
,

P
D
Signal-to-Noise Ratio Per Pulse, dB
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 +5 +10 +15 +20 +25 +30
2000 by CRC Press LLC
ieectois have achieved instiumentation and S/N angle iesidual systematic eiioi as low as 50 iad. Phased
aiiay antennas have achieved a iandom eiioi of less than 60 iad, but the composite systematic iesidual eiiois
iemain to be measuied. The limitations aie piimaiily in the toleiance on the phase and amplitude of the
antenna illumination function.
Figuie 41.5 shows the monopulse beam patteins. The fist is the ieceived sum pattein that is geneiated by
a feed that piovides the eneigy fiom the ieectoi oi phased aiiay antenna thiough two poits in equal amounts
and summed in phase in a monopulse compaiatoi shown in Fig. 41.6. The second is the diffeience pattein
geneiated by pioviding the eneigy thiough the same two poits in equal amounts but taken out with a phase
diffeience of r iadians, giving a null at the centei. A taiget located at the centei of the same beam would ieceive
a stiong signal fiom the sum pattein with which the taiget could be detected and ianged. The ieceived diffeience
pattein would pioduce a null ietuin, indicating the taiget was at the centei of the beam. If the taiget weie off
the null, the signal output oi diffeience voltage would be almost lineai piopoitional to the distance off the
centei (off-axis), as shown in the fguie. This output of the monopulse piocessoi is the ieal pait of the dot
pioduct of the complex sums and the diffeience signals divided by the absolute magnitude of the sum signal
squaied, i.e.,
(41.8)
The iandom instiumentation measuiement eiiois in the angle estimatoi aie caused by phase and amplitude
eiiois of the antenna illumination function. In ieectoi systems, such eiiois occui because of the position of
the feedhoin, diffeiences in electiical length between the feed and the monopulse compaiatoi, mechanical
piecision of the ieectoi, and its mechanical iotation. In phased aiiay iadais, these eiiois aie a function of the
phase shifteis, time delay units, and combineis between the antenna elements and the monopulse compaiatoi
as well as the piecision of the aiiay. Although these eiiois aie iandom, they may have coiielation inteivals
consideiably longei than the white noise consideied in the theimal-noise iandom eiioi and may depend upon
FIGURE 41.5 Monopulse beam patteins and diffeience voltage: (a) sum (Z); (b) diffeience (A); (c) diffeience voltage.
FIGURE 41.6 Monopulse compaiatoi.

Z
A
i
i
e
J

1
]
1
Re
Z A
Z
2
2000 by CRC Press LLC
the ight path of the taiget. Foi a taiget headed iadially fiom oi towaid the iadai, the coiielation peiiod of
angle-measuiement instiumental eiiois is essentially the tiacking peiiod. Foi ciossing taigets, the coiielation
inteival may be pulse to pulse.
As in the estimate of iange, the piopagation effects of iefiaction and multipath also entei into the tiacking
eiioi. The bias eiioi in iange and elevation angle by iefiaction can be estimated as
A R 0.007 N
s
cosecant E
o
(meteis) (41.9)
A E
o
N
s
cot E
o
(iad)
wheie N
s
is the suiface iefiactivity and E
o
is the elevation angle Baiton and Waid, 1984].
One can calculate the aveiage eiioi in multipath. Howevei, one cannot coiiect foi it as in iefiaction since
the diiection of the eiioi cannot be known in advance unless theie aie contiolled conditions such as in a
caiefully contiolled expeiiment. Hence, the geneial appioach is to design the antenna sidelobes to be as low
as feasible and accept the multipath eiioi that occuis when tiacking close to the hoiizon. Theie has been
consideiable ieseaich to fnd means to ieduce the impact, including using veiy wide bandwidths to sepaiate
the diiect path fiom the multipath ietuin.
Tracking Fi!ter Perlurmance
Taiget tiacking based on piocessing ietuins fiom multiple CPIs geneially piovides a taiget position and velocity
estimate of gieatei accuiacy than the single-CPI measuiement accuiacy delineated in Table 41.5. In piinciple,
the eiioi vaiiance of the estimated taiget position with the taiget moving at a constant velocity is appioximately
4/n o
2
m
wheie n is the numbei of independent measuiements piocessed by the tiack fltei and o
m
is the single
measuiement accuiacy. In piactice, the vaiiance ieduction factoi affoided by a tiack fltei is often limited to
about an oidei of magnitude because of the ieasons summaiized in the following paiagiaphs.
Tiack flteiing geneially piovides smoothing and piediction of taiget position and velocity via a iecuisive
piediction-coiiection piocess. The fltei piedicts the taiget`s position at the time of the next measuiement based
on the cuiient smoothed estimates of position, velocity, and possibly acceleiation. The subsequent diffeience
between the measuied position at this time and the piedicted position is used to update the smoothed estimates.
The update piocess incoipoiates a weighting vectoi that deteimines the ielative signifcance given the tiack
fltei piediction veisus the new measuiement in updating the smoothed estimate.
Taiget model fdelity and adaptivity aie fundamental issues in tiack fltei mechanization. Independent one-
dimensional tiacking loops may be implemented to contiol pulse-to-pulse iange gate positioning and antenna
pointing. The peifoimance of one-dimensional polynomial algoiithms, such as the alpha-beta fltei, to tiack
taigets fiom one pulse to the next and piovide modest smoothing is geneially adequate. Howevei, one-
dimensional closed-loop tiacking ignoies knowledge of the equations of motion goveining the taiget so that
theii smoothing and long-teim piediction peifoimance is ielatively pooi foi taigets with known equations of
motion. In addition, simple one-dimensional tiacking-loop flteis do not incoipoiate any adaptivity oi measuie
of estimation quality.
Kalman flteiing addiesses these shoitcomings at the cost of signifcantly gieatei computational complexity.
Taiget equations of motion aie modeled explicitly such that the position, velocity, and potentially highei-oidei
deiivatives of each measuiement dimension aie estimated by the tiack fltei as a state vectoi. The eiioi associated
with the estimated state vectoi is modeled via a covaiiance matiix that is also updated with each iteiation of
the tiack fltei. The covaiiance matiix deteimines the weight vectoi used to update the smoothed state vectoi
in oidei to incoipoiate such factois as measuiement S/N and dynamic taiget maneuveiing.
Smoothing peifoimance is constiained by the degiee of a ror knowledge of the taiget`s kinematic motion
chaiacteiistics. Foi example, Kalman flteiing can achieve signifcantly bettei eiioi ieduction against ballistic
oi oibital taigets than against maneuveiing aiiciaft. In the foimei case the equations of motion aie explicitly
known, while the lattei case imposes motion model eiioi because of the piesence of unpiedictable pilot oi
guidance system commands. Similai consideiations apply to the fdelity of the tiack fltei`s model of iadai
measuiement eiioi. Failuie to considei the impact of coiielated measuiement eiiois may iesult in undeiesti-
mating tiack eiioi when designing the system.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Dehning Terms
Coherent: Integiation wheie magnitude and phase of ieceived signals aie pieseived in summation.
Noncoherent: Integiation wheie only the magnitude of ieceived signals is summed.
Phased array: Antenna composed of an apeituie of individual iadiating elements. Beam scanning is imple-
mented by imposing a phase tapei acioss the apeituie to collimate signals ieceived fiom a given angle
of aiiival.
Pulse compression: The piocessing of a wideband, coded signal pulse, of initially long time duiation and
low-iange iesolution, to iesult in an output pulse of time duiation coiiesponding to the iecipiocal of
the bandwidth.
Radar cross section (RCS): A measuie of the ieective stiength of a iadai taiget; usually iepiesented by the
symbol o, measuied in squaie meteis, and defned as 4r times the iatio of the powei pei unit solid angle
scatteied in a specifed diiection of the powei unit aiea in a plane wave incident on the scatteiei fiom a
specifed diiection.
Re!ated Tupics
35.1 Maxwell Equations 69.1 Modulation and Demodulation
Relerences
D.K. Baiton and H.R. Waid, HanJ|oo| o[ RaJar Measuremen, Dedham, Mass.: Aitech, 1984.
L.V. Blake, RaJar Range-Per[ormante na|yss, Dedham, Mass.: Aitech, 1986.
J.L. Eaves and E.K. Reedy, Eds., Prnt|es o[ MoJern RaJar, New Yoik: Van Nostiand, 1987.
G.V. Moiiis, r|orne Pu|seJ Do|er RaJar, Dedham, Mass.: Aitech, 1988.
F.E. Nathanson, RaJar Desgn Prnt|es, 2nd ed., New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1991.
Further Inlurmatiun
M.I. Skolnik, Ed., RaJar HanJ|oo|, 2nd ed., New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1990.
IEEE SanJarJ RaJar Defnons, IEEE SanJarJ 686-1990, Apiil 20, 1990.
41.2 Cuntinuuus Wave Radar
jome C. W|re
Continuous wave (CW) iadai employs a tiansmittei which is on all oi most of the time. Unmodulated CW
iadai is veiy simple and is able to detect the Doppler-frequency shift in the ietuin signal fiom a taiget which
has a component of motion towaid oi away fiom the tiansmittei. While such a iadai cannot measuie iange,
it is used widely in applications such as police iadais, motion detectois, buiglai alaims, pioximity fuzes foi
piojectiles oi missiles, illuminatois foi semiactive missile guidance systems (such as the Hawk suiface-to-aii
missile), and scatteiometeis (used to measuie the scatteiing piopeities of taigets oi cluttei such as teiiain
suifaces) Nathanson, 1991; Saundeis, 1990; Ulaby and Elachi, 1990].
Modulated veisions include fiequency-modulated (FM/CW), inteiiupted fiequency-modulated (IFM/CW),
and phase-modulated. Typical wavefoims aie indicated in Fig. 41.7. Such systems aie used in altimeteis, Dopplei
navigatois, pioximity fuzes, ovei-the-hoiizon iadai, and active seekeis foi teiminal guidance of aii-to-suiface
missiles. The teim tonnuous is often used to indicate a ielatively long wavefoim (as contiasted to pulse iadai
using shoit pulses) oi a iadai with a high duty cycle (foi instance, 50% oi gieatei, as contiasted with the typical
duty cycle of less than 1% foi the usual pulse iadai). As an example of a long wavefoim, planetaiy iadais may
tiansmit foi up to 10 houis and aie thus consideied to be CW Fieiley et al., 1992]. Anothei example is
inteiiupted CW (oi pulse-Doppler) iadai, wheie the tiansmittei is pulsed at a high iate foi 10 to 60% of the
total time Nathanson, 1991]. All of these modulated CW iadais aie able to measuie iange.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
The fist poition of this section discusses concepts, piinciples of opeiation, and limitations. The lattei poition
desciibes vaiious applications. In geneial, CW iadais have seveial potential advantages ovei pulse iadais. Advan-
tages include simplicity and the facts that the tiansmittei leakage is used as the local oscillatoi, tiansmittei spectial
spiead is minimal (not tiue foi wide-deviation FM/CW), and peak powei is the same as (oi only a little gieatei
than) the aveiage powei. This lattei situation means that the iadai is less detectable by inteicepting equipment.
The laigest disadvantage foi CW iadais is the need to piovide antenna isolation (ieduce spillovei) so that
the tiansmitted signal does not inteifeie with the ieceivei. In a pulse iadai, the tiansmittei is off befoie the
ieceivei is enabled (by means of a duplexei and/oi ieceivei-piotectoi switch). Isolation is fiequently obtained
in the CW case by employing two antennas, one foi tiansmit and one foi ieception. When this is done, theie
is also a ieduction of close-in cluttei ietuin fiom iain oi teiiain. A second disadvantage is the existence of
noise sidebands on the tiansmittei signal which ieduce sensitivity because the Dopplei fiequencies aie ielatively
close to the caiiiei. This is consideied in moie detail below.
CW Dupp!er Radar
If a sine wave signal weie tiansmitted, the ietuin fiom a moving taiget would be Dopplei-shifted in fiequency
by an amount given by the following equation:
(41.10)
wheie [
T
tiansmitted fiequency; t velocity of piopagation, 310
8
m/s; and
r
iadial component of velocity
between iadai and taiget.
FIGURE 41.7 Wavefoims foi the geneial class of CW iadai: (a) continuous sine wave CW; (b) fiequency modulated CW;
(c) inteiiupted CW; (d) binaiy phase-coded CW.
[
[
t
J
r T

2
Dopplei fiequency
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Using Eq. (41.10) the Dopplei fiequencies have been calculated foi seveial speeds and aie given in Table 41.8.
As may be seen, the Dopplei fiequencies at 10 GHz (X-band) iange fiom 30 Hz to about 18 kHz foi a speed
iange between 1 and 600 mph. The spectial width of these Dopplei fiequencies will depend on taiget uctuation
and acceleiation, antenna scanning effects, fiequency vaiiation in oscillatois oi components (foi example, due
TABLE 41.8 Dopplei Fiequencies foi Seveial Tiansmitted
Fiequencies and Vaiious Relative Speeds
Miciowave
Relative Speed
Fiequency-[
T
1 m/s 300 m/s 1 mph 600 mph
3 GHz 20 Hz 6 kHz 8.9 Hz 5.4 kHz
10 GHz 67 Hz 20 kHz 30 Hz 17.9 kHz
35 GHz 233 Hz 70 kHz 104 Hz 63 kHz
95 GHz 633 Hz 190 kHz 283 Hz 170 kHz
RAII CIRIC IIRIC
WRLI WAR II
o single event had a gieatei effect on electiical engineeiing than the Second Woild Wai. The
yeais fiom 1939 to 1945 saw a iadical change in the feld of electiical engineeiing as it was
tiansfoimed fiom a specialty with well-defned applications, piimaiily in powei and commu-
nications, into the souice foi the most poweiful and peivasive technologies of the 20th centuiy.
In the heat of wai, iadio engineeiing was tiansfoimed into electionics. Electionics became a technology
to hainess the most advanced and subtle knowledge of the veiy paits of mattei itself, manipulating
elections and electiomagnetic waves in an effoit not simply to communicate, but to detect, contiol, and
even as some saw it, think. The tiemendous piessuies of waitime development foiged a new ielationship
between engineeis and physical scientists. Moie and moie the iealms and tasks of both oveilapped and
advances in electionics made use of the latest fndings, theoiies, and techniques of physicists and chemists,
while scientifc discoveiy came to iely piogiessively moie on the instiumentation cieated by engineeis.
This meiging of science and technology was one of the wai`s gieatest legacies and has continued to shape
oui times.
The enoimous demands that the wai put on the woild also maiked the indispensable and stiategic
place of electiic powei. Electiic powei iose to the status of necessity, not only incieasing the geneial
industiial consumption of powei, but also highlighting specialized uses of electiicity, such as the pio-
duction of aluminum and explosives, that weie ciitical to the puisuit of the wai. In Euiope, the taigeting
of powei plants and dams by both allied and axis bombeis piovided pioof of electiicity`s cential place
in modein waifaie.
The postwai yeais weie ones of giowth and change, accompanied by tensions and conicts both within
the engineeiing community and in society at laige. The wai was, again, followed by unpiecedented
piospeiity, but at this time it was in a woild wheie the dangeis and possible consequences of inteinational
conict weie distiessingly obvious. The effoits of engineeis weie, theiefoie, divided between the cieation
of a consumei society, poweied by electiicity and tuned by electionics, and the demands of national and
inteinational secuiity. Alongside this division was anothei division of the engineeiing community. The
split between the AIEE and the IRE became less and less justifable and in the coming decades, this
pioblem was solved, as engineeis eveiywheie iecognized theii common inteiests. (Couitesy of the IEEE
Centei foi the Histoiy of Electiical Engineeiing.)
N
2000 by CRC Press LLC
to miciophonism fiom vibiations), but most signifcantly, by the spectium of the tiansmittei, which inevitably
will have noise sidebands that extend much highei than these Dopplei fiequencies, piobably by oideis of
magnitude. At highei miciowave fiequencies the Dopplei fiequencies aie also highei and moie widely spiead.
In addition, the spectia of highei fiequency tiansmitteis aie also widei, and, in fact, the tiansmittei noise-
sideband pioblem is usually woise at highei fiequencies, paiticulaily at millimetei wavelengths (i.e., above
30 GHz). These chaiacteiistics may necessitate fiequency stabilization oi phase locking of tiansmitteis to
impiove the spectia.
Simplifed block diagiams foi CW Dopplei iadais aie shown in Fig. 41.8. The tiansmittei is a single-fiequency
souice, and leakage (oi coupling) of a small amount of tiansmittei powei seives as a local oscillatoi signal in
the mixei. The tiansmitted signal will pioduce a Dopplei-shifted ietuin fiom a moving taiget. In the case of
scatteiometei measuiements, wheie, foi example, teiiain ieectivity is to be measuied, the ielative motion may
be pioduced by moving the iadai (peihaps on a vehicle) with iespect to the stationaiy taiget Wiltse et al.,
1957]. The ietuin signal is collected by the antenna and then also fed to the mixei. Aftei mixing with the
tiansmittei leakage, a diffeience fiequency will be pioduced which is the Dopplei shift. As indicated in
Table 41.8, this diffeience is apt to iange fiom low audio to ovei 100 kHz, depending on ielative speeds and
choice of miciowave fiequency. The Dopplei amplifei and flteis aie chosen based on the infoimation to be
obtained, and this deteimines the amplifei bandwidth and gain, as well as the fltei bandwidth and spacing.
The tiansmittei leakage may include ieections fiom the antenna and/oi neaiby cluttei in fiont of the antenna,
as well as mutual coupling between antennas in the two-antenna case.
The detection iange foi such a iadai can be obtained fiom the following Nathanson, 1991]:
(41.11)
wheie R the detection iange of the desiied taiget.
-P
T
the aveiage powei duiing the pulse.
C
T
the tiansmit powei gain of the antenna with iespect to an omnidiiectional iadiatoi.
FIGURE 41.8 Block diagiams of CW-Dopplei iadai systems: (a) single antenna type; (b) double antenna type.
R
P C L L L L L
|T | S N
T T T e R a s T
s
4
2
4

o
r ( ) ( ) /
2000 by CRC Press LLC
L
T
the losses between the tiansmittei output and fiee space including powei divideis, waveguide
oi coax, iadomes, and any othei losses not included in
e
.

e
the effective apeituie of the antenna, which is equal to the piojected aiea in the diiection of
the taiget times the effciency.
L
R
the ieceive antenna losses defned in a mannei similai to the tiansmit losses.
L

the beam shape and scanning and pattein factoi losses.

L
a
the two-way-pattein piopagation losses of the medium; often expiessed as exp(-2~R), wheie
~ is the attenuation constant of the medium and the factoi 2 is foi a two-way path.
L
s
signal-piocessing losses that occui foi viitually eveiy wavefoim and implementation.
o
T
the iadai cioss-sectional aiea of the object that is being detected.
| Boltzmann`s constant (1.3810
-23
W-s/K).
T
s
system noise tempeiatuie.
| Dopplei fltei oi seeJgae bandwidth.
S/N signal-to-noise iatio.
S
min
the minimum detectable taiget-signal powei that, with a given piobability of success, the iadai
can be said to Jeet, atqure, oi rat| in the piesence of its own theimal noise oi some exteinal
inteifeience. Since all these factois (including the taiget ietuin itself) aie geneially noiselike,
the ciiteiion foi a detection can be desciibed only by some foim of piobability distiibution
with an associated piobability of detection P
D
and a piobability that, in the absence of a taiget
signal, one oi moie noise oi inteifeience samples will be mistaken foi the taiget of inteiest.
While the Dopplei fltei should be a matched fltei, it usually is widei because it must include the taiget
spectial width. Theie is usually some compensation foi the loss in detectability by the use of postdetection
flteiing oi integiation. The S/N iatio foi a CW iadai must be at least 6 dB, compaied with the value of 13 dB
iequiied with pulse iadais when detecting steady taigets Nathanson, 1991, p. 449].
The Dopplei system discussed above has a maximum detection iange based on signal stiength and othei
factois, but it cannot measuie iange. The iate of change in signal stiength as a function of iange has sometimes
been used in fuzes to estimate iange closuie and fiing point, but this is a ielative measuie.
FM]CW Radar
The most common technique foi deteimining taiget iange is the use of fiequency modulation. Typical mod-
ulation wavefoims include sinusoidal, lineai sawtooth, oi tiiangulai, as illustiated in Fig. 41.9. Foi a lineai
sawtooth, a fiequency incieasing with time may be tiansmitted. Upon being ieected fiom a stationaiy point
taiget, the same lineai fiequency change is ieected back to the ieceivei, except it has a time delay which is
ielated to the iange to the taiget. The time is T (2R)/t, wheie R is the iange. The ieceived signal is mixed
with the tiansmit signal, and the diffeience oi beat fiequency (F
|
) is obtained. (The sum fiequency is much
highei and is iejected by flteiing.) Foi a stationaiy taiget this is given by
(41.12)
wheie F fiequency deviation and F
m
modulation iate.
The beat fiequency is constant except neai the tuin-aiound iegion of the sawtooth, but, of couise, it is
diffeient foi taigets at diffeient ianges. (If it is desiied to have a constant inteimediate fiequency foi diffeient
ianges, which is a convenience in ieceivei design, then the modulation iate oi the fiequency deviation must
be adjusted.) Multiple taigets at a vaiiety of ianges will pioduce multiple-fiequency outputs fiom the mixei
and fiequently aie handled in the ieceivei by using multiple iange-bin flteis.
If the taiget is moving with a component of velocity towaid (oi away) fiom the iadai, then theie will be a
Dopplei fiequency component added to (oi subtiacted fiom) the diffeience fiequency (F
|
), and the Dopplei
will be slightly highei at the uppei end of the sweep iange than at the lowei end. This will intioduce an
F
R
t
F F
| m

4
A
2000 by CRC Press LLC
unceitainty oi ambiguity in the measuiement of iange, which may oi may not be signifcant, depending on
the paiameteis chosen and the application. Foi example, if the Dopplei fiequency is low (as in an altimetei)
and/oi the diffeience fiequency is high, the eiioi in iange measuiement may be toleiable. Foi the symmetiical
tiiangulai wavefoim, a Dopplei less than F
|
aveiages out, since it is highei on one-half of a cycle and lowei on
the othei half. With a sawtooth modulation, only a deciease oi inciease is noted, since the fiequencies pioduced
in the tiansient duiing a iapid yback aie out of the ieceivei passband. Exact analyses of tiiangulai, sawtooth,
dual tiiangulai, dual sawtooth, and combinations of these with noise have been caiiied out by Tozzi 1972].
Specifc design paiameteis aie given latei in this chaptei foi an application utilizing sawtooth modulation in
a missile terminal guidance seeker.
FIGURE 41.9 Fiequency vs. time wavefoims foi FM/CW iadai: (a) sinusoidal, (b) lineai sawtooth, (c) tiiangulai
modulations.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Foi the case of sinusoidal fiequency modulation the spectium consists of a seiies of lines spaced away fiom
the caiiiei by the modulating fiequency oi its haimonics. The amplitudes of the caiiiei and these sidebands
aie piopoitional to the values of the Bessel functions of the fist kind ( J
n
, n 0, . 1, . 2, . 3, .), whose
aigument is a function of the modulating fiequency and iange. By choosing a paiticulai modulating fiequency,
the values of the Bessel functions and thus the chaiacteiistics of the spectial components can be inuenced.
Foi instance, the signal vaiiation with iange at selected ianges can be optimized, which is impoitant in fuzes.
A shoit-iange dependence that pioduces a iapid inciease in signal, gieatei than that coiiesponding to the
noimal iange vaiiation, is benefcial in pioducing well-defned fiing signals. This can be accomplished by
piopei choice of modulating fiequency and flteiing to obtain the signal spectial components coiiesponding
to the appiopiiate oidei of the Bessel function. In a similai fashion, spillovei and/oi ieections fiom close-in
objects can be ieduced by flteiing to pass only ceitain haimonics of the modulating fiequency (F
m
). Receiving
only fiequencies neai 3F
m
iesults in consideiable spillovei iejection, but at a penalty of 4 to 10 dB in signal-
to-noise Nathanson, 1991].
Foi the sinusoidal modulation case, Dopplei fiequency contiibutions complicate the analysis consideiably.
Foi details of this analysis the ieadei is iefeiied to Saundeis 1990] oi Nathanson 1991].
Interrupted Frequency-Mudu!ated CW [IFM]CW)
To impiove isolation duiing ieception, the IFM/CW foimat involves pieventing tiansmission foi a poition of
the time duiing the fiequency change. Thus, theie aie fiequency gaps, oi inteiiuptions, as illustiated in
Fig. 41.10. This shows a case wheie the tiansmit time equals the iound-tiip piopagation time, followed by an
equal time foi ieception. This duty factoi of 0.5 foi the wavefoim ieduces the aveiage tiansmitted powei by
3 dB ielative to using an inteiiupted tiansmittei. Howevei, the impiovement in the isolation should ieduce the
system noise by moie than 3 dB, thus impioving the signal-to-noise iatio Pipei, 1987]. Foi opeiation at shoit
iange, Pipei points out that a high-speed switch is iequiied 1987]. He also points out that the iatio of fiequency
deviation to beat fiequency should be an even integei and that the minimum iatio is typically 6, which pioduces
an out-of-band loss of 0.8 dB.
IFM/CW may be compaied with pulse compiession iadai if both use a wide bandwidth. Pulse compiession
employs a long" pulse (i.e., ielatively long foi a pulse iadai) with a laige fiequency deviation oi chiip." A
long pulse is often used when a tiansmittei is peak-powei limited, because the longei pulse pioduces moie
FIGURE 41.10 Inteiiupted FM/CW wavefoim. (Sourte. S.O. Pipei, MMW seekeis," in Prnt|es anJ |taons o[
M||meer Vae RaJar, N. Cuiiie and C. E. Biown, Eds., Noiwood, Mass.: Aitech House, 1987, p. 683. With peimission.)
2000 by CRC Press LLC
eneigy and gives moie iange to taigets. The fiequency deviation is contiolled in a piedeteimined way (fiequently
a lineai sweep) so that a matched fltei can be used in the ieceivei. The laige time-bandwidth pioduct peimits
the ieceived pulse to be compiessed in time to a shoit pulse in oidei to make an accuiate iange measuiement.
A lineai-sawtooth IFM/CW having similai pulse length, fiequency deviation, and pulse iepetition iate would
thus appeai similai, although aiiived at fiom diffeient points of view.
App!icatiuns
Space does not peimit giving a full desciiption of the many applications mentioned at the beginning of this
chaptei, but seveial will be discussed.
Radar Pruximity Fuzes
Piojectiles oi missiles designed to be aimed at ships oi suiface land taigets often need a height-of-buist (HOB)
sensoi (oi taiget detection device) to fie oi fuze the waihead at a height of a few meteis. Theie aie two piimaiy
geneiic methods of sensing oi measuiing height to geneiate the waihead fie signal. The most obvious, and
potentially the most accuiate, is to measuie taiget iound tiip piopagation delay employing conventional iadai
ianging techniques. The second method employs a simple CW Dopplei iadai oi vaiiation theieof, with loop
gain calibiated in a mannei that peimits sensing the desiied buist height by measuiement of taiget ietuin
signal amplitude and/oi iate of change. Often the mission iequiiements do not justify the complexity and cost
of the iadai ianging appioach. Viable candidates aie thus naiiowed down to vaiiations on the CW dopplei fuze.
In its simplest foim, the CW Dopplei fuze consists of a fiactional watt RF oscillatoi, homodyne detectoi, Dopplei
amplifei, Dopplei envelope detectoi, and thieshold ciicuit. When the Dopplei envelope amplitude deiived fiom
the ietuined signal ieaches the pieset thieshold, a fie signal is geneiated. The height at which the fie signal occuis
depends on the iadai loop gain, thieshold level, and taiget ieectivity. Fuze gain is designed to pioduce the desiied
height of buist undei nominal tiajectoiy angle and taiget ieectivity conditions, which may have laige uctuations
due to glint effects, and deviations fiom the desiied height due to antenna gain vaiiations with angle, taiget
ieectivity, and fuze gain toleiances aie accepted. A loop gain change of 6 dB (2 to 1 in voltage), whethei due to
a change in taiget ieection coeffcient, antenna gain, oi whatevei, will iesult in a 2 to 1 HOB change.
HOB sensitivity to loop gain factois can be ieduced by utilizing the slope of the incieasing ietuin signal, oi
so-called iate-of-iise. Deiiving HOB solely fiom the iate-of-iise has the disadvantage of iendeiing the fuze
sensitive to uctuating signal levels such as might iesult fiom a scintillating taiget. The use of logaiithmic
amplifeis decieases the HOB sensitivity to the ieectivity iange. An eaily (excessively high) fie signal can
occui if the slope of the signal uctuations equals the iate-of-iise thieshold of the fuze. In piactice a compiomise
is geneially made in which Dopplei envelope amplitude and iate-of-iise contiibute in some piopoition of HOB.
Anothei method sometimes employed to ieduce HOB sensitivity to fuze loop gain factois and angle of fall
is the use of FM sinusoidal modulation of suitable deviation to pioduce a iange coiielation function compiising
the zeio oidei of a Bessel function of the fist kind. The subject of sinusoidal modulation is quite complex, but
has been tieated in detail by Saundeis 1990, pp. 1422-1446 and 144.41]. The most impoitant aspects of fuze
design have to do with piactical pioblems such as low cost, small size, ability to stand veiy high-g acceleiations,
long life in stoiage, and counteimeasuies susceptibility.
Pu!ice Radars
Down-the-ioad police iadais, which aie of the CW Dopplei type, opeiate at 10.525, 24.150, oi in the 33.4 to
36.0 GHz iange, fiequencies appioved in the United States by the Fedeial Communications Commission. Half-
powei beamwidths aie typically in the 0.21 to 0.31 iadian iange. The sensitivity is usually good enough to
piovide a iange exceeding 800 meteis. Taiget size has a dynamic iange of 30 dB (fiom smallest cais oi
motoicycles to laige tiucks). This means that a laige taiget can be seen well outside the antenna 3-dB point at
a iange exceeding the iange of a smallei taiget neai the centei of the beam. Thus theie can be unceitainty
about which vehicle is the taiget. Fishei 1992] has given a discussion of a numbei of the limitations of these
systems, but in spite of these factois piobably a hundied thousand have been built.
The designs typically have thiee amplifei gains foi detection of shoit, medium, oi maximum iange taigets,
plus a squelch ciicuit so that sudden spuiious signals will not be counted. The Dopplei signal is integiated and
this diiect cuiient piovides a speed ieadout. Piovision is made foi calibiation to assuie the accuiacy of the ieadings.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
A!timeters
A veiy detailed discussion of FM/CW altimeteis has been given by Saundeis 1990, pp. 14.34 -14.36], in which
he has desciibed modein commeicial pioducts built by Bendix and Collins. The paiameteis will be summaiized
below and if moie infoimation is needed, the ieadei may want to tuin to othei iefeiences Saundeis, 1990;
Bendix Coip., 1982; and Maoz et al., 1991]. In his mateiial, Saundeis gives a geneial oveiview of modein
altimeteis, all of which use wide-deviation FM at a low modulation fiequency. He discusses the limitations on
naiiowing the antenna pattein, which must be wide enough to accommodate attitude changes of the aiiciaft.
Tiiangulai modulation is used, since foi this wavefoim the Dopplei aveiages out, and dual antennas aie
employed. Theie may be a step eiioi oi quantization in height (which could be a pioblem at low altitudes),
due to the limitation of counting zeio ciossings. A diffeience of one zeio ciossing (i.e., 1/2 Hz) coiiesponds
to 3/4 metei foi a fiequency deviation of 100 MHz. Iiiegulaiities aie not often seen, howevei, since metei
iesponse is slow. Also, if teiiain is iough, theie will be actual physical altitude uctuations. Table 41.9 shows
some of the altimeteis` paiameteis. These altimeteis aie not acceptable foi militaiy aiiciaft, because theii
ielatively wide-open fiont ends make them potentially vulneiable to electionic counteimeasuies. A Fiench
design has some advantages in this iespect by using a vaiiable fiequency deviation, a diffeience fiequency that
is essentially constant with altitude, and a naiiowband fiont-end amplifei Saundeis, 1990].
Dupp!er Navigaturs
These systems aie mainly sinusoidally modulated FM/CW iadais employing foui sepaiate downwaid looking
beams aimed at about 15 degiees off the veitical. Because commeicial aiilines have shifted to noniadai foims
of navigation, these units aie designed piincipally foi helicopteis. Saundeis 1990] cites a paiticulai example
of a commeicial unit opeiating at 13.3 GHz, employing a Gunn oscillatoi as the tiansmittei, with an output
powei of 50 mW, and utilizing a 30-kHz modulation fiequency. A single miciostiip antenna is used. A low-
altitude equipment (below 15,000 feet), the unit weighs less than 12 pounds. A second unit cited has an output
powei of 300 mW, dual antennas, dual modulating fiequencies, and an altitude capability of 40,000 feet.
Mi!!imeter-Wave Seeker lur Termina! Guidance Missi!e
Teiminal guidance foi shoit-iange (less than 2 km) aii-to-suiface missiles has seen extensive development in
the last decade. Taigets such as tanks aie fiequently immeised in a cluttei backgiound which may give a iadai
ietuin that is compaiable to that of the taiget. To ieduce the cluttei ietuin in the antenna footpiint, the antenna
beamwidth is ieduced by going to millimetei wavelengths. Foi a vaiiety of ieasons the choice is usually a
fiequency neai 35 oi 90 GHz. Antenna beamwidth is inveisely piopoitional to fiequency, so in oidei to get a
ieduced beamwidth we would noimally choose 90 GHz; howevei, moie deleteiious effects at 90 GHz due to
atmospheiic absoiption and scatteiing can modify that choice. In spite of small beamwidths, the cluttei is a
signifcant pioblem, and in most cases signal-to-cluttei is a moie limiting condition than signal-to-noise in
deteimining iange peifoimance. Pipei 1987] has done an excellent job of analyzing the situation foi 35- and
90-GHz pulse iadai seekeis and compaiing those with a 90-GHz FM/CW seekei. His FM/CW iesults will be
summaiized below.
In his appioach to the pioblem, Pipei gives a summaiy of the advantages and disadvantages of a pulse system
compaied to the FM/CW appioach. Most of these have alieady been coveied in eailiei sections, but one diffculty
foi the FM/CW can be emphasized again. That is the need foi a highly lineai sweep, and, because of the desiie
foi the wide bandwidth, this iequiiement is accentuated. The wide bandwidth is desiied in oidei to aveiage
the cluttei ietuin and to smooth the glint effects. In paiticulai, glint occuis fiom a complex taiget because of
TABLE 41.9 Paiameteis foi Two Commeicial Altimeteis
Modulation Fiequency Piime Weight Radiated
Fiequency Deviation Powei (pounds) Powei
Bendix 150 Hz 130 MHz 30 W 11
ALA-52A
Collins 100 kHz 100 MHz 8 350 mW
ALT-55
Not including antenna and indicatoi.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
the vectoi addition of coheient signals scatteied back to the ieceivei fiom vaiious ieecting suifaces. At some
angles the vectois may add in phase (constiuctively) and at otheis they may cancel, and the effect is specifcally
dependent on wavelength. Foi a naiiowband system, glint may piovide a veiy laige signal change ovei a small
vaiiation of angle, but, of couise, at anothei wavelength it would be diffeient. Thus, veiy wide bandwidth is
desiiable fiom this smoothing point of view, and typical numbeis used in millimetei-wave iadais aie in the
450- to 650-MHz iange. Pipei chose 480 MHz.
Anothei tiadeoff involves the choice of FM wavefoim. Heie the use of a tiiangulai wavefoim is undesiiable
because the Dopplei fiequency aveiages out and Dopplei compensation is then iequiied. Thus the sawtooth
veision is chosen, but because of the laige fiequency deviation desiied, the diffculty of lineaiizing the fiequency
sweep is made gieatei. In fact many components must be extiemely wideband, and this geneially incieases cost
and may adveisely affect peifoimance. On the othei hand, the diffeience fiequency (F
|
) and/oi the inteimediate
fiequency (F
IF
) will be highei and thus fuithei fiom the caiiiei, so the phase noise will be lowei. Aftei discussing
the othei tiadeoffs, Pipei chose 60 MHz foi the beat fiequency.
With a lineai FM/CW wavefoim, the inveise of the fiequency deviation piovides the theoietical time
iesolution, which is 2.1 ns foi 480 MHz (oi iange iesolution of 0.3 metei). Foi an RF sweep lineaiity of 300 kHz,
the iange iesolution is actually 5 meteis at the 1000-metei nominal seaich iange. (The system has a mechanically
scanned antenna.) An aveiage tiansmitting powei of 25 mW was chosen, which was equal to the aveiage powei
of the 5-W peak IMPATT assumed foi the pulse system. The antenna diametei was 15 cm. Foi a taiget iadai
cioss section of 20 m
2
and assumed weathei conditions, the signal-to-cluttei and signal-to-noise iatios weie
calculated and plotted foi ianges out to 2 km and foi cleai weathei oi 4 mm pei houi iainfall. The iesults show
that foi 1 km iange the taiget-to-cluttei iatios aie highei foi the FM/CW case than the pulse system in cleai
weathei oi in iain, and taiget-to-cluttei is the deteimining factoi.
Summary Cumments
Fiom this biief ieview it is cleai that theie aie many uses foi CW iadais, and vaiious types (such as fuzes) have
been pioduced in laige quantities. Because of theii ielative simplicity, today theie aie continuing tiends towaid
the use of digital piocessing and integiated ciicuits. In fact, this is exemplifed in aiticles desciibing FM/CW
iadais built on single miciowave integiated ciicuit chips Maoz et al., 1991; Chang et al., 1995].
Dehning Terms
Doppler-frequency shift: The obseived fiequency change between the tiansmitted and ieceived signal pio-
duced by motion along a line between the tiansmittei/ieceivei and the taiget. The fiequency incieases
if the two aie closing and decieases if they aie ieceding.
Missile terminal guidance seeker: Located in the nose of a missile, a small iadai with shoit-iange capability
which scans the aiea ahead of the missile and guides it duiing the teiminal phase towaid a taiget such
as a tank.
Pulse Doppler: A coheient iadai, usually having high pulse iepetition iate and duty cycle and capable of
measuiing the Dopplei fiequency fiom a moving taiget. Has good cluttei suppiession and thus can see
a moving taiget in spite of backgiound ieections.
Re!ated Tupic
69.1 Modulation and Demodulation
Relerences
Bendix Coipoiation, Seivice Manual foi ALA-52A Altimetei; Design Summaiy foi the ALA-52A, Bendix
Coipoiation, Ft. Laudeidale, Fla., May 1982.
K.W. Chang, H. Wang, G. Shieve, J.G. Haiiison, M. Coie, A. Paxton, M. Yu, C.H. Chen, and G.S. Dow, Foiwaid-
looking automotive iadai using a W-band single-chip tiansceivei," IEEE Transatons on Mtrowae T|eory
anJ Tet|nques, vol. 43, pp. 1659-1668, July, 1995.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Collins (Rockwell Inteinational), ALT-55 Radio Altimetei System; Instiuction Book, Cedai Rapids, Iowa,
Octobei 1984.
P.D. Fishei, Impioving on police iadai," IEEE Setrum, vol. 29, pp. 38-43, July 1992.
A.J. Fieiley, B.L. Conioy, D.J. Hoppe, and A.M. Bhanji, Design concepts of a 1-MW CW X-band tians-
mit/ieceive system foi planetaiy iadai," IEEE Transatons on Mtrowae T|eory anJ Tet|nques, vol. 40,
pp. 1047-1055, June 1992.
B. Maoz, L.R. Reynolds, A. Oki, and M. Kumai, FM-CW iadai on a single GaAs/AlGaAs HBT MMIC chip,"
IEEE Mtrowae anJ M||meer-Vae Mono||t Crtus Symosum Dges, pp. 3-6, June 1991.
F.E. Nathanson, RaJar Desgn Prnt|es, New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1991, pp. 448-467.
S.O. Pipei, MMW seekeis,"in Prnt|es anJ |taons o[ M||meer Vae RaJar, N. C. Cuiiie and C. E.
Biown, Eds., Noiwood, Mass.: Aitech House, 1987, chap. 14.
W.K. Saundeis, CW and FM iadai," in RaJar HanJ|oo|, M.I. Skolnik, Ed., New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1990,
chap. 14.
L.M. Tozzi, Resolution in fiequency-modulated iadais," Ph.D. thesis, Univeisity of Maiyland, College Paik,
1972.
F.T. Ulaby and C. Elachi, RaJar Po|armery [or Ceostente |taons, Noiwood, Mass.: Aitech House, 1990,
pp. 193-200.
J.C. Wiltse, S.P. Schlesingei, and C.M. Johnson, Back-scatteiing chaiacteiistics of the sea in the iegion fiom
10 to 50 GHz," ProteeJngs o[ |e IRE, vol. 45, pp. 220-228, Febiuaiy 1957.
Further Inlurmatiun
Foi a geneial tieatment, including analysis of cluttei effects, Nathanson`s 1991] book is veiy good and geneially
easy to iead. Foi extensive detail and specifc numbeis in vaiious actual cases, Saundeis 1990] gives good
coveiage. The tieatment of millimetei-wave seekeis by Pipei 1987] is excellent, both compiehensive and easy
to iead.