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As interesting as the problem of knowledge is, however, this essay is not devoted to the subject of knowledge (or scientific knowledge for that matter) per se; therefore, I will not develop it any further. The point I am making here by bringing the issue of knowledge to the Reader's attention is that both knowledge management and IAS examination knowledge economy in their present form can only apply to a very restricted area of the vast phenomenon called knowledge. This alone makes them both vulnerable to all kinds of criticism, unless they deal with a rather restricted field of human activities and use a very clear and narrow definition of knowledge. Communities of

practice are widespread in Siemens. In semiconductor manufacturing, the worldwide sales force in information and communications networks is another community.

As the Siemens case and similar examples illustrates, an effective knowledge management programme is holistic in nature. An analysis of many successful programmes shows that the recurring critical success factors are as follows: Clear and explicit links to organizational strategy and objectives. The contribution of knowledge towards achieving business objectives is clearly articulated. Knowledge is explicitly considered when developing business strategies and operational plans. A compelling vision and architecture. This is often a simple visual framework that is easily understood and communicated. It portrays the role of knowledge in an organization's success and depicts the key activities and responsibilities for its management. Knowledge leadership. There are knowledge leaders throughout the organization. Top management is supportive of, or even actively promotes, the knowledge agenda. There are individuals, such as a Chief Knowledge Officer (CKO), who have specific responsibilities for enhancing corporate strategy through better application and management of knowledge. There are knowledge champions throughout the business. A well-developed information and communications infrastructure - the 'hard' infrastructure. At the physical level, there must be reliable and responsive access to the IAS exam preparation In addition; some groups will need more specific computer-based knowledge tools such as decision support systems and casebased reasoning. Corporate network, from any work location. Knowledge sharing is then facilitated through organization-wide deployment of collaborative technology, such as an intranet and facilities for managing online communities. A knowledge creating and sharing culture - the 'soft' infrastructure. (This is sometimes referred to as the 'harder' infrastructure reflecting the more difficult problem of handling people-related factors.) This is an environment that encourages knowledge sharing, experimentation and innovation. Rewards and sanctions help to break down any 'not invented here' or 'knowledge is power' attitudes, as does working environment, personal behaviours and management style. Emphasis on continuous learning. Time is allowed, even encouraged, for individuals and teams to step back from frenetic day-to-day activity for review and reflection. Successes and failures are analyzed.