Arrillaga, J.

Power Quality
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
62
over uaIIfy
62.1 Powei Quality Distuibances
Peiiodic Wavefoim Distoition Voltage Fluctuations and Flickei
Biief Inteiiuptions, Sags, and Swells Unbalances Tiansients
62.2 Powei Quality Monitoiing
62.3 Powei Quality Conditioning
Ideally, powei should be supplied without inteiiuptions at constant fiequency, constant voltage and with
peifectly sinusoidal and, in the case of thiee-phase, symmetiical wavefoims. Supply ieliability constitutes a
iecognized independent topic, and is not usually discussed undei powei quality. The specifc object of powei
quality is the ureness" of the supply including voltage vaiiations and wavefoim distortion.
Powei system disturbances and the continually changing demand of consumeis give iise to voltage vaiiations.
Deviation fiom the sinusoidal voltage supply can be due to tiansient phenomena oi to the piesence of non-
lineai components.
The powei netwoik is not only the main souice of eneigy supply but also the conducting vehicle foi possible
inteifeiences between consumeis. This is a subject that comes undei the geneial heading of electiomagnetic
compatibility (EMC).
EMC iefeis to the ability of electiical and electionic components, equipment, and systems to opeiate
satisfactoiily without causing inteifeience to othei equipment oi systems, oi without being affected by othei
opeiating systems in that electiomagnetic enviionment.
EMC is often peiceived as inteifeience by electiomagnetic iadiation between the vaiious elements of a system.
The scope of EMC, howevei, is moie geneial and it also includes conductive piopagation and coupling by
capacitance, inductance (self and mutual) encompassing the whole fiequency spectium.
A powei quality pioblem is any occuiience manifested in voltage, cuiient, oi fiequency deviation that iesults
in failuie oi misopeiation of equipment. The newness of the teim ieects the newness of the concein. Decades
ago, powei quality was not a woiiy because it had no effect on most loads connected to electiic distiibution systems.
Theiefoie, powei quality can also be defned as the ability of the electiical powei system to tiansmit and
delivei electiical eneigy to the consumeis within the limits specifed by EMC standaids.
62.1 Puver Qua!ity Disturbances
Following standaid ciiteiia IEC, 1993], the main deviations fiom a peifect supply aie
peiiodic wavefoim distoition (haimonics, inteihaimonics)
voltage uctuations, ickei
shoit voltage inteiiuptions, dips (sags), and incieases (swells)
thiee-phase unbalance
tiansient oveivoltages
The main causes, effects and possible contiol of these distuibances aie consideied in the following sections.
}os ArrIIIaga
Inverry of Conrerbury
/Nev Zeo|ond)
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Periudic Wavelurm Disturtiun
Haimonics aie sinusoidal voltages oi cuiients having fiequencies that aie whole multiples of the fiequency at
which the supply system is designed to opeiate (e.g., 50 Hz oi 60 Hz). An illustiation of ffth haimonic distoition
is shown in Fig. 62.1. When the fiequencies of these voltages and cuiients aie not an integei of the fundamental
they aie teimed inteihaimonics.
Both haimonic and inteihaimonic distoition is geneially caused by equipment with non-lineai voltage/cui-
ient chaiacteiistics.
In geneial, distoiting equipment pioduces haimonic cuiients that, in tuin, cause haimonic voltage diops
acioss the impedances of the netwoik. Haimonic cuiients of the same fiequency fiom diffeient souices add
vectoiially.
The main detiimental effects of haimonics aie Aiiillaga et al., 1985]
malopeiation of contiol devices, main signalling systems, and piotective ielays
extia losses in capacitois, tiansfoimeis, and iotating machines
additional noise fiom motois and othei appaiatus
telephone inteifeience
The piesence of powei factoi coiiection capacitois and cable capacitance can cause shunt and seiies
iesonances in the netwoik pioducing voltage amplifcation even at a iemote point fiom the distoiting
load.
As well as the above, inteihaimonics can peituib ripple control signals and at sub-haimonic levels can cause
ickei.
To keep the haimonic voltage content within the iecommended levels, the main solutions in cuiient use aie
the use of high pulse iectifcation (e.g., smelteis and HVdc conveiteis)
passive flteis, eithei tuned to individual fiequencies oi of the band-pass type
active flteis and conditioneis
The haimonic souices can be giouped in thiee categoiies accoiding to theii oiigin, size, and piedictability,
i.e., small and piedictable (domestic and iesidential), laige and iandom (aic fuinaces), and laige and piedictable
(static conveiteis).
Sma!! Suurces
The iesidential and commeicial powei system contains laige numbeis of single-phase conveitei-fed powei
supplies with capacitoi output smoothing, such as TVs and PCs, as shown in Fig. 62.2. Although theii individual
iating is insignifcant, theie is little diveisity in theii opeiation and theii combined effect pioduces consideiable
odd-haimonic distoition. The gas dischaige lamps add to that effect as they pioduce the same haimonic
components.
FIGURE 62.1 Example of a distoited sine wave.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Figuie 62.3 illustiates the cuiient wavefoim and haimonic spectium of a typical high effciency lamp. The
total harmonic distortion (THD) of such lamps can be between 50 and 150%.
Large and Randum Suurces
The most common and damaging load of this type is the aic fuinace. Aic fuinaces pioduce iandom vaiiations
of haimonic and inteihaimonic content which is uneconomical to eliminate by conventional flteis.
FIGURE 62.2 Single-phase biidge supply foi a TV set.
FIGURE 62.3 Cuiient wavefoim (a) and haimonic spectium (b) of a high effciency lamp.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Figuie 62.4 shows a snap-shot of the fiequency spectia pioduced by an aic fuinace duiing the melting and
iefning piocesses, iespectively. These aie gieatly in excess of the iecommended levels.
These loads also pioduce voltage uctuations and ickei. Connection to the highest possible voltage level
and the use of seiies ieactances aie among the measuies cuiiently taken to ieduce theii impact on powei quality.
Static Cunverters
Laige powei conveiteis, such as those found in smelteis and HVdc tiansmission, aie the main pioduceis of
haimonic cuiient and consideiable thought is given to theii local elimination in theii design.
The standaid confguiation foi industiial and HVdc applications is the twelve-pulse conveitei, shown in
Fig. 62.5. The t|araterst" haimonic cuiients foi the confguiation aie of oideis 12 K 1 and theii amplitudes
aie inveisely piopoitional to the haimonic oidei, as shown by the spectium of Fig. 62.6(b) which coiiespond
to the time wavefoim of Fig. 62.6(a). These aie, of couise, maximum levels foi ideal system conditions, i.e.,
with an infnite (zeio impedance) ac system and a peifectly at diiect cuiient (i.e., infnite smoothing ieactance).
When the ac system is weak and the opeiation not peifectly symmetiical, uncharacteristic harmonics appeai
Aiiillaga, 1983].
While the chaiacteiistic haimonics of the laige powei conveitei aie ieduced by flteis, it is not economical
to ieduce in that way the unchaiacteiistic haimonics and, theiefoie, even small injection of these haimonic
cuiients can, via paiallel iesonant conditions, pioduce veiy laige voltage distoition levels.
FIGURE 62.4 Typical fiequency spectia of aic fuinace opeiation. (a) Duiing fusion; (b) duiing iefning.
FIGURE 62.5 Twelve-pulse conveitei.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
An example of unchaiacteiistic conveitei behavioi is the piesence of fundamental fiequency on the dc side
of the conveitei, often induced fiom ac tiansmission lines in the pioximity of the dc line, which pioduces
second haimonic and diiect cuiient on the ac side.
Even haimonics, paiticulaily the second, aie veiy disiuptive to powei electionic devices and aie, theiefoie,
heavily penalized in the iegulations.
The ow of dc cuiient in the ac system is even moie distoiting, the most immediate effect being asymmetiical
satuiation of the conveiteis oi othei tiansfoimeis with a consideiable inciease in even haimonics which, undei
ceitain conditions, can lead to harmonic instabilities Chen et al., 1996].
Anothei common example is the appeaiance of tiiplen haimonics. Asymmetiical voltages, when using a
common fiing angle contiol foi all the valves, iesult in cuiient pulse width diffeiences between the thiee phases
which pioduce tiiplen haimonics. To pievent this effect, modein laige powei conveiteis use the equidistant fiing
concept instead Ainswoith, 1968]. Howevei, this contiollei cannot eliminate second haimonic amplitude mod-
ulation of

the dc cuiient which, via the conveitei modulation piocess, ietuins thiid haimonic cuiient of positive
sequence. This cuiient can ow thiough the conveitei tiansfoimei iegaidless of its connection and penetiate fai
into the ac system. Again, the piesence of tiiplen haimonics is discouiaged by stiictei limits in the iegulations.
Yu!tage F!uctuatiuns and F!icker
This gioup includes two bioad categoiies, i.e.,
step voltage changes, iegulai oi iiiegulai in time, such as those pioduced by welding machines, iolling
mills, mine windeis, etc. Figs. 62.7(a) and (b)].
cyclic oi iandom voltage changes pioduced by coiiesponding vaiiations in the load impedance, the most
typical case being the aic fuinace load (Fig. 62.7(c)).
FIGURE 62.6 Twelve-pulse conveitei cuiient. (a) Wavefoim; (b) spectium.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Geneially, since voltage uctuations have an amplitude not exceeding
10%, most equipment is not affected by this type of distuibance. Theii
main disadvantage is ickei, oi uctuation of luminosity of an incandes-
cent lamp. The impoitant point is that it is impossible, in piactice, to
change the chaiacteiistics of the flament. The physiological discomfoit
associated with this phenomenon depends on the amplitude of the uc-
tuations, the iate of iepetition foi voltage changes, and the duiation of the
distuibance. Theie is, howevei, a peiceptibility thieshold below which
ickei is not visible.
Flickei is mainly associated with the aic fuinaces because they diaw
diffeient amounts of cuiient each powei cycle. The upshot is a modulation
of the system voltage magnitude in the vicinity of the fuinace. The mod-
ulation fiequency is in the band 0 to 30 Hz, which is in the iange that can
cause noticeable ickei of light bulbs.
The ickei effect is usually evaluated by means of a ickeimetei (IEC
Publication 868). Moieovei, the amplitude of modulation basically
depends on the iatio between the impedance of the distuibing installation
and that of the supply netwoik.
Briel Interruptiuns, Sags, and Sve!!s
Yu!tage Dips [SAGS)
A voltage dip is a sudden ieduction (between 10 and 90%) of the voltage, at a point in the electiical system,
such as that shown in Fig. 62.8, and lasting foi 0.5 cycle to seveial seconds.
Dips with duiations of less than half a cycle aie iegaided as tiansients.
A voltage dip may be caused by switching opeiations associated with tempoiaiy disconnection of supply,
the ow of heavy cuiient associated with the stait of laige motoi loads oi the ow of fault cuiients. These
events may emanate fiom customeis` systems oi fiom the public supply netwoik.
The main cause of momentaiy voltage dips is piobably the lightning stiike. In the majoiity of cases, the
voltage diops to about 80% of its nominal value. In teims of duiation, dips tend to clustei aiound thiee values:
4 cycles (the typical cleaiing time foi faults), 30 cycles (the instantaneous ieclosing time foi bieakeis), and
120 cycles (the delayed ieclosing time of bieakeis). The effect of a voltage dip on equipment depends on both
its magnitude and its duiation; in about 42% of the cases obseived to date they aie seveie enough to exceed
the toleiance standaid adopted by computei manufactuieis.
Possible effects aie:
extinction of dischaige lamps
incoiiect opeiation of contiol devices
speed vaiiation oi stopping of motois
tiipping of contactois
computei system ciash oi measuiing eiiois in instiuments equipped with electionic devices
commutation failuie in HVdc conveiteis Aiiillaga, 1983]
FIGURE 62.8 Voltage sag.
FIGURE 62.7 Voltage uctuations.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Briel Interruptiuns
Biief inteiiuptions can be consideied as voltage sags with 100% amplitude (see Fig. 62.9). The cause may be
a blown fuse oi bieakei opening and the effect an expensive shutdown. Foi instance, a fve-cycle inteiiuption
at a glass factoiy has been estimated as $200,000, and a majoi computei centei iepoits that a 2-second outage
can cost appioximately $600,000. The main piotection of the customei against such events is the installation
of uninteiiuptible powei supplies oi powei quality conditioneis (discussed latei).
Briel Yu!tage Increases [SWELLS)
Voltage swells, shown in Fig. 62.10, aie biief incieases in ims voltage that sometimes accompany voltage sags.
They appeai on the unfaulted phases of a thiee-phase ciicuit that has developed a single-phase shoit ciicuit.
They also occui following load iejection.
Swells can upset electiic contiols and electiic motoi diives, paiticulaily common adjustable-speed diives,
which can tiip because of theii built-in piotective ciicuitiy. Swells may also stiess delicate computei components
and shoiten theii life.
Possible solutions to limit this pioblem aie, as in the case of sags, the use of uninteiiuptible powei supplies
and conditioneis.
Lnba!ances
Unbalance desciibes a situation, as shown in Fig. 62.11, in which the voltages of a thiee-phase voltage souice
aie not identical in magnitude, oi the phase diffeiences between them aie not 120 electiical degiees, oi both.
It affects motois and othei devices that depend on a well-balanced thiee-phase voltage souice.
FIGURE 62.9 Voltage inteiiuption.
FIGURE 62.10 Voltage swell.
FIGURE 62.11 Voltage unbalance.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
The degiee of unbalances is usually defned by the piopoition of negative and zeio sequence components.
The main causes of unbalance aie single-phase loads (such as electiic iailways) and untiansposed oveihead
tiansmission lines.
A machine opeiating on an unbalanced supply will diaw a cuiient with a degiee of unbalance seveial times
that of the supply voltage. As a iesult, the thiee-phase cuiients may diffei consideiably and tempeiatuie iise
in the machine will take place.
Motois and geneiatois, paiticulaily the laige and moie expensive ones, may be ftted with piotection to
detect extieme unbalance. If the supply unbalance is suffcient, the sng|e-|asng" piotection may iespond to
the unbalanced cuiients and tiip the machine.
Polyphase conveiteis, in which the individual input phase voltages contiibute in tuin to the dc output, aie
also affected by an unbalanced supply, which causes an undesiiable iipple component on the dc side, and non-
chaiacteiistic haimonics on the ac side.
Transients
Voltage distuibances shoitei than sags oi swells aie classifed as tiansients and aie caused by sudden changes
in the powei system Gieenwood, 1971]. They can be impulsive, geneially caused by lightning and load
switching, and oscillatoiy, usually due to capacitoi-bank switching.
Capacitoi switching can cause iesonant oscillations leading to an oveivoltage some thiee to foui times the
nominal iating, causing tiipping oi even damaging piotective devices and equipment. Electionically based
contiols foi industiial motois aie paiticulaily susceptible to these tiansients.
Accoiding to theii duiation, tiansient oveivoltages can be
divided into:
switching suige (duiation in the iange of ms)
impulse, spike (duiation in the iange of s)
Suiges aie high-eneigy pulses aiising fiom powei system
switching distuibances, eithei diiectly oi as a iesult of iesonating
ciicuits associated with switching devices. They also occui duiing
step load changes.
Impulses in micioseconds, as shown in Fig. 62.12, iesult fiom
diiect oi indiiect lightning stiokes, aicing, insulation bieakdown,
etc.
Piotection against suiges and impulses is noimally achieved
by suige-diveiteis and aic-gaps at high voltages and avalanche diodes at low voltages.
Fastei tiansients in nanoseconds due to electiostatic dischaiges, an impoitant categoiy of EMC, aie not
noimally discussed undei Powei Quality.
62.2 Puver Qua!ity Munituring
Figuie 62.13 illustiates the vaiious components of a powei quality detection system, i.e., voltage and cuiient
tiansduceis, infoimation tiansmission, instiumentation, and displays.
The most ielevant infoimation on powei quality monitoiing iequiiements can be found in the document
IEC 1000-4.7. This document piovides specifc iecommendations on monitoiing accuiacy in ielation to the
opeiating condition of the powei system.
With iefeience to monitoiing of individual fiequencies, the maximum iecommended ielative eiiois foi the
magnitude and phase aie 5% and 5
o
, iespectively, undei noimal opeiating conditions and with constant voltage
oi cuiient levels. Howevei, such piecision must be maintained foi voltage vaiiations of up to 20% (of nominal
value) and 100% (peak value). Foi cuiient measuiements, the piecision levels apply foi oveicuiients of up to
20% and peaks of 3 times ims value (on steady state) and 10 times the nominal cuiient foi a 1-sec duiation.
Eiiois in the fiequency iesponse of cuiient tiansfoimeis occui due to capacitive effects, which aie not
signifcant in the haimonic iegion (say, up to the 50th haimonic), and also due to magnetizing cuiients. The
FIGURE 62.12 Impulse.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
lattei can be minimized by ieducing the cuiient tiansfoimei load and impioving the powei factoi; the ideal
load being a shoit-ciicuited secondaiy with a t|am to monitoi the cuiient. Alteinative tiansduceis aie being
pioposed foi high fiequency measuiements using optical, magneto-optical, and Hall effect piinciples.
The iion-coie voltage tiansfoimeis iespond well to haimonic fiequencies foi voltages up to 11 kV. Due to
insulation capacitance, these tiansfoimeis aie not iecommended foi much highei voltages. The conventional
capacitive voltage tiansfoimeis (CVTs) aie totally inadequate due to low fiequency iesonances between the
capacitive dividei and the output magnetic tiansfoimei; special poitable capacitive divideis, without the output
tiansfoimeis, aie noimally used foi such measuiements. Again, alteinative tiansducei piinciples, as foi the
cuiient tiansfoimei, aie being pioposed foi futuie schemes.
The signal tiansmission fiom the tiansduceis to the contiol ioom passes thiough veiy noisy electiomagnetic
enviionments and the tendency is to use fbei optic cables, designed to caiiy eithei analog oi digital samples
of infoimation in the time domain.
The time domain infoimation is conveited by signal oi haimonic analyzeis into the fiequency domain; the
instiumentation is also piogiammed to deiive any iequiied powei quality indexes, such as THD (total haimonic
distoition), EDV (equivalent distoition voltage), EDI (equivalent distoition cuiient), etc.
The signal piocessing is peifoimed by eithei analog oi digital instiumentation, though the lattei is giadually
displacing the foimei. Most digital instiuments in existence use the FFT (Fast Fouiiei Tiansfoim). The pio-
cessing of infoimation can be continuous oi discontinuous depending on the chaiacteiistic of the signals undei
measuiement with iefeience to wavefoim distoition. Document IEC 1000-4.7 lists the following types:
quasi stationaiy haimonics
uctuating haimonics
inteimittent haimonics
inteihaimonics
Only in the case of quasi stationaiy wavefoims can the use of discontinuous monitoiing be justifed; examples
of this type aie the well-defned loads such as TV and PC sets.
FIGURE 62.13 Powei quality monitoiing components.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
In the iemaining categoiies, it is necessaiy to peifoim ieal time continuous monitoiing; examples of loads
pioducing non-stationaiy distoition aie aic fuinaces and iolling mills.
Most of the instiuments commeicially available aie not designed specifcally foi powei system application,
i.e., they aie not multi-phase and cannot piocess continuous infoimation. At the time of wiiting, the only
system capable of multi-channel thiee-phase ieal time continuous monitoiing is CHART Millei and Dewe,
1992] which, although oiiginally designed foi haimonic monitoiing, is capable of deiiving continuous infoi-
mation of othei powei quality indexes such as ickei. It is based on the Intel Multi-bus II aichitectuie and the
RMX 386 opeiating system. An illustiation of the system, shown in Fig. 62.14, includes iemote data conveision
modules, digital fbei optic tiansmission, GPS synchionization, cential paiallel piocessing, and etheinet-
connected PCs foi distant contiol and display.
62.3 Puver Qua!ity Cunditiuning
A common device in cuiient use to ensuie supply continuity foi ciitical loads is the UPS oi uninteiiuptible
powei supply. Foi biief inteiiuptions, the UPS aie of the static type, using batteiies as the eneigy souice and
involving a iectifei/inveitei system. A block diagiam of a typical UPS is shown in Fig. 62.15 Heydt, 1991].
FIGURE 62.14 Simultaneous measuiement of voltages and cuiients in a thiee-phase line.
FIGURE 62.15 Uninteiiuptible powei supply.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
In the next few yeais powei quality enhancements, in teims of ieduced
inteiiuptions and voltage vaiiations, can be expected by the application
of powei electionic contiolleis to utility distiibution systems and/oi at
the supply end of many industiial and commeicial customeis.
Among the solutions alieady available aie the solid state ciicuit bieakei,
the static condenseis (oi statcon), and the dynamic voltage iestoiei Hin-
goiani, 1995].
In a solid state ciicuit bieakei, thyiistois connected back-to-back foim
an ac switch module, seveial of which aie, in tuin, connected in seiies to
acquiie the iequiied voltage iating. The bieakei will inteiiupt the ciicuit
at the fist zeio of the ac cuiient. This means a delay of a few milliseconds,
which should be acceptable foi most applications.
Figuie 62.16 shows a simplifed illustiation of a statcon which is made
up of GTOs (Gate Tuin Off) oi similai devices such as insulated-gate
bipolai tiansistois (IGBTs) oi MOS-contiolled thyiistois (MCTs). The
conveitei is diiven by a dc stoiage device such as a dc capacitoi, batteiy,
oi supeiconducting magnetic stoiage, and an ac tiansfoimei.. The dynamic
voltage iestoiei, shown schematically in Fig. 62.17, tuins a distoited wave-
foim, including voltage dips, into the iequiied wavefoim. The device injects
the iight amount of voltage by way of a seiies-connected tiansfoimei into
the distiibution feedei between the powei supply side and load side.
The dynamic voltage iestoiei is similai to the statcon, with a tians-
foimei, conveitei, and stoiage, except that the tiansfoimei is connected
in seiies with the busbai feeding the sensitive load. Compensation occuis in both diiections, making up foi
the voltage dips and ieducing the oveivoltage. The iesponse is veiy fast, occuiiing within a few milliseconds.
The capacity of the dc stoiage capacitoi, in both the statcon and the dynamic voltage iestoiei, deteimines
the duiation of the coiiection piovided foi individual voltage dips. It can be a few cycles oi seconds long. To
enhance the load suppoit capability, a stoiage batteiy with a boostei electionic ciicuit can be connected in
paiallel with the capacitoi.
Supeiconducting magnetic eneigy stoiage can be veiy effective to piovide powei foi shoit peiiods. When
the stoiage is not suppoiting the load, the conveitei will automatically chaige the stoiage fiom the utility
system, to be ieady foi the next event.
FIGURE 62.17 Dynamic voltage iestoiei.
FIGURE 62.16 Static condensei.
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Dehning Terms
Distortion: Any deviation fiom a peifectly sinusoidal wave.
Disturbance: Any sudden change in the intended powei, voltage, oi cuiient supply.
FFT (fast Fourier transform): Effcient computation of the disciete Fouiiei tiansfoim.
GPS (global positioning satellite): Used foi time stamping and synchionization of multi-measuiements at
diffeient geogiaphical locations.
Harmonic instability: Extieme distoition of the voltage wavefoim at a paiticulai fiequency that causes inveitei
malopeiation.
HVdc: High voltage diiect cuiient tiansmission.
Ripple control signal: A buist of pulses at a fxed non-haimonic fiequency injected into the powei system foi
the puipose of load management contiol.
Sequence components: Thiee symmetiical sets of voltages oi cuiients equivalent to an asymmetiical thiee-
phase unbalanced set.
THD (total harmonic distortions): The iatio of ims value of the haimonic content to the ims value of the
geneiated fiequency (in %).
Uncharacteristic harmonics: Static conveitei haimonics of oideis diffeient fiom P| 1 wheie P is the pulse
numbei.
Re!ated Tupic
5.3 Distoition
Relerences
J. Ainswoith, The phase-locked oscillatoi. A new contiol system foi contiolled static conveitois", Trans. IEEE,
PAS-87, pp. 859-865, 1968.
J. Aiiillaga, Hg| Vo|age Dret Curren Transmsson, London: IEE-Petei Peiegiinus, 1983.
J. Aiiillaga, D.A. Biadley, and P.S. Bolgei, Power Sysem Harmonts, London: John Wiley & Sons, 1985.
S. Chen, A.R. Wood, and J. Aiiillaga, HVdc conveitei tiansfoimei coie satuiation instability: a fiequency
domain analysis", IEE Prot.-Cener. Transm. Dsr|, 143(1), 75-81, 1996.
A. Gieenwood, E|etrta| Transens n Power Sysems, New Yoik: Wiley Inteiscience, 1971.
J. Heydt, E|etrt Power Qua|y, Stais in a Ciicle Publications, 1991.
N.G. Hingoiani, Intioducing custom powei", IEEE Setrum, 41-48, June 1995.
Inernaona| E|etroet|ta| Commsson Crou, IEC TL 77, 1993.
A.J. Millei and M.B. Dewe, Multichannel continuous haimonic analysis in ieal time", Trans. IEEE Power
De|ery, 7(4), 1913-1919, 1992.
Further Inlurmatiun
E|etrt Power Qua|y by J. Heydt and Power Sysem Harmonts by J. Aiiillaga et al. aie the only texts discussing
the topic, though the lattei is cuiiently out of piint. Two inteinational confeiences take place biennially
specifcally ielated to Powei Quality; these aie PQA (Powei Quality: end use applications and peispectives) and
the IEEE sponsoied ICHQP (Inteinational Confeience on Haimonics and Quality of Powei).
Impoitant infoimation can also be found in the iegulai updates of the IEC and CENELEC standaids, CIGRE,
CIRED, UIC, and UNIPEDE documents and national guides such as the IEEE 519-1992.
Finally, the IEE and IEEE Jouinals on Powei Tiansmission and Deliveiy, iespectively, publish iegulaily
impoitant contiibutions in this aiea.