AngularMeasurement

Angularmeasurementsarerequiredfor manufacturingofparts Itisrequiredfornavigationofshipsand planes They Th arerequired i dfor f accuratedetermination d i i ofstarsandtheirapproximatedistances. Defofanangle?

AngularMeasurement
Itsdefinedastheopeningbetweenthetwolinesthatmeetatapoint. Ifoneofthelinesismovedaroundthepointinanarcthenacomplete circlecanbeformed. The Th basic b i unit i f formeasuring i the h angle l i isthe h right i h angle l which hi hdi divides id acircleintofourequalparts Ifacircleisdividedinto360equalparts,eachpartiscalledasdegree (o)andeachdegreeisdividedinto60minutes()andeachminuteis dividedinto60seconds() Alternatemethodistodefinetheangleonthebasisoftheradiusand thearcofacircle. Itscalledasaradian Radian d isanangle l subtended b d datthe h centreb bythe h arcof facircle l of f lengthequaltoitsradius. 2 radians=360o,giving 1degree=/180

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
Selectionoftheinstrumentdependsontheaccuracyrequired Thefollowing ginstrumentsareg generally yused: Vernier BevelProtractor OpticalBevelProtractor UniversalBevelprotractor SineBar Angle A l Gauges G Clinometer AngleDekkor Autocollimatoretc

AngularMeasurement
UniversalBevelProtractor: Itisusedtomeasureanglesaccuratelyto5minutes.itis finelymadetoolwithdial,graduatedindegrees,abaseand aslidingblade. Thebladecanbelockedagainstdialbytighteningtheblade clampnut.Thebladeanddialcanberotatedasoneunitto anypositionandlockedbytighteningthedialclampnutfor accuratemeasurement,avernier i orafine fi adjustment dj device,isfittedonthedial. Thevernier scaleisdividedintotwelveequalpartsoneach sideofzero,everythirddivisionisnumbered0,15,30,45, 60representingminutes.

AngularMeasurement
UniversalBevelProtractor:

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
SineBars:
Itisaprecisionmeasuringinstrumentandcombineslinear measurementandangularmeasurementwhenusedin conjunctionwithgaugeblocks(slipgauges). Itconsistsof fabar b carryingasuitable bl pairof frollers ll seta knowncentredistance.Itismadeofhighcarbon,high chromiumcorrosionresistantsteel, ,suitably yhardened, , precisiongroundandstabilized.Reliefholesareprovidedfor easyhandlingofsinebarandforreducingtheweightofthe sinebar. bar ItshouldbeusedonagradeAsurfaceplate. plate

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements

Thecentertocenterdistancebetweentherollersorplugsis availableforfixeddistancei.e.l=100,200,250,300mm.The diameteroftheplugsorrollermustbeofthesamesizeandthe p centerdistancebetweenthemisaccurate.Theimportant conditionforthesinebaristhatthesurfaceofsinebarmustbe paralleltothecenterlinesoftheplug.

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements

Iflisthelineardistancebetweentheaxesoftherollers andhistheheightoftheslipgauges,then sin =h/l

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
PrincipleofWorking: ofthejobWXYZis AsshowninFigurethetaperangle tobemeasuredbythesinebar. Thejobisplacedoverthesurfaceplate.Thesinebaris placedoverthejobwithplugorrollerofoneendofthe bartouchingthesurfaceplate.Oneendofthesinebar isrestedonthesurfaceplateandtheotherendis restedontheslipgauges. Theangleofthejobisthenfirstmeasuredbysome nonprecisioninstrument,suchasbevelprotector.That angle l gives i th theidea id of fthe th approximate i t slip li gauges required,attheotherendofsinebar.

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
PrincipleofWorking: Finally ytheexactnumberofslip pgauges g g areaddedequal q toheight g h,suchthat,thetopmostslipgaugestouchesthelowerendof theroller.Theheightoftheslipgaugesrequiredisthen measured Thenthetaperanglecanbemeasuredbymakingsine measured. barasahypotenuse

sin =h/l

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
SineCenters: Itistheextensionofsinebarswheretwoendsare providedonwhichcenterscanbeclamped,asshown inFigure.Theseareusefulfortestingofconicalwork centeredateachend,upto60.Thecentersensure correctalignmentoftheworkpiece.Theprocedureof settingisthesameasforsinebar.Thedialindicatoris moved dontothe h job j btill illthe h reading di is i sameatthe h extremeposition.Thenecessaryarrangementismade intheslipgaugeheightandtheangleiscalculatedas

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
SineCenters

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
DesignrequirementsofSineBars:
Therollersmustbeofequaldiameterandtrue geometriccylinders. Thedistancebetweentherolleraxesmustbeprecise andknown, ,andtheseaxesmustbemutually yp parallel. Theuppersurfaceofthebeammustbeflatand parallelwiththerolleraxes.

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
SourcesoferrorsinSineBars: rrorinthedistancebetweentherollers Error Errorsinslipgaugecombination Errorinparallelismbetweengaugingsurfaceand planeofrolleraxes Inequalityofsizeofrollersandcylindricalaccuracyin theformofrollers Errorsintheflatnessoftheupper pp surfaceofthebar

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
LimitationsofSineBars:
Itsessentiallyalengthmeasuringprocesssothe accuracydependsonthemeasurementoflength accurately Itsfairlyreliableatangleslessthan15o butbecomes increasinglyinaccuratewhentheangleincreases.

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
AngleGauges: Anglesgaugesarewedgeshapedblockandcanbeusedas standardforanglemeasurement. Theyreducethesetuptimeandminimizetheerror. o Theanglegaugesenabletheangletobesetat3o. Thesearemadeofhardenedsteelblocksandtypicallyhave dimensions75mmX17mmandavailablein2sets Onesentcontains12piecesandasquareblockinthreeseries valuesofangles 1o,3o,9o,27o,41o 1,3,9and27 6, 6 18and30. 30

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
AngleGauges: Thesecondsetconsistsof13piecesandasquareblock 1o,3o,9o,27o,41o 1,3,9and27 3,6,18and30. Eachanglegaugeisaccuratewithin1secondandismarked withVthatindicatedthedirectionoftheinclinedangle. Theseanglegaugescanbewrungtogethertoaddorsubtract angles.

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
PracticalusesofAngleGauges: Anglesgaugesarewedgeshapedblockandcanbeusedas standardforanglemeasurement. Theyreducethesetuptimeandminimizetheerror. Anglegauges ga gesareused sedinindustry ind str tomakequick q ickmeasurement meas rementof anglesbetweentwosurfaces. Thefrequent q useoftheseg gauges g istoseewhetherthe componentiswithinitstoleranceangleornot. Limitation: Bycombiningtheanglegaugesanyanglecouldbeformedbut theblockformedbycombinationisratherbulkynotconvenient touse.

Problem1QuizIIDate17/2/2014

Anangleof33o9 915 15istobemeasuredwith thehelpofthefollowingstandardgauges: [1o,3 3o,27 27o,9 9o][1 1,3 3,927]& 927]&[3,6, [3 6 18 18,30] 30] Showthearrangementofanglegaugeswitha neatsketchbyselectingminimumnumberof gauges.

Problemsolution
33o915
[1o,3o,27o,9o][1,3,927]&[3,6,18,30] 3 18

3o
9o 27o

Problem2 Angletobemeasuredis102o8 842 42withthe setofanglegaugesandasquareblock Whatwouldbethecombination?

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
Clinometer: AClinometerisaspecialcaseofapplicationofspiritlevel level. Herethespiritlevelismountedonarotarymembercarried inahousing. Onefaceofthehousingformsthebaseoftheinstrument. Onthehousing,thereisacircularscale. Thecircularscalecanmeasuretheangleofbase. TheClinometerismainlyusedtodeterminetheincluded angleoftwoadjacentfacesofworkpiece piece.

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements Clinometer

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
Clinometer: Tomeasuretheangle,theinstrumentbaseisplacedonone face&therotarybodyadjustedtillzeroreadingofthebubbleis obtained. Theangleofrotationisthennotedonthecircularscaleagainst theindex. index Asecondreadingisthentakeninasimilarmanneronthe piece. secondfaceoftheworkp Theincludedanglebetweenthefacesisthedifferencebetween thetworeadings. Varioustypes:Vernier Clinometer,micrometerclinometer, dialclinometersetc. Uses:Usedmainlytomeasureincludedangles, angles angularfacesof largecuttingtoolsetc.

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
AutoCollimater: Thisisanopticalinstrumentusedforthemeasurementofsmall angulardifferences,changesordeflections. Principleofautocollimator: Autocollimatorisatelescopeusedforcollimatingother instruments.Collimating ll lens l isused dtoconvertthe h light l h raysinto aparallelbeamoflight.

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
AutoCollimater: IfthereflectoristiltedtoanangleasshowninFigure,thenthe reflectedrayfromitwillconcentrateatsomeotherpointA'and therayswillbedeflectedthroughanangle2.Ifthedifference betweenAandA'ish.Whenthereflectorisstraight,thepath traveledbytherayisAOBOA AOBOA.Whenthereflectoristiltedbyan anglethenthepathtraveledbytherayisA',AOBO1,Awithan angle2.

h=2f Wherefisthefocallength

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
Autocollimatorhasthreeparts;micrometermicroscope, lighting unit&collimatingunit. Microopticautocollimatorshaveamicrometertomeasurethe angles

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
ApplicationsofAutoCollimator: AutoCollimatorareusedfor: Themeasurementofstraightnessandflatnessofsurfaces Comparativemeasurementusingmasterangles Assessmentofsquarenessandparallelismofcomponents Measurementofsmalllineardimensions Formachinetooladjustmentsetting

InstrumentsforAngularmeasurements
AngleDekkor: Thisisalsoatypeofan autocollimator Itcontainsa autocollimator. smallilluminatedscaleinthe focalplaneoftheobjective lens. Theilluminatedscaleis projectedasaparallelbeam bythecollimatinglenswhich Inthefieldofviewofthemicroscopethere afterastrikingthereflector isanotherdatumscalefixedacrossthe b l the below th i instrument t tis i re centerofscreen&thereflectedimageof focusedbythelensinthe theilluminatedscaleisreceivedatright angletothisfixedscale&thetwoscales,in fieldofviewoftheeye thispositionintersecteachother. piece.

AngleDekkor
Theangledekkor isusedwiththe combinationofanglegauges; thereadingistakenfortheanglegauges andthereflectedimageofanglegaugeis obtainedinthefieldofviewofeyepiece asshowninFigure.

SurfaceTexture Surface S f Fi Finish: ih

Thepartsproducedbymanufacturingprocesseslikecasting, hotworking, working coldworking, working powdermetallurgicalprocesses Surfacetextureinfluencespropertieslikeappearance, corrosionresistance,wearresistance,fatigueresistance, lubrication,initialtolerance,abilitytoholdpressureload carryingcapacity,noisereductioningears. Surfacegeneratedbyvariousmachiningoperationssuchas turning,milling,shaping,planningandgrinding,showmarked variationswhencomparedwitheachother. Thesurfaceofproducedbyanymanufacturingprocessisnever perfectlysmoothandwillhaveirregularitiesorroughness Theroughnessorirregularitiesareintermsofpeaksand valleys

SurfaceTexture
Surface S f Roughness: R h
Theyareseriesofregularlyrepeateddeviationsinthe formofawave, wave witharatioofpitchtoheight height. Thefollowingfactorsaffectthesurfaceroughness: Typeofcoolantused Cuttingparameterssuchasfeed,speedanddepthofcut Typeofmachining Rigidityofthesystem,consistingofmachinetool,fixture, cuttingtoolandwork Vibrations Type yp ofmachining g Materialoftoolandworkpiece.

SurfaceTexture
Thesurfaceroughnesshasbeenexperiencedand understoodbythesenseoflightandtouch. ymaterialbeing gmachinedby yconventional Any machiningprocesscannotbefinishedperfectly. Thesurfacegeneratedwillhavesomeirregularitiesand thesegeometricalirregularitiescouldbeclassifiedas follows FirstOrder:Itincludestheirregularitiesdevelopeddue totheinaccuraciesinthemachinetoolsuchaslackof straightnessofguideways,onwhichtoolpostis moving. SecondOrder:Itincludestheirregularitiesdeveloped d t due toth thevibrations ib ti and drigidity i idit of fth themachine hi t tools l .
Chattermarks

SurfaceTexture
ThirdOrder:Evenifthemachinesaresetproperlyandare devoidofvibrationsandalignmentsomeirregularitiesare causedbymachiningitselfduetothecharacteristicofthe process. FourthOrder:Theseoccurduetofractureofmaterialduringthe machiningoperation operation. Thesearefurthergroupedintwocategories yTexture( (roughness): g ) Surfaceirregularities g ofsmall Primary wavelengtharecalledasprimarytextureorroughness.The arecausedbydirectactionofthecuttingelementsonthe material Eg. material. Eg Cuttingtoolshape, shape toolfeedrate, rate orbysome otherdisturbancessuchasfriction,wearorcorrosion. SecondaryTexture(waviness):Surfaceirregularitiesoflarger wavelengtharecalledassecondarytextureorwaviness.

SurfaceTexture

SurfaceTexture
ElementsofsurfaceTexture:Variousdefinitions

Surface:
Thesurfaceunderconsideration,confinedbyaboundarywhich separates p thatpart p fromotherp parts/substance / orspace. p

NominalSurface: Anominalsurfaceisatheoretical,geometricallyperfect surfacewhichdoesnotexistinpracticebutisanaverageofthe irregularitiessuperimposedonit. Profile:

Itsdefinedasthecontourofanysectionthroughasurface

Roughness:
Itreferstotherelativelyfinelyspacedmicrogeometrical irregularities Itisalsocalledasprimarytextureandconstitutesa irregularities. thirdandfourthorderirregularities

RoughnessHeight:
Thisisratedasthearithmeticaveragedeviationexpressedin micrometernormaltotheimaginarycentrelinerunningthroughthe roughnessprofile

SurfaceTexture
ElementsofsurfaceTexture:Variousdefinitions

RoughnessWidth:
Roughnesswidthisthedistanceparalleltothenormalsurface betweensuccessivep peaksorridges g thatconstitutesthe predominantpatternoftheroughness

Waviness:
Wavinessconsistsofthosesurfaceirregularities g whichareofg greater spacingthanroughnessanditoccursintheformofwaves.These arealsotermedasmacrogeometricalerrorsandconstitute irregularitiesoffirstandsecondorder. These Th arecaused ddue d to t the th misalignment i li tof fcenters, t vibrations ib ti machineorworkdeflection,warpingetc.

Surfacetexture:
R Repetitive titi orrandom d deviations d i ti from f the th nominal i lsurface f obtained bt i d byusinginstruments

Flaws:
Flawsareirregularitiesordefectsthatoccuratinfrequentintervals andatrandomintervals.Eg.scratches,holes,cracksatc

SurfaceTexture

ElementsofsurfaceTexture:Variousdefinitions

Lay:
Itisthedirectionofp predominantsurfacep pattern producedbytoolmarksorscratches.Itisdeterminedby themethodofproductionused.

symbol

Interpretation
Parallel to the plane of projection of the view in which the symbol is used

Perpendicular to the plane of projection of the view in which the symbol is used Crossed in two slant direction relative to the plane of projection of the view in which the symbol is used Multidirectional

Approximately circular relative to the centre of the surface to which the symbol is applied Approximately radial relative to the centre t of f the th surface f t to which hi h the th symbol b l is applied

SurfaceTexture
ElementsofsurfaceTexture:Variousdefinitions Samplinglength: Itisthelengthoftheprofilenecessaryfortheevaluationof the h irregularities i l i i tobe b taken k into i account.Iti isalso l called ll d ascutofflength.Itismeasureinthedirectionparallelto theg generaldirectionofprofile. p Thesamplinglengthistherelatedtotheprocessusedfor finishingandisevolvedbytheIndianStandards. Standards

SurfaceTexture
Evaluationofsurfaceroughness: Anumericalassessmentcanbecarriedoutinnumberofways. Thesenumericalvaluesareobtainedwithrespecttoadatum. Thethreemethodsofevaluationofprimarytextureare: 1. Peaktovalleyheightmeasurement 2. Theaverageroughness 3 Formfactororbearingcurve 3. PeaktoValleyHeight: Thismethodusesthemaximumdepthofthesurface irregularityoveragivensamplelength,andlargestvalueof p isaccepted p asameasureofroughness. g thedepth

SurfaceTexture
AverageRoughness: Formeasurementofaverageroughnessthreestatistical methodsareused CLAmethod(CentreLineAverage): TocalculatethevalueofRa,fromagraph,itisnecessaryto haveameanline.Themeanlinecanbedrawnalongthe directionofthesurfaceprofileanddividingtheprofileinsucha waythattheareaabovethelineshouldapproximatelyequalto theareaundertheline. ThensuitablelengthLisselectedwhichiscalledsampling lengthforthegivensurface.ThenaverageheightRais calculatedasfollow:

SurfaceTexture
Surfaceroughnessvalue:

Raisthemostcommonlyspecifiedparametertospecify thesurfaceroughnessvalue Roughnessaverage(Ra)isthearithmeticaverageofthe absolutevalues oftheroughnessprofileordinates.

SurfaceTexture
Surfaceroughnessvalue:

SurfaceTexture

SurfaceTexture
AverageRoughness: 2.R.M.SAverage: RM.S.averagemeansRootmeansquarenumber.Itisthe geometricalaverageoftheordinatesoftheprofileaboutthemean line.Themeanlineorcenterlineislocatedsuchthatthesumofthe areasabovethelineisapproximatelyequaltosumoftheareas belowtheline. Ifnmeasurementsaremadefromthemeanlineaboveandbelowto thepointsonthesurfaceprofile, profile whicharedenotedbyYi. Yi Thenthe RM.S.Valueisthepositivesquarerootofthearithmeticmean ofthesquaresoftheYivaluesintheset

SurfaceTexture
AverageRoughness: 2.TenpointheightMethod(RZMethod): Inthismethodtheaveragedifferencebetween5highestpeaks andfivelowestvalleysofsurfacetexturewithinthesampling lengthmeasuredfromalineparalleltothemeanlineandnot crossingtheprofileisusedtodenotetheamountofsurface roughness

R4 R6

R2 R7

R1

R3 R8 R9

R5 R10

Rz =[(R1+R2+R3+R4+R5) [(R6+R7+R8+R9+R10)]

SurfaceTexture
StatementofSurfaceroughness: Surfaceroughnessvalue:ItisexpressedasRavaluein microns(m).IfasingleRavalueisstatedthenitis understood d t dthat th tanyRa R value l from f 0to t that th tstated t t dnumber b isacceptable. LimitingValue:WhenboththemaximumorminimumRa valuesareneededtobespecifiedthenitisexpressedas Ra8.0/16.0orRa8.0 16.0 SamplingLength:Itisexpressedintheparenthesisfollowing theroughnessvalueeg.Ra0.8(2.5).HeretheRavalueis0.8 forthesamplinglengthof2.5mm Lay: L Itis i sometimes ti expressed din i the th direction di ti of fl lay.Eg. E Ra R 2.5layparallel.Unlessitsspecifiedsurfaceroughnessis acrossthedirectionoflay Process:Theproductionprocessthatisusedisspecified

SurfaceTexture
Sr.No Manufacturingprocess Sandcasting Permanentmouldcasting Diecasting g Highpressurediecasting HotRolling F i Forging Extrusion FlameHardening,sawing& Chipping pp g HandGrinding DiscGrinding D illi Drilling Boring,Broaching,Hobbing Ravaluein 5to50 0.8to6.3 0.8to3.2 0.32to2 2.5to50 1 6t 1.6 to25 0.16to5 6.3to100 3.6to25 1.6to25 1 6t 1.6 to20 0.4to3.2 0.063to5 0.063to5 0.012to0.16 0.04to0.16

casting

HotWorking

Machining gOperation p

grinding g Surfaceg Cylindricalgrinding Grindingandsurfacefinishing Lapping Polisinh &Burnishing

SurfaceTexture
ConventionalMethodofDesignatingSurfaceFinish: AsperIS696surfacetexturespecifiedbyindicatingthe followingcharacteristicinthesymbols: RoughnessValue:i.e.,Rainm Machiningallowance:Itisexpressedinmm Samplinglengthorinstrumentcutoff:inmm MachiningproductionProcess:Theproductionprocessthat isusedisspecified DirectionofLayinthesymbolform:=,,Xetc

SurfaceTexture
Symbol ~ RaValueinm Above25 8to25 1.6to8 0.25to1.6 <0.025

SurfaceTexture
MeasurementofSurfaceFinish/SurfaceTexture: Measurementofsurfacefinishcanbecarriedoutbytwo ways Inspection I ti b bycomparison i Directinstrumentmeasurement InspectionbyComparison: VisualInspection ScratchInspection Microscopicinspection Surfacephotographs MicroInterferometers WallacesurfaceDynamometer Reflectedlightintensity

SurfaceTexture
MeasurementofSurfaceFinish/SurfaceTexture: Directinstrumentmeasurement Thesearethemethodsofquantitativeanalysis.These methodsenabletodeterminethenumericalvalueofsurface finishatanysurfacebyusinginstrumentsofstylusorprobe. Theoutputisamplifiedandtheamplifiedoutputisusedto operaterecordingorindicatinginstruments instruments. Thediamondprobeisdrawnoverthesurfaceofthework piece,theverticalmovementofthestylus p y causedduetothe irregularitiesinthesurfacetexturecanbeusedtoassessthe surfacefinishoftheworkpiece.

SurfaceTexture:TomlinsonSurfaceRecorder:

Thestylus movementisrestrictedinverticaldirectiononly withthehelpofcoilandleafspring.Thevariationinthe surfaceissensedbytheprobe andismagnified onasmoked glass

SurfaceTexture:TomlinsonSurfaceRecorder:
Advantages: 1.Itissimple. 2 Ith 2. haslow l cost. t 3.Itgivesreliableresults. Disadvantages: 1.Itisdelicateandrequiresgreatcare. 2 Itisslowinoperation. 2. operation 3.Itisnotsuitableforrapidandcontinuesuseontheshopfloor.

SurfaceTexture:TheTalysurf

TheTalysurf isastylusandskidinstrumentworkingonthe carriermodulatingprinciple. principle Itsresponseismorerapidandaccurateascomparedtothe TomlinsonSurfacemeter. Thestylusismovedovertheworkpieceandthevertical movementisconvertedintothechangeinelectriccurrent.

SurfaceTexture:TheTalysurf
ThemotionofthemeasuringheadisgivenbyaGearBox, Box whichhasamotor. Thisunitcanbemovedupanddownovertheguidewaysby ahandwheelprovidedatthetopandaleadscrew. Thediamondprobehasaradiusofabout2m andthe gearboxcangiveamaxtravelof12mmtoit. it Theworkpiece ismountedonastand,whichismountedonatable. g gmeterandapen p recorderisp providedfor Theaveraging obtainingagraphicalrecordonacontinuousgraphpaper. Thearmcarryingthestylusformsanarmature,whichis pivoted i t donth thecenterpiece t i of fEshaped h darmthere th arecoils il carryinganA.C.current.

SurfaceTexture:TheTalysurf

SurfaceTexture:TheTalysurf

Asthe A h armatureis i pivoted i dabout b the h centerl leg,anymovementof fthe h stylus l causestheairgaptovaryandthustheamplitudeoftheoriginalACcurrent flowinginthecoilsismodulated.Theoutputofthebridgethusconsistsof modulationonly only.Thisisfurtherdemodulated sothatthecurrentnowis directlyproportionaltotheverticaldisplacementofthestylusonlyandthis outputisthenrecordedwiththehelpofpenrecorder.

SurfaceTexture:Othermethods ofsurfaceroughness evaluation

PneumaticMethodsofEvaluatingsurfaceFinish: PopularlyknownasAirleakagemethod Compressedairismadetopassthroughaselfaligning nozzle whichmovesonthesurfacetobetested. Thegapbetweenthenozzletipoftheinstrumentandthe surfacetobetesteddependsontheheightofthemicro irregularities. irregularities Thesizeofthegapaffectstheairdischargethroughthe nozzle. Theairdischargeismeasuredbyarotameter that determinestheheightoftheirregularity

SurfaceTexture

Problem Homework Q3:Describetheworkingofatracertype profilograph. fil h Q4:Explainwhythesurfacefinishisimportant inEngineeringapplications.

Problems
Q1:CalculatetheCLARavalueforasurfaceforwhichthe samplinglengthis0.8mm. Thegraphwasdrawnwithaverticalmagnificationof10000 andhorizontalmagnificationof100andtheareasaboveand belowthedatumlineare Above:150,80,170&40mm2 Below:80,60,150and120mm2 Q2:Inthemeasurementofsurfaceroughnessheightof20 successivepeaksandtroughsweremeasuredfromadatum andwere35, 35 25, 25 40, 40 22, 22 35, 35 18 18,42 42,25 25,35 35,22 22,36, 36 18 18,42, 42 22, 22 32,21,37,18,35&20microns.Ifthesewereobtainedover alengthof20mmdeterminetheCLA(Ra)andRMSvalueof the h roughness. h

Screw ThreadMetrology
Threadsareofp primeimportance, p ,they yareusedas fasteners. Totransmitforceandmotion(moreimportantfunction) Inplainshaft,theholeassembly, assembly theobjectofdimensionalcontrolistoensurea certainconsistencyoffit. Incaseofthreadwork,theobjectistoensuremechanicalstrengthofthescrew thread beinggovernedbytheamountofflankcontactratherthanbyfitina thread, threadedhole. Theperformanceofscrewthreadsduringtheirassemblywithnutdependsupon anumberofparameterssuchastheconditionofthemachinetool usedfor screwcutting,workmaterialandtool. TheinspectionofthescrewthreadsrevealsthenatureofdefectspresentThe geometricaspectsofscrewthreadsarerelativelycomplexwithrespecttothe interrelationshipofpitchdiameter,variationinlead,helixandflankangle. Thegaugingofscrewthreadsistheprocessofdeterminingtheextenttowhich screwthreadconformdimensionallytotheprescribedlimitsofsize size.

Screw ThreadMetrology
ScrewThreadTerminology

Screw ThreadMetrology
ScrewThread h dTerminology l Pitch:Itisthedistancemeasuredparalleltothescrew threadsaxisbetweenthecorrespondingpointsontwo adjacentthreadsinthesameaxialplane.Thebasicpitch isequal q totheleaddividedby ythenumberofthreads. Minordiameter: Itisthediameterofanimaginaryco axialcylinderwhichtouchestherootsofexternal threads. Majordiameter: Itisthediameterofanimaginaryco axialcylinderwhichtouchesthecrestsofanexternal threadandtherootofaninternalthread. Lead: Theaxialdistanceadvancedbythescrewinone revolutionisthelead.

Screw ThreadMetrology
ScrewThreadTerminology Pitchdiameter:Itisthediameteratwhichthethread spaceandwidthareequaltohalfofthescrewthread Helixangle:Itistheanglemadebythehelixofthe threadatthepitchlinewiththeaxis.Theangleis measuredinanaxialplane. Flankangle: angle Itistheanglebetweentheflankanda linenormaltotheaxispassingthroughtheapexof thethread thread. Heightofthread:Itisthedistancemeasuredradially betweenthemajorandminordiametersrespectively.

Screw ThreadMetrology
ScrewThreadTerminology Depthofthread:Itisthedistancefromthetipofthreadto therootofthethreadmeasuredperpendiculartothe longitudinalaxis. Formofthread:Thisistheshapeofthecontourofone completethreadasseeninaxialsection. Externalthread:Athreadformedontheoutsideofawork pieceiscalledexternalthread. thread Internalthread:Athreadformedontheinsideofawork pieceiscalledinternalthread. Axisofthethread:Animaginarylinerunninglongitudinally throughthecenterofthescrewiscalledaxisofthethread. Angleofthethread:Itistheanglebetweentheflanksor slopeofthethreadmeasuredinanaxialplane.

Screw ThreadMetrology
ThreadForms Theformofthethreadgrooveisadistinctivefeatureby meansofwhichscrewthreadsmaybegroupedintotwo types: Vee threads h d areused dfor f fastening f purposes.Typical l formsareB.S.W(BritishstandardWhiteworth),B.A (BritishAssociation) Association),unified unified,metricetc etc. Transmissionthreads,usedtocausedisplacementsina mechanism. mechanism Thecommonexamplesmaybeleadscrewoflathethe typicalformsaresquareandacmetypeofthreads.

Screw ThreadMetrology
Thewhitworth thread hasanincludedangle of f55 between b t the th flanksandequalradii atcrestandroot root. Theseareintendedfor useas standardnuts,bolts andpipework The h B.A.thread h dwas introducedbyBritish Association. Association

Screw ThreadMetrology

MetricSystemInternationalThread
Inmetricthreads, ,thereisangle g andclearanceat crestandrootsothatcontactbetweenmating threadstakesplaceonlyontheflanks.

Screw ThreadMetrology
MeasurementofMinorDiameter(FloatingCarriage Micrometer): Floatingcarriagemicrometerisusedtomeasuretheminor diameter. It is suitable for almost all kinds of threads. The Veepiece are available in various sizes having suitable radii at th edge. the d Th standard The t d d is i kept k t between b t th micrometer the i t anvils with the help of V pieces as shown in Figure below:

Screw ThreadMetrology
Theindicatoranvilisusedtomaintainthesameconstant pressureatthetimeofmeasurement. Thediameterofstandardcylinderisknowntousandthe readingistakenfortheVpiecesinpositionasr1. Nowwithoutchangingthepositionofindicatoranvil,the standardcylinderisreplacedbyscrew.Thereadingisnow takenforthescrewthreadinpositionasr2 Ifdistheminordiameterofascrewthreadthenthevalueof dcanbecalculatedas,Minordiameter,d=(diameterof standardcylinder) (differencebetweenthereadings) d=d1 (r2 r1)

Screw ThreadMetrology
MeasurementofMajorDiameter: Themajordiameterofthescrewthreadscanbecheckedbythe useofmicrometerorvernier calipersasinplaindiameter measurement. Themajordiameterismeasuredbybenchmicrometerasshown intheFigurebelow Itusesconstantmeasuringpressurei.e.themeasurementsare madeatthesamepressure. pressure Fixedanvilisreplacedbyfiducial indicator.

BenchMicrometer

Screw ThreadMetrology
MeasurementofMajorDiameter: Theworkpieceisheldinhandandthemachinecanbeusedas acomparator p toavoidthepitch p errorsofmicrometers.Instead ofslipgauge,acalibratedsettingcylinderisusedasasetting standard,asitgivessimilarityofcontactattheanvils noted Thecylinderisheldandthereadingsofmicrometerarenoted. Thediameterofsettingcylinderisapproximatelyequaltothe majordiameter. Thec cylinder linderisreplacedby b threadedwork orkpiecesandthe readingsarenotedforthesamereadingoffiducial indicator. Ifd1=diameterofsettingcylinder r1=readingofmicrometeronsettingcylinder r2=micrometerreadingonthethread Thenmajordiameter=d1+(r2 r1)

Screw ThreadMetrology
MeasurementofMajorDiameter: Theworkpieceisheldinhandandthemachinecanbeusedas acomparator p toavoidthepitch p errorsofmicrometers.Instead ofslipgauge,acalibratedsettingcylinderisusedasasetting standard,asitgivessimilarityofcontactattheanvils noted Thecylinderisheldandthereadingsofmicrometerarenoted. Thediameterofsettingcylinderisapproximatelyequaltothe majordiameter. Thec cylinder linderisreplacedby b threadedwork orkpiecesandthe readingsarenotedforthesamereadingoffiducial indicator. Ifd1=diameterofsettingcylinder r1=readingofmicrometeronsettingcylinder r2=micrometerreadingonthethread Thenmajordiameter=d1+(r2 r1)

Screw ThreadMetrology
ThreadMeasurement: ToolMakersMicroscope:

Itisaversatileinstrumentthatmeasuresthevariationby opticalmeans,withnopressurebeinginvolved.Itisa veryusefulinstrumentformakingmeasurementsonsmall and dd delicate li t parts. t Itisdesignedforfollowingmeasurements: 1 Measurementsofpartsofcomplexform 1. form. 2.Theprofileofexternalthreadaswellastools 3.Measuring gcentertocenterdistanceofholesinany y plane 4.Accurateangularmeasurement 5 Determining 5. D i i the h relative l i position i i of fvarious i points i on work.

Screw ThreadMetrology

Screw ThreadMetrology
Thereareseveraldetachable andinterchangeable eyepiece units. The Th protractor unit i is i provided id dwith i hradial di land dcross settinglinesandaprotractor.Thismayberotatedby aknurledscrewforsettingalineintheprotractor unitwithalineontheimage;andreadingofthe protractormaybesettooneminute. showstheviewthroughtheprotractoreyepiece. Thethreadtemplateunithasselectedthreadforms arrangedaroundtheglassdiscintheeyepieceand thismayberotatedtobringtherequiredthread forminpositionforcomparingitwiththemagnified shadowofthework.

Screw ThreadMetrology

0.01 0 01mmforlength measurement. 3'forangle g measurement withrotatabletable. 1'foranglemeasurement withtheanglemeasuring ocular.

Fig.showstheviewthroughthe protractoreyepiece.Thethread templateunithasselectedthread formsarrangedaroundtheglassdisc intheeyepieceandthismaybe rotatedtobringtherequiredthread forminpositionforcomparingitwith themagnifiedshadowofthework.

Screw ThreadMetrology
Applicationsofthetoolmakersmicroscope: LengthMeasurement:Measuringthedistancebetweentwo points i t onwork kb bymeasuring i th thet table bl t travel lnecessaryto t bring bi thesecondpointtothepositionpreviouslyoccupiedbythefirst. Measurementofp pitchofthescrew: Thethreadedworkpieceismountedonthetable.The microscopeisfocusedonbyadjustingtheheightoftheoptical h duntil head ilasharp h i imageis i seenonthe h ground dglass l screen.The Th counterissetsuchthatsomepointonthecontourcoincides withthecrosslineonthescreen.Thereadingofthe micrometerisnoted.Thetableisthenmoveduntilthe correspondingpointonthecontourprofileisofthenextthread ismatchedwiththecrossline.Thereadingonthemicrometer isagainnotedandthedifferenceinthetworeadingsgivesthe pitchofthescrew.

Screw ThreadMetrology Measuringthedistancebetweentwopoints onworkbymeasuringthetabletravel necessarytobringthesecondpointtothe positionpreviouslyoccupiedbythefirst first. Comparisonofthreadformswithmaster profilesenlarged intheeyepieceand measurementofpitchandeffectivediameter. Measurementofanglesusingtheprotractor eyepiece.

GearMetrology
Gearsaretoothedwheelscommonlyusedto transmitpowerormotion Theyarethuspositiveinactionandprovideconstant velocityratiowhichisrequiredinmachinery Transmissionefficiencyofthegearsis99%provided therearenoerrors Powertransmission isthemovementofenergyfrom itsplaceofgenerationtoalocationwhereitis appliedtoperformingusefulwork Agearisacomponentwithinatransmissiondevice thattransmitsrotationalforcetoanothergearor device

TypesofGears 1.Accordingtothepositionofaxesofthe shafts. shafts a. Parallel 1 SpurGear 1.Spur 2.HelicalGear 3 RackandPinion 3.Rack b.Intersecting BevelGear c.NonintersectingandNonparallel wormandwormgears

TypesofGears
SPUR GEARS Teethareparallelto axis i of frotation t ti Transmitpowerfrom parallelshafts UsedinElectric screwdriver,oscillating sprinkler,windup alarmclock,washing machineandclothes clothes dryer

TypesofGears Helical Gears

Th Thet teeth thonh helical li lgearsare cutatanangletothefaceofthe gearforming g gap partofthehelix aroundthegear Thesegearsareusedfor transmissionofpowerbetween parallelaswell asnonparallel shafts Thesegears rumsmoothlyand aremorequietathighspeedsas comparedtospurgears

TypesofGears
RackandPinionGears
Rackandpiniongears Rackgearsarestraight gearswithinfiniteradius. Rackandpinionareused incombinationto convertrotarymotion intoreciprocatingmotion Aperfectexampleofthis isthesteeringsystemon manycars

TypesofGears
BevelGears
Bevelgears areusefulwhenthedirectionofa shaft'srotationneedstobechanged Theyareusuallymountedonshaftsthatare90 degreesapart,butcanbedesignedtoworkatother angles g aswell Theteethonbevelgearscanbestraightor spiral locomotives,marineapplications,automobiles, printingpresses,coolingtowers,powerplants, steelplants,railwaytrackinspectionmachines,etc.

TypesofGears
Straight and Spiral Bevel Gears

TypesofGears
WormGears
Wormgears areusedwhenlargegearreductionsare needed.Itiscommonforwormgearstohave reductionsof20:1,andevenupto300:1 orgreater Manywormgearshaveaninterestingpropertythatno othergearsethas:thewormcaneasilyturnthegear, gear butthegearcannotturntheworm Wormgearsareusedwidelyinmaterialhandlingand transportationmachinery,machinetools,automobiles etc

TypesofGears WormGears

GearNomenclature
NOMENCLATURE OF SPUR GEARS

GearNomenclature
Pitchsurface:Thesurfaceoftheimaginaryrolling cylinder(cone,etc.)thatthetoothedgearmaybe consideredtoreplace. Pitchcircle:Arightsectionofthepitchsurface. Addendumcircle:Acircleboundingtheendsofthe teeth,inarightsectionofthegear. Root(ordedendum)circle:Thecircleboundingthe spacesbetweentheteeth,inarightsectionofthegear. Addendum:Theradialdistancebetweenthepitchcircle andtheaddendumcircle. Dedendum:Theradialdistancebetweenthepitchcircle andtherootcircle. Clearance:Thedifferencebetweenthededendum ofone gearandtheaddendumofthematinggear.

GearNomenclature
Faceofatooth:Thatpartofthetoothsurfacelyingoutside the h pitch hsurface. f Flankofatooth:Thepartofthetoothsurfacelyinginsidethe pitchsurface. Circularthickness (alsocalledthetooththickness):The thicknessofthetoothmeasuredonthepitchcircle.Itisthe lengthofanarcandnotthelengthofastraightline. Toothspace:pitchdiameterThedistancebetweenadjacent teethmeasuredonthepitchcircle. Backlash:Thedifferencebetweenthecirclethicknessofone gearand dthe h tooth hspaceof fthe h mating i gear. Circularpitch (Pc):Thewidthofatoothandaspace, measuredonthepitchcircle. D Pc N

GearNomenclature
Diametral pitch(Pd):Thenumberofteethofagearunitpitch d diameter. The h diametrical d lpitch his,by b definition, d f the h number b ofteethdividedbythepitchdiameter.Thatis, Where Pd=diametral pitch N=numberofteeth D=pitchdiameter
Pd = N D

Module (m):Pitchdiameterdividedbynumberofteeth. teeth The pitchdiameterisusuallyspecifiedininchesormillimeters;in theformercasethemoduleistheinverseofdiametral pitch. m=D/N

VELOCITY RATIO OF GEAR DRIVE

d =Diameterofthewheel N=Speedofthewheel =Angular l speed d
velocityratio(n) =

2 N 2 d1 = = 1 N 1 d 2

TypesofGears

AssignmentIIIDateofSubmission:07/03/2014

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Whatisasinebar?Howisitusedforanglemeasurement? Whatareclinometers?Explainitsuseinanglemeasurement. Explainautocollimatorforanglemeasurement. Describethefollowingtermsinrelationtosurfaceroughness:

a) b) Ravalue Rz value

ExplaintheworkingofTomlinsonsurfacemeter. Explainhowthesurfaceroughnesstextureisindicatedona drawingwithanexample. Explainwithsketches:

a) ) b) Angle A l Dekkor D kk Sinecentres

DrawaneatlabeleddiagramofscrewthreadandGearand explaintheimportantterms terms.