Biofuel Feasibility Report for Dalbousie University:

An Assessment of 0ptions for Tronsportotion onJ Spoce heotinq

MARCH 2009

Piepaieu by: Bave Ronn
Uffice of Sustainability
Balhousie 0niveisity
1226 LeNaichant St.
Balifax, NS, BSB SP7
Tel: (9u2) 494-4SS7
Email: uionnual.ca

1


TABLE of CUNTENTS

Clossary ......................................... 2

1. Introduction ..................................... S

2. Bachground: Energy Needs at Dalbousie ................... S

3. WVU as a Feedstoch .................................. 6
3.1 Fuel from Waste
3.2 Availability at Dalbousie

4. Use of WVU in Diesel Engines ............................ 7
4.1 Engine Modifications
4.2 Preparation of WVU
4.3 Uperation and Maintenance

5. Use of WVU in Space Heating ........................... 11

. Use of WVU in Power {or CHP] Ceneration ................... 12

7. Use of WVU for Unsite Biodiesel Production .................. 12
7.1 Transesterification Process
7.2 Design Uptions

8. Use of Biodiesel in Diesel Engines or Space Heating ............... 1S

9. Use of off-site {i.e. Wilson Fuels] Biodiesel .................. 16

10. Comparative Assessment of Fuel-Switcbing Uptions for Dalbousie ... 16
10.1 Cost Analysis
10.2 CHC Analysis

11. Review and Recommendations ........................ 21

12. Financial UpportunitiesJIncentives ...................... 22

13. Appendices ...................................... 2S
13.1 Warranty and Insurance Issues at Dalbousie
13.2 Listing of field trials and researcb on biofuel use in engines

14. References .................................... 26


2

Clossary

CBP - combineu heat anu powei
BI - uiiect injection engine
FANE - fatty aciu methyl esteis
FFA - fiee fatty aciu
uBu - gieenhouse gas
BP - hoisepowei (- u.746 kW)
BRN - Balifax Regional Nunicipality
IBI - inuiiect injection engine
RPP - iefineu petioleum piouucts
v0 - vegetable oil
Sv0 - stiaight vegetable oil
Wv0 - waste vegetable oil

Note: all '$' figuies aie in Canauian uollais unless otheiwise specifieu.









S
1. Introduction
Balhousie 0niveisity, the laigest post-seconuaiy institution in Atlantic Canaua, has a
long-stanuing ieputation as a leauei in innovation anu ieseaich. Also, it is a
signatoiy to a numbei of ueclaiations bolsteiing its commitment to pollution
ieuuction, waste iecycling, anu ecological conseivation.
These incluue the Balifax Beclaiation, which stipulates Balhousie's commitment to
"coopeiate with one anothei anu with all segments of society in the puisuit of
piactical capacity-builuing . to achieve the effective ievision anu ieveisal of those
cuiient piactices which contiibute to enviionmental uegiauation" (IISB-a 1996);
the Talloiies Beclaiation which iequiies Balhousie to "set an example of
enviionmental iesponsibility by establishing piogiams of iesouice conseivation,
iecycling, anu waste ieuuction at the univeisities" (IISB-b 1996); anu the 0NEP
Inteinational Beclaiation on Cleanei Piouuction which manuates the 0niveisity to
"cieate innovative solutions by suppoiting the uevelopment of piouucts anu
seivices which aie enviionmentally efficient anu meet consumei neeus" as well as
to "encouiage new anu auuitional finance anu investment in pieventive technology
options, anu piomote enviionmentally sounu technology" (0NEP 2uu7), among
othei uiiectives.
Fuithei to this, Balhousie is situateu in Balifax, Nova Scotia -a municipality with a
"woilu-class waste iesouice management piogiam" that is highlighteu by theii
"Baiboui Solutions Pioject, pesticiue use ieuuction piogiam, |anuj composting anu
iecycling systems" (BRN 2uu8). Among its waste iecycling piogiams, BRN's
municipal bus fleet, Netio Tiansit, switcheu to using a B2u blenu of waste oil-
ueiiveu biouiesel staiting in the Fall of 2uu4.
In the 2uu7 Feueial buuget, the Canauian goveinment allotteu $Suu million foi
piivate sectoi investments in jumpstaiting laige-scale uemonstiation facilities foi
the piouuction of biofuels. In 2uu8, the Canauian Senate passeu the Biofuels Bill, an
amenument to the ConoJion Fnvironmentol Protection Act (Bill C-SS), opening the
way foi the uevelopment of specific iegulations; the feueial goveinment has alieauy
pioposeu manuating a ienewable fuel content of S% in gasoline by 2u1u anu 2% in
uiesel fuel anu heating oil by 2u12 (BFuel 2uu7). They have also manuateu a seven
yeai ienewable fuels opeiating incentive piogiam that subsiuizes $u.2u cents pei
litie of biouiesel piouuceu in Canaua foi thiee yeais with a uecline iate of
$u.u2yeai.

The uoveinment has eaimaikeu an estimateu $2.2 billion ovei 9 yeais towaius
"ienewable fuels" with the majoiity of this uiiecteu towaius ieseaich anu
uevelopment of biouiesel. In teims of uevelopment, Canaua was piouucing about
1S.S million lities of biouiesel pei yeai in 2uu4 (S&T Consultants 2uu4). The
maiiiage of ieseaich anu uevelopment foi biofuel utilization has long hau a footholu
in univeisities thioughout Noith Ameiica.

4
Innumeiable post-seconuaiy institutions aie embaiking on campus oi city-wiue
biofuel piojects, fiom ieseaich to implementation. 0ne such example is the National
Biouiesel Euucation piogiam of the College of Agiicultuial anu Life Sciences at the
0niveisity of Iuaho, which has iun numeious uiesel engines on vaiious foims of
biofuels; ieseaich anu fuel-switching has been uiiectly applieu to univeisity
equipment such as faim machineiy, stationaiy engines, Cummins Biesel engines in
Bouge Pickups, Navistai engines in Foiu Pickups, anu Cateipillai engines in tiucks
involving biofuels ueiiveu fiom a numbei of oils incluuing mustaiu seeu, canola,
iapeseeu, anu soybean (NBEP 2uu8).

Noie pioximate examples incluue the 0niveisity of
Biitish Columbia's biouiesel pioject, which has
establisheu a biouiesel piocessing facility anu
ieseaich space supplying all 0niveisity uiesel
lanuscaping vehicles with a B2u blenu of biouiesel
(0BC 2uu8). Waste cooking oil is collecteu fiom
iestauiants, cafeteiias anu iesiuences on campus
anu biought to the pioject's facility; with a
piouuction capacity of up to 1uuu lities each uay,
the biouiesel piocessoi noimally chuins out
appioximately Suu lities of biouiesel pei week
uuiing the Fall anu Wintei semesteis.

Biox, a company initiateu by a foimei 0niveisity of Toionto (0ofT) piofessoi in the
Chemical Engineeiing Bepaitment anu suppoiteu by the 0ofT Innovations
Founuation, has snowballeu to become the laigest piouuceis of biouiesel in Canaua
(Biox 2uu8). The Biox facility in southein 0ntaiio geneiates moie than 6u million
lities of commeicially available biouiesel pei yeai, fiom mostly ineuible tallow.

Luthei College in Regina, Saskatchewan, has a small-scale biouiesel piocessing
facility piouucing moie than 1u,uuu lities pei yeai, iepiesenting SS% of usage anu
saving the institution a high-enu estimate of $8,Suu pei fiscal yeai. They have
iepoiteu caibon emission to have been ieuuceu by Su,uuu pounus (Tenneson
2uu8).

Balhousie has the potential to capitalize on a bouigeoning inuustiy, minimize its
waste output, anu ieuuce its eneigy consumption. Any small-to-meuium scale
waste-to-fuel piocessing facilities at Balhousie can help to showcase sustainable
mouels of eneigy piouuction in a way that uemonstiates the 0niveisity's
commitment to exploiing ecologically-sounu technology. As the illusoiy glamoui of
laige-scale agiicultuial biofuel opeiations begins to faue, leaving in its wake
pioblems of lanu mismanagement anu incieaseu emissions, moie moueiately-sizeu
systems foi conveision of iecycleu oil piesent an attiactive counteipoint.
This iepoit focuses on iecycling of waste vegetable oil (Wv0) feeustocks on campus.
While the supply of this feeustock is minute ielative to eneigy uemanu, theie is the

lutber Colleqe
proJuces more
tbon 10,000 litres
of bioJiesel eocb
yeor - tbots SS%
of tbeir use onJ
$8,S00 in sovinqs.
S
potential foi futuie quantities of yellow giease to come "on-stieam" as campus foou
opeiations expanu anu Balhousie foiges ielationships with potential supplieis
within BRN.

Yellow giease iefeis to the useu cooking oil, eithei vegetable-ueiiveu oi animal-
baseu (i.e. tallow), fiom iestauiants oi othei foou seivice opeiation piioi to being
filteieu, ue-wateieu, anu eithei conveiteu to biouiesel oi useu stiaight in an engine.
Foi the puiposes of this iepoit, 'biofuel' iefeis to eithei biouiesel oi Wv0.

Although the vast majoiity of yellow giease supply is piocesseu foi animal feeu oi
consumeu by ienueiing plants foi glyceiin applications, much of it is uisposeu in
lanufills oi thiough piivate waste seivice companies. Accounting foi expoits anu
typical uiveision stieams, it has been estimateu that Nova Scotia has appioximately
1,S42 tonnes of yellow giease than can be uiiecteu towaius biofuel piouuction as a
potential feeustock (S&T Consultants 2uu4).

2. Bachground: Energy Needs at Dalbousie
The following examines options foi uiveiting fossil fuel use, anu piimaiily RPP's, at
Balhousie with waste oil feeustocks. Cential heating fuel, iesiuential heating, uiesel
vehicle consumption, anu uecentializeu powei piouuction at the 0niveisity will
come unuei ieview.
Balhousie 0niveisity consumes a iange of uiffeient uistilleu fuels, incluuing bunkei
C (heavy fuel oil no. 6) foi steam geneiation towaius meeting campus heating anu
cooling neeus anu light fuel oil (uiesel no. 2) foi iesiuential space heating anu
tianspoit vehicles. The 0niveisity uses about 1Su,uuu NWh of theimal eneigy pei
yeai, the vast majoiity of which is uiiecteu to space heating neeus.
In the 2uu7-2uu8 acauemic yeai, Balhousie useu appioximately 1S.8 million lities of
bunkei C, 92S,uuu lities of iesiuential heating fuel oil, anu 4uuu lities of uiesel fuel
foi vehicles opeiateu by Facilities Nanagement anu Aiamaik (Bouigeois 2uu8,
Bines 2uu8), the campus foou seivice pioviuei.
Table 1 illustiates the amount of consumption foi uiesel-fuelleu vehicles anu
equipment at Balhousie. This uoes not incluue uepaitmental fleets, stuuent union
seivices anu faculty, staff, oi stuuent tianspoitation moues.
Table 1. Balhousie 0niveisity uiesel vehicles anu fuel consumption foi 2uu7-2uu8.
Vebicle Units Model, Year and Specifications Consumption {L] Uperator
Tiuck 1 2uuS Bouge Spiintei 1,S47 Aiamaik
van 1 Foiu E4Su van (2uu2) 2,24u
Facilities
Nanagement
Bobcat 2 Kubota engine 4cyl (2uuS) 0
Facilities
Nanagement
Tiactoi 1 New Bollanu (Foiu) Tiactoi; 0 Facilities
6
Scyl S77S uiesel 2S BP (199u) Nanagement
Tiactoi 1
}ohn Beeie 2S2u seiies Yanmai
24BP S cylinuei (1988) 0
Facilities
Nanagement
Nowei 1 Nowei; Yanmai Scylinuei 4S
Facilities
Nanagement
0 = uata unavailable at time of piinting.
With uwinuling supplies of finite fossil fuels iesulting in volatile oil piices,
acceleiateu climate change uue, in pait, to the buining of hyuiocaibon fuels, anu a
shaky economy, uiscussions aiounu eneigy ieuuctions anu ieplacements aie of
society's utmost piioiity.
Beiein this iepoit, five stiategies have been iuentifieu anu ievieweu foi theii
feasibility in teims of, most influentially, cost, uBu emissions, anu flexibility:
STRATECIES
1 - Wv0 as fuel foi uiesel engines in fleet vehicles;
2 - Wv0 as fuel foi iesiuential space heating on campus;
3 - Wv0 as fuel foi powei geneiation (oi micio-CBP);
4 - Wv0 foi on-site Biouiesel piouuction towaius any of above applications;
5 - 0se of off-site Biouiesel towaius any of above applications.

3. WVU as a Feedstoch
3.1 Fuel from Waste
In 19uu, the 0tto company of ueimany ian a uemonstiation uiesel engine on
vegetable oil anu igniteu what woulu eventually become eveiything fiom a booming
agiicultuial inuustiy to eveiy cai-owning scavengei's obsession.
Waste cooking oil, oi yellow giease, is similai enough in its chemical constituents
anu combustion chaiacteiistics to be useu as an alteinative to uiesel fuel oi light
fuel oil applications. Bowevei, as outlineu below, ceitain pieliminaiy steps such as
viscosity ieuuction, filteiing, anu uewateiing of the oil shoulu be unueitaken to
avoiu mechanical failuies.
3.2 Availability at Dalbousie
Foou seivice opeiations at Balhousie 0niveisity aie exclusively contiacteu out to
Aiamaik Inc, which manages five laige cafeteiias anu a numbei of ietail opeiations.
Seiving ovei 2uuu Balhousie stuuents, in the iesiuential cafeteiias alone, each of
Aiamaik's kitchens has at least two ueep fiyeis wheie fish, chicken, potatoes, anu
batteieu vegetables aie fiieu. A coin-sunflowei blenueu bianu of cooking oil, fiee of
tians fats, is oiueieu in bulk anu filteieu a numbei of times foi ieuse. Aftei the oil
7
cycles thiough the fiyeis multiple times, the watei anu fats begin to sepaiate, the
consistency becomes moie viscous, the coloi uaikens, anu the oil is uiscaiueu.
Two oil uiums locateu behinu the Risley Ball anu Life Science Centie cafeteiia can
stoie 6uu lities of Wv0 at any given time.
These stoiage containeis aie emptieu, fiee
of cost, by a waste iecycling company once
they ieach capacity eveiy 1.S months.
In 2uu8, Aiamaik piouuceu Su14 lities of
Wv0 (Bines 2uu8), all of which was pickeu
up anu piesumably useu foi ienueiing
towaius seconuaiy piouuct piouuction (i.e.
soaps, cosmetics). Theie is value-auueu
potential to using this piouuct foi campus
opeiations. The following exploies the
eneigy-ieuuction oppoitunities, uBu-
mitigation potential, anu cost feasibility of
utilizing Wv0 uiiectly oi as biouiesel blenus
foi 0niveisity fleet vehicles, space heating,
anu small-scale powei piouuction on
campus.
It shoulu be noteu that, notwithstanuing uiiect eneigy impacts of Wv0 fuel-
switching, auopting any of the afoiementioneu stiategies can automatically ieuuce
eneigy consumption in thiee ways; fiistly, it limits the fuel useu to tianspoit heating
oil oi uiesel onto the campus. Seconuly, it avoius the tianspoitation eneigy
consumeu in iequiiing the Wv0 to be caiteu off-site. Thiiuly, by conveiting vaiious
waste stieams to eneigy souices on-site they aie uiveiteu fiom lanufills anu the
associateu eneigy inputs iequiieu to bieak uown the waste.
Each of these eneigy ieuuctions has a coiiesponuing ueciease in uBu emissions, as
uesciibeu fuithei into the iepoit.

4. Use of WVU in Diesel Engines
As illustiateu in Table 2, the Wv0 has between 9.6 anu 1u.1 kWh of theimal eneigy
pei litie available. Nethyl esteis, as will latei be uiscusseu, have slightly highei
eneigy uensity on account of theii alcohol content. viscosity, oi the fluiu's iesistance
to flow -empiiically obseiveu by its ielative thickness- is ieuuceu in each fuels by
incieasing its tempeiatuie. The cetane numbei is a measuie of the fuel's ignition
uelay anu typically falls in the iange between S8 anu SS foi most fuels; a highei
cetane numbei coiiesponus to shoitei ignition uelays anu a moie complete
combustion of fuel injecteu into the combustion chambei.

Finally the flash point uefines the lowest tempeiatuie the fuel must ieach in oiuei
Bowe
Ball
45
Sheiiiff
Ball
17
Risley
Ball
10
0'Biien
Ball
13
Life
Science
Centie
15
Figure 1. Bistiibution of Wv0 availability
at Balhousie 0niveisity cafeteiias.
8
to foim an ignitable mixtuie in aii. Theiefoie, when using Wv0 as the fuel, it must
eithei be mixeu with petioleum uiesel oi sufficiently pieheateu piioi to use in the
engine.


Table 2. Physical anu chemical chaiacteiistics of uiesel anu vegetable oils (Altin 2uu1).
Viscosity
{mm
2
Js]
Fuel Type
Calorific
value
{BTUJhg]
Energy
density
{hWbJL] 27C 7SC
Cetane
number
Flasb
point
{C]
Cbemical
formula
Biesel fuel 41u9S.8 9.8 4.S 1.S 47.u S8.u C16BS4
Raw
sunflowei oil S7469.7 1u.1 S8.u 1S.u S7.1 22u.u CS7B1uS06
Coin oil SS8S8.1 9.6 46.u 1u.S S7.6 27u-29S CS6B1uS06
Raw soybean
oil S7S62.6 1u.1 6S.u 9.u S7.9 2Su.u CS7B1u206
Soybean
methyl estei S7692.S 9.6 11.u 4.S S7.u 69.u CSSB1u106
Sunflowei
methyl estei S8468.9 9.9 1u.u 7.S 4S-S2 8S.u CSSB1uS06


Though the combustion chaiacteiistics of Wv0 anu uiesel aie close enough so as to
buin the unconventional fuel in a uiesel engine, two physical piopeities must be
auuiesseu to ensuie piopei opeiation. The viscosity anu the suiface tension of the
Wv0 must be ieuuceu.

vegetable oils have highei viscosity levels than uiesel at the same tempeiatuie,
iesulting in a ieuuceu atomization in the fuel injection (Almeiua 2uu2). Theiefoie, in
a uiiect injection (BI) engine, foi example, when stiaight vegetable oil oi a paitial
blenu with uiesel is heateu fiist, moie fuel can be spiayeu anu theiefoie entei the
combustion chambei. It is, thus, impeiative to make this mouification (Tiianuafyllis
2uuS) if ueciuing, foi instance, to use Wv0 in the v6 tuibo uiesel engine of
Aiamaik's Bouge Spiintei at Balhousie 0niveisity.

Also, by using a heat exchangei, pieheating the Wv0 with the vehicle's waim
coolant ietuin line, oi a block heatei can minimize pooi atomization potential.

It shoulu also be noteu that theie is a moie substantial ueciease in fuel consumption
when the uiesel-v0 blenus aie useu at low loaus iathei than high loaus
(Tiianuafyllis 2uuS).


9

Figure 2. Naximum engine powei foi vaiious fuel types using uiesel as
iefeience case, with peak output being 7.4S kW at 17uu ipm (Altin 2uu1).
Again, it is best to pieheat v0 to optimize peifoimance in an inuiiect injection (IBI)
engine with stuuies showing that, in so uoing, cylinuei gas anu fuel line piessuie foi
v0 is veiy similai to uiesel fuel; the IBI engine can "conveit the fuel eneigy to
mechanical eneigy equally foi both fuels" (0zsezena 2uu9).
4.1 Engine Modifications
The conveision of a uiesel vehicle to iun on vegetable
oil (v0) fuel iequiies thiee essential mouifications to
the existing system: installation of a seconu tank, a
heat exchangei, anu a switch-valve. Figuie S
illustiates the typical aiiangement of the system. The
v0 is pie-filteieu anu ue-wateieu piioi to its use in
the system. uiven the colu climates in Nova Scotia,
howevei, the v0 must be pie-heateu to achieve a
highei viscosity befoie iunning thiough the fuel lines
anu being injecteu to the engine.
A tank to stoie the v0 can eithei be custom-maue
(using aluminum, polyethylene) oi iecycleu; it shoulu be sizeu in accoiuance with
the iest of the system anu installeu in an accessible yet secuie location unueineath
the hoou of the vehicle oi in the caigo compaitment.
The system iequiies a heat exchangei, installeu within the seconuaiy (v0) tank anu
flusheu with hot coolant fiom the engine to the iauiatoi anuoi a line-in-line heat
u
2u
4u
6u
8u
1uu
12u
Biesel fuel Raw sunflowei
oil
Coin oil Raw soybean
oil
Soybean methyl
estei
Sunflowei
methyl estei
E
n
g
i
n
e

P
o
w
e
r

{

]

a
t

1
7
0
0

r
p
m

Fuel Type

6iven tbe colJ
climotes in Novo
Scotio, veqetoble
oil must be pre-
beoteJ before
reocbinq tbe
vebicle enqine.
1u
exchangei by installing a section of the v0 line insiue the hot coolant line. This
waims the v0 to the optimal tempeiatuie.
The switch-valve is, iueally, an electiic solenoiu valve wiieu to a toggle switch on the
uashboaiu so that the uiivei may switch back anu foith with ease. Typically, a S-
poit valve is useu; alteinatively, to ieuuce costs, a simple ball-valve can be installeu
anu switching between the two tanks can be uone manually.
Auxiliaiy system components may incluue a fuel-fill sensoi anu a tempeiatuie gauge
to inuicate when the tank neeus to be ie-filleu, anu when switching fiom the main
tank to the v0 tank shoulu occui, iespectively.

Figure 3. Scbematic of VU dual-tanh configuration for Dalbousie diesel vebicles.
It shoulu be noteu that v0 is not an explosive substance anu stoiing it in a secuie
tank besiue the engine poses no iisk of uangei.
4.2 Preparation of WVU
The fiist two steps to piepaiing the feeustock, oi conveiting the yellow giease into
Wv0, is filteiing anu uewateiing the oil. Filteiing can be achieveu by pumping oi
giavity-feeuing the oil thiough an initial mesh sock-type scieen to iemove laige
paiticles. This is followeu by pumping the oil thiough a bag filtei housing with
filteis between S anu 1u micions to sepaiate out any iemaining floating
paiticulates.
The waste oil is then heateu to 1uuC to facilitate the evapoiation of watei content
in the fuel by boiling it off. 0nce the boiling subsiues, the tempeiatuie shoulu be
incieaseu to 1SuC foi appioximately 1S minutes (Alhakeem 2uu7). Finally, the oil
is alloweu to cool anu is ieauy foi stoiage, eventually intenueu foi uiiect use oi foi
piocessing into biouiesel fuel.
4.3 Uperation and Maintenance
Bue to the uispaiate physical specifications of the fuel, theie aie a limiteu numbei of
potential complications unless pieventative maintenance is piacticeu. The
Filtered Vegetable
Oil (VO) Tank
Diesel Tank
Diesel Supply
Line
Engine
Fuel Filter
Line-in-line
Heat Exchanger
Switching
Solenoid Valve
Loop Heat
Exchanger
Radiator
Fuel Pump
VO
Line
Hot Coolant
Line
Cold Coolant Line
Return Fuel Line
ummmp
g
ply
g
O
ne
p
nee
pply pp y pp y ppp ply ppp
ee
C ld C
11
intiouuction foieign paiticles into fuel injectois can leau to eventual fouling anu
fuithei complications such as stuck iings anu cylinuei scoiing; a iisk with use of
eithei Wv0 oi biouiesel in engines.
A numbei of opeiational anu maintenance pioceuuies aie iecommenueu to ensuie
piopei opeiation of the uiesel engine. These incluue:


1 Applying high-ueteigent (BB) lubiicant oil, such as Castiol, to minimize
any quality contiol issues that may aiise fiom oil-sluuge builuup, anu to
counteiact any engine contamination that may accumulate aftei
appioximately 1uu houis of opeiation;
2 Cleaning anu testing fuel injectois, that may become cloggeu, aftei
appioximately 1Su houis of seivice; this can be uone eithei on oi off-
vehicle with stiong solvents ensuiing that the solution uoes not ciiculate
into the fuel tank oi come into contact with polymeis of the fuel pump
(Boiauo 2uu2);
3 Staiting the engine on uiesel fuel, anu allowing the tempeiatuie to iise; it
is iueal to heat the Wv0 befoie the fuel pump anu injectois to ieuuce its
viscosity piioi to combustion (Altin 2uu1);
4 Wv0 shoulu be stoieu in a uaik, uiy, anu tempeiatuie-iegulateu space to
minimize excessive oxiuative gum foimation piioi to use oi piocessing;
5 If using biouiesel, its solvent quality typically cleans out fuel lines anu may
leau to clogging anu fouling of the injectois; to avoiu this pioblem,
injectois shoulu be manually cleaneu with solvent (ex. the biouiesel itself);
smallei blenus shoulu be useu at fiist with inciemental incieases in
biouiesel content, such as BS followeu by B2u, BSu, anu finally B1uu.
Finally, with a uouble fuel tank set-up, the vehicle shoulu typically be
staiteu anu waimeu up with petioleum uiesel befoie switching to the
biouiesel blenu, anu switcheu back to petioleum uiesel befoie shutting
uown so no biouiesel iemains in the fuel lines.


5. Use of WVU in Space Heating
0tilizing Wv0 in a fuinace oi boilei may iequiie compiesseu aii to ensuie piopei
fuel atomization oi pieheateis to ieuuce the substance viscosity piioi to
combustion. Aujustments to iesiuential fuel tanks anu fuinaces may be iequiieu
incluuing the installation of a pieheatei.

It is also iecommenueu that the intake pipe anu fuinace stiainei be situateu
between S-6 inches above the base of the stoiage tank, with an oil filtei auueu to the
feeu line between the tank anu buinei; finally, aii supply to the buinei may neeu to
be aujusteu, contingent on the it's output anu size (Baitok 2uu7).
12

. Use of WVU in Power {or CHP] Ceneration
Wv0 can be conveiteu to electiical anu theimal eneigy thiough the use of an
inteinal oi exteinal combustion engine (ECE). Capital costs foi such an engine aie
between 2Suu anu 6uuu Canauian uollais pei kilowatt (WABE 2uu6). Typically, by
employing heat iecoveiy, combineu heat anu powei (CBP) units can conveit 7S-
8u% of the fuel souice into useful eneigy with inuustiial plants ieaching efficiencies
of 9u% oi highei (IEA 2uu8).

Stuuies have shown that theimal efficiency is highei foi Sv0 fuel than with biouiesel
blenus in a uiesel engine intenueu foi "micio CBP anu its use in commeicial anu
uomestic applications". With efficiencies at peak RPN anu loau capacity ianging
between 4u anu Su%, it was founu that both fuels alloweu foi smooth engine
opeiation with "low vibiation anu . a significant ieuuction in noise levels anu
|caibon uioxiuej emissions" (Alhakeem 2uu7).

0ne company which pioviues a micio-CBP system is the 0wl Powei Company anu
theii veqowott system -a SkW encloseu unit that can ostensibly hanule ovei 1Su
lities of waste cooking oil pei week. The unit costs about $Su,uuu with an R0I of at
least foui yeais baseu on Balhousie's maximum output of appioximately 14u lities
pei week uuiing the wintei teim.
0nlike Wv0 oi Wv0-ueiiveu biofuels foi iesiuential heating oi tianspoit vehicles,
howevei, the oil's application in powei geneiation technology limits its flexibility.
Becentializeu combineu heat anu powei (micio-CBP) systems, foi example, aie
stationaiy anu limiteu supplies of Wv0 can only be useu in these single applications
to justify the capital expenses.
7. Use of WVU for Unsite Biodiesel Production
Wv0 can be useu to piouuce a substance calleu biouiesel which can also ieuuce
uBu emissions. Any such cooking oil-baseu fuel, eithei useu on its own oi as a uiesel
blenu, can iesult in engine uamage if a numbei of its constituents, namely
paiticulates, fiee fatty acius anu watei content, aie not eliminateu piioi to use.

A ciitical piopeity of the Wv0 is the fiee fatty aciu (FFA) content, which is typically
highei than Sv0 feeustock uue to it's fiequent heating; cooking oil consists of
tiiglyceiiues suiiounueu by fatty acius fieely auheiing to basic substances. In the
piesence of hyuiogen anu heat, FFA's unueigo an auuition ieaction of
hyuiogenation wheie the gelling tempeiatuie of the oil incieases.

Assuming a two-step aciu-base catalyzeu piocess is employeu, a conveision factoi of
97% can be achieveu of Wv0 into biouiesel this was unuei extiemely contiolleu
conuitions incluuing a ieaction time of 4 houis, a mole iatio of methanol to
tiiacylglyceiols of 1u:1, anu a sustaineu ieaction tempeiatuie of 9SC (Wang 2uu7).

1S
7.1 Transesterification Process
The piouuction piocess involves a system that conveits any vegetable-baseu oil into
a combustible fuel equivalent in much of its piopeities anu peifoimance to
petioleum uiesel. In oiuei have an unueistanuing of the inuiviuual system
components, it is impoitant to know the whole system function. The chemistiy
behinu the oil-to-biouiesel conveision is quite simple. All vegetable oils, whethei
baseu in soy, coin, oi canola, aie compiiseu of tiiacylglyceiols. These aie chemically
compiiseu of thiee long fatty aciu chains attacheu to a glyceiol backbone. The
piocess is simply a conveision system, which iemoves the glyceiol tiunk, in the
foim of glyceiin, fiom the oil anu ieplaces it with
an alcohol backbone, taking the foim of eithei
ethanol oi methanol. In this way, the oil esteis aie
conveiteu thiough a piocess calleu
'tiansesteiification' to fatty aciu methylethanol
esteis (FANE), a substance otheiwise known by
its householu name, 'biouiesel'.
A conveision piocess foi biouiesel piouuction
fiom Wv0 fiist begins by settling out the soliu
mattei anu filteiing the oiganic paiticulates in the
oil. Next the oil shoulu be heateu to evapoiate the
watei off.
Catalysts anu an alcohol aie then auueu to the piepaieu feeustock to conveit the
Wv0 into biouiesel anu a glyceiin bypiouuct. The catalyst effectively seveis the
tiiglyceiiues fiom the esteis so that they may combine with the alcohol. The alcohol
can eithei be methyl alcohol, methanol, oi ethyl alcohol, ethanol. Nethanol must be
auueu to the Wv0 feeustock at 6:1 iatio (molmol) while ethanol is auueu at a
highei iatio of Su%. The benefit of ethanol, howevei, aie that ethanol can be
piouuceu fiom oiganic wastes (ex. feimenting sugais) wheieas methanol is laigely
synthetically piouuceu fiom fossil fuels.

Conveision piocesses fall into thiee geneial categoiies of catalysts. These aie
alakali-catalyzeu, aciu-base catalyzeu, oi enzyme-catalyzeu.

Aciuity fiom FFA in the Wv0 can be neutializeu using an alkali catalyst such as
souium hyuioxiue (Na0B) oi potassium hyuioxiue (K0B). Na0B is ielatively low
cost by viitue of its bioau applicability anu is commonly known as householu lye.
This catalyst must be auueu at a minimum of u.SS% in ielation to the volume of
Wv0 wheieas K0B iequiies a minimum of u.9u% (Biown 199S). K0B, howevei, has
compaiable oi highei iates of conveision anu piouuces a potassium-eniicheu
glyceiin bypiouuct that can be iegaiueu as a value-auueu agiicultuial feitilizei.
Alkali-catalysis can, howevei, give iise to pioblems like glyceiol iecoveiy anu the
elimination of oiganic salts, among othei things (Liu 2uuS).
Enzyme catalysis uses iecombinant lipase enzymes, with oi without immobilization,

A conversion
process for
bioJiesel from
Wv0 sboulJ beqin
by settlinq out tbe
soliJs onJ
filterinq feeJstock.
14
which act unuei aqueous conuitions on the caiboxyl estei bonus piesent between
the glyceiol anu fatty aciu chains to achieve conveision of the oil feeustock into
biouiesel (Liu 2uuS); conveision iates as high as 97.S% have been iepoiteu (Wang
2uu7). While the ieaction typically takes longei than chemically uiiven conveisions
(Nelson 1996), the ieaction takes place unuei milu conuitions anu is insensitive to
high concentiations of fiee fatty acius - a majoi concein in applications wheie the
feeustock is Wv0. Fuitheimoie, the enzymatic catalyst can be iecycleu towaius
futuie conveisions anu actually iesults in highei conveisions of oil to methyl esteis
(Shimaua 1999). The uownsiue, howevei, is the highei cost of the catalyst -uespite
the lowei costs of the ieaction tank- coupleu with the high uegiee of lipase
sensitivity to methanol, unless the alcohol is kept in veiy low concentiations (Wang
2uu7).
To achieve high iates of conveision, in the absence of enzymatic catalysts, a two
stage aciu-base catalyzeu conveision piocess is typically useu. The fiist stage of the
piocess involves esteiification, a chemical ieaction iesulting in the foimation of an
estei piouuct. A compounu is foimeu between alcohol anu aciu - methanol anu
sulfuiic aciu, to be exact. Next, the compounu goes thiough tiansesteiification, a
ieaction in which one estei is conveiteu into anothei by inteichange of estei gioups
with an alcohol in the piesence of a base. In this stage, the alcohol is still methanol,
but the base is souium hyuioxiue (lye).
It shoulu be noteu that feiiic sulfate can seive as the heteiogeneous aciu catalyst
towaius the methanolysis of fiee fatty acius in Wv0 (Wang 2uu7). It is less
ecologically ueleteiious than sulfuiic aciu, iesults in highei efficiencies of
conveision, can be ieuseu, anu uoes not iequiie specializeu, anu theiefoie moie
costly, anti-coiiosion equipment foi piocessing.
Finally, the glyceiin is sepaiateu fiom the
biouiesel (i.e. uiaineu off fiom the bottom
of the ieaction chambei) anu the final fuel
piouuct is washeu, typically using aeiation
pumps anu a watei-washing column;
methanol iecoveiy can also be integiateu at
this point using, foi example, hexane as an
extiaction solvent.
It shoulu be noteu that pietieatment anu
washing is ciitical in oiuei to ensuie
optimal peifoimance of the system anu full
conveision of the fuel. Since the feeustock
being conveiteu cannot be souiceu by a
consistent supply, quality contiol anu
fiequent iegulatoiy testing aie obligatoiy uuiing anu subsequent to the piouuction
stages.
7.2 Design Uptions
Figure 4. Schematic of a two-stage
batch piocess foi biouiesel piouuction.
1S
Although laige-scale biouiesel piouuceis typically use complex tuin-key opeiations,
feasible given ielative economies of scale, Balhousie's piesent limiteu supply of
feeustock constiains the size of any potential facility. As such, batch piocesses aie
moie cost-efficient (as opposeu to continuous piocess technology) in smallei
quantities; batch systems aie less capital-intensive than continuous systems (Zeman
2uu6). Conveisely, they aie uepenuant on some manual opeiation anu supeivision.
Continuous systems, howevei, aie not as flexible anu uegiaue in ieliability with
peiiouic shutuowns which can leau to 'unsteauy state' conuitions iesulting in off-
spec piouuct (i.e. not meeting ASTN stanuaius); iueally, opeiating conuitions
incluuing tempeiatuies, piessuies, anu flow iates into the ieactoi(s) shoulu iemain
as close to constant to ensuie piouuct consistency.
Waste oil in the quantities maue available at
Balhousie can eithei be piocesseu in small
volumes as it becomes available, oi stockpileu foi
laigei batches. Fiom an opeiational-cost
peispective, it is moie economically feasible to
peifoim batch piocesses in laigei amounts.
Figuie 2, foi example, illustiates a two-stage Suu
litie unit. Shoulu Balhousie secuie alteinate
souices of yellow giease, iesulting in a highei
level of feeustock, a continuous piocess
piouuction can be consiueieu.
8. Use of Biodiesel in Diesel Engines or Space Heating
Biouiesel buineu in space heating equipment has shown similai peifoimance
iesults as fuel oil. Bepenuant on the feeustock souice, it has been shown to be veiy
theimally stable anu close in peifoimance as compaieu to light fuel oil (NBB 2uuS).
This is as a iesult of having compaiable BT0 content anu combustion
chaiacteiistics; biouiesel has a heating value of appioximately 12S,uuu BT0gallon
(~1u kWhL) compaieu to appioximately 14u,uuu BT0gallon (~11 kWhL) of
light fuel oil useu foi iesiuential heating (Kiishna 2uu1).
Theie have been a numbei of successful cases of use of biouiesel in space heating
equipment; the laigest of which incluues the 0niteu States Bepaitment of
Agiicultuie's (0SBA) Agiicultuial Reseaich Seivice (ARS), which aftei iunning B2u
in theii machineiy anu 1Su uiesel vehicles of theii fleet, began using a BS blenu foi
theii heating equipment in 2uuu (Kiishna 2uu1). Noieovei, utilities in Noith
Ameiica have alieauy begun pioviuing biouiesel blenus to iesiuential customeis;
these incluue Clickable Enteipiises in New Yoik anu Wilson's Fuel in Nova Scotia.

Shoulu Balhousie puisue this option, howevei, it is iecommenueu that laboiatoiy
testing be conuucteu to auuiess the biouiesel blenu's impact on specific heating
equipment paits incluuing nonmetallic mateiials (elastomeis) useu in pump seals,
gaskets, label auhesives, valve seats. Nouifications shoulu then be maue to the

Woste oil, in tbe
quontities
ovoiloble ot
0olbousie, con be
processeJ in smoll
volumes or storeJ
for lorqer botcbes.
16
system as ueemeu appiopiiate.

Also, as with biouiesel use in vehicle applications, mixeu blenus -staiting with B2u-
"shoulu fiist be testeu ovei seveial heating seasons in the fielu to establish piactical
use anu iuentify any potential pioblems" anu "ieseaich shoulu be caiiieu out to finu
the mechanisms foi the ieuuction in N0x in boileis anu establish scale up iules"
(Kiishna 2uu1).

9. Use of off-site {i.e. Wilson Fuels] Biodiesel
Wilson's Fuel, a Nova Scotia-baseu company opeiating a home heating fuel seivice
anu numeious gasoline ietail outlets, began offeiing a commeicially available
biofuel blenu in the eaily 2uuu's. The biofuel is piouuceu with fish oil iesiuues fiom
the piouuction of nutiaceutical piouucts using omega-S fatty acius. 0cean Nutiition
Canaua (0NC), the local biotechnology company piouucing the biofuel, uses this
seconuaiy piouuct foi piocess eneigy anu sells the excess amount to Wilson's who
maikets it as blenus with its fuel foi space heating anu uiesel vehicle consumption.
Theii biofuel is piouuceu unuei BQ-9uuu stanuaius anu laigely funneleu to the
iesiuential heating maiket. Retail piice of theii uiesel is available at iack piice plus
$u.uSL making the eithei maiginally cheapei oi moie expensive than iegulai ietail
uiesel (ex. ~SL less in 2uu7 anu ~2L moie in 2uu9, baseu on aveiage ietail
piice). They also caiiy an "off-spec" (non-ASTN-ceitifieu) biofuel piouuct, cost
competitive with Bunkei C oil, available foi use in inuustiial boileis.
Piicing uetails may be subject to negotiation with inteiesteu clients. As supplies of
off-site biouiesel aie not as constiaineu, theie is the potential foi buining stiaight
biouiesel oi blenus in the main boilei plant foi hot steam piouuction.
10. Comparative Assessment of
Fuel-Switcbing Uptions for Dalbousie
10.1 Environmental Benefits and CHC Analysis
0sing biofuels to ieplace the full oi paitial use of fossil-fuel baseu eneigy piouucts
caiiies ceitain enviionmental benefits. These incluue its classification as non-toxic,
its biouegiauability anu the acceleiateu biouegiauability of uiesel when blenueu
with biofuels (NBEP 2uu8), its facilitation of a moie thoiough combustion in blenus,
as well as its low sulphui content.
0sing petioleum uiesel as a baseline, theie is a maikeu ieuuction of uBu emissions
fiom the combustion of biofuels foi use in fleet vehicles, heating, oi powei
piouuction. Buining puie biouiesel iesults in ieuuctions of between 6u anu 98
peicent fewei gieenhouse gas emissions compaieu with petioleum uiesel. A fuel
mixtuie with a 1:S iatio of biouiesel to petioleum uiesel (i.e. B2u blenu) iesults in
uBu emission ieuuctions of 12 to 18 peicent; a 2 peicent blenu piouuces between 1
to 2 peicent fewei emissions.
17
Table 3. Emission ieuuctions of blenus using petioleum uiesel as baseline (EERE 2uu4).
Percent reduction {]
Emissions B100 B20
Caibon Nonoxiue (C0) 4S.2 12.6
Caibon Bioxiue (C02) 78.S 1S.7
Byuiocaibons (BCs) S6.S 11.u
Nitiogen 0xiue (N0x) +S.8 +1.2
Paiticulates SS.4 18.u
Aii Toxics 6u - 9u 12 - 2u
Nutagenicity 8u - 9u 2u.u

The piecise uBu ieuuction foi the biouiesel is contingent on the feeustock.
Examining the uBu pollutants specifically, combustion of a puie biouiesel blenu
maue with soy-baseu oil iesults in a S6% ieuuction in caibon monoxiue, a 47%
ieuuction in paiticulate mattei (less than 1u m) anu a 6u% ueciease in total
hyuiocaibons, when compaieu to buining low-sulfui uiesel (uiaboski 1998). Figuie
S shows the associateu ieuuctions in specific aii pollutants associateu with biouiesel
use in an engine. ueneially speaking, the combustion of biouiesel anu Wv0 iesult in
similai ieuuctions of paiticulate mattei (PN), caibon monoxiue (C0), caibon
uioxiue (C02), anu hyuiocaibons (BC).


Biouiesel itself is composeu of 11 peicent oxygen by mass anu is almost sulphui-
fiee, thus even low concentiations auueu to petioleum uiesel make it buin bettei
anu may impiove the peifoimance of catalytic conveiteis. Biouiesel geneially
iesults in a 78% ieuuction in total gieenhouse gases.
-80
-70
-60
-S0
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
0 20 40 60 80 100
k
e
d
u
c
t
|
o
n

|
n

A
|
r

L
m
|
s
s
|
o
n
s

(

)

8|od|ese| |n Iue| 8|end ()
nC
x
M
CC
PC
Figure 5. Aii emissions of biouiesel blenus compaieu to uiesel (EPA 2uu2).

18
Conveisely, biouiesel combustion leaus to an
inciease in nitiogen oxiue (N0x) emissions, as
shown in Figuie S. This is uue to the high in-
cylinuei combustion tempeiatuies ieacting
with the nitiogen piesent in the intake aii; the
vaiiability between N0x emission output is
laigely contingent on feeustock; soybean-baseu
biouiesel iesults in the highest levels. It shoulu
also be noteu that plant-ueiiveu biofuels
typically iesult in highei levels of C0 uepenuing
on blenu peicentage; at B1uu, C0 emissions can
be about 1S% highei with canola as compaieu to fuel fiom animal fats (EPA 2uu2).
It shoulu be noteu, howevei, that N0x emissions actually ueciease when biouiesel is
buineu in fuinaces; a 2u% blenu, foi example, iesults in ieuuctions of 2u% N0x
(Kiishna 2uu1). Similaily, sulfui uioxiue (S02) emissions aie uecieaseu, uue to the
biouiesel fuel's ieuuceu sulfui content, by a compaiable amount in ielation to the
blenu (EERE 2uu4).
Life cycle assessment is an accounting methouology that auopts an inventoiy of the
embeuueu costs, eneigy, oi uBu's associateu with a piouuct fiom the mining oi
haivesting of its constituents thiough to its uisposal (i.e. ciaule to giave). Fiom a life
cycle peispective, uBu savings aie fuithei ieuuceu with yellow giease feeustock, as
illustiateu in Figuie 6, while ieuuctions will vaiy with souice. About 2.S kg of C02 is
mitigateu foi eveiy litie of biouiesel uisplacing petioleum uiesel (STN 2uuS); soot is
also fuithei ieuuceu.

Figure . Peicentages of uBu emission ieuuctions by feeustock type pei
vehicle-kilometie uiiven (Bunt 2uu6).
u.u
2u.u
4u.u
6u.u
8u.u
1uu.u
12u.u
Fibeis (ex.
switchgiass,
poplai)
Wastes (ex.
waste oil,
haivest iesiuues,
sewage)
Sugais (ex. sugai
cane, sugai beet)
vegetable oils
(ex. iapeseeu,
sunflowei seeu,
soybeans)
Staiches (ex.
coin, wheat)
R
e
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

i
n

C
U
2

E
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t

E
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
s

{

]

Feedstoch Fuel Type

BioJiesel qenerolly
results in o 78%
reJuction in totol
qreenbouse qoses
wben comporeJ to
petroleum Jiesel.
19
10.2 Cost Analysis
When ueteimining costs foi the technologies unuei ieview, consiueiation must be
taken to the ielative scale of the technology given the limiteu size of feeustock
supply. As mentioneu in the intiouuction, Balhousie is in an auvantageous position
of being able to puisue othei supplementaiy souice of feeustock supply. At the
moment, howevei, the feeustock availability is moie conuucive to small-scale
commeicial applications. The cost compaiison of all technologies incluues pie-
filtiation anu washing of the fuel (wheie applicable). Stoiage options have not been
factoieu in, though the 0niveisity will want to invest in stoiage tanks, with costs
ianging in between $1uuu anu $4uuu CBN, uepenuent on the numbei of piotective
walls.
The anticipateu cost of an engine conveision foi uual-fuel use is typically in the
iange of $Suu to 2Suu, uepenuing on the complexity of the system components anu
theii souicing, not incluuing the cost of laboui foi installation.
Foi on-site piouuction of biouiesel, the majoi opeiating cost in biouiesel piouuction
is the cost of the feeustock - wheieas the yellow giease, is (fieely) available thiough
Aiamaik as a Wv0 input, this is not a majoi cost concein. With moie substantial
biouiesel opeiations, the cost of yellow giease can cost the manufactuiei between
$u.u9 anu u.2u 0SBlb, oi $u.29 0SBkg. In 2uu4, majoi waste oil ienueiing
facilities in Nova Scotia such as Rothsay Lauienco of Tiuio, weie paying about 112
$tonne foi 1Su tweek shipments of yellow giease.
As shown in Figuie 7 anu 8, the piice of biouiesel is in laige pait a function of
feeustock souice, with opeiational costs uiminishing as the supply moves fuithei
uown the waste stieam.

Figure 7. Sensitivity of biouiesel cost to feeustock cost, in 0SBgal (uiaboski 1998).
2u

Fossil fuel

Vegetable oil sunflowers
Biodiesel used coohing oilJgrease
Vegetable oil rapeseed
Biodiesel soy beans
Biodiesel animal grease
Biodiesel sunflower
CH2 lignocellulose
Bioetbanol sugar cane
Biodiesel rapeseed
Biometbanol lignocellulose
Bioetbanol wbeat
DME lignocellulose
LH2 lignocellulose
Biogas wastes
BTL lignocellulose
Bioetbanol sugar beets
Bioetbanol lignocellulose
Bioetbanol potatoes

EuroJC) fuel content
Figure 8. Piouuction costs of biofuels as compaieu to fossil fuels in Euiou} (IFE0 2uu4).
Repiesenting the full cost of biouiesel piouuction iequiies peifoiming a
compiehensive life cycle assessment anu examining the lanu use anu tianspoitation
inputs of the Aiamaik vegetable oil anu 0NC fish oil.
Also of consiueiation, fuel consumption may inciease slightly with the useu of any
biofuels - paiticulaily in uiesel engines. If Balhousie 0niveisity weie to use
biouiesel in a poition of its fleet vehicles, foi instance, theie woulu be a slight
ieuuction in fuel economy of its vehicles as shown in Table 4. Testing of fuel
economy between vaiious blenus useu woulu be beneficial to ueteimining losses.
Table 4. Fuel economy foi biouiesel, vegetable oil methyl esteis,
anu biouieselNumbei 2 uiesel blenus (uiaboski 1998).
Biodiesel
(%)
CU2
(N}kWh)
Fuel
(N}kWh)
u.u 1u1.2 1uS.S
2u.u 99.S 1u1.4
SS.u 99.8 1uu.S
6S.u 98.8 1uu.6
1uu.u 99.2 99.2
uiven the piesently ieuuceu piice of home heating anu uiesel fuel, ceitain
technologies may look moie attiactive when RPP piices inciease. Anothei 'hiuuen
cost' of technology selection, as uiscusseu in Appenuix item A, is ielateu to the
21
impact of Wv0 oi biouiesel use on waiianty anu insuiance policies of equipment.

Table S lists the payback peiiou associateu with each technology. 0bviously the
option of off-site biouiesel use caiiies with it no capital investments.
Table 5. Payback peiiou foi biofuel technologies at Balhousie 0niveisity.
Paybach Period No. Fuel TypeJApplication
<1 year 1 - 2 years 2 - 3 years >3 years
1 Wv0 in uiesel fleet vehicles


2 Wv0 in space heating


3 Wv0 in micio-CBP


4 0n-site biouiesel foi fleet

*
S 0n-site biouiesel foi heating

*
6 0ff-site biouiesel foi fleet


7 0ff-site biouiesel foi heating


* 0epenJent on sinqle-stoqe or Juol-stoqe processinq of fuel.
11. Review and Recommendations
A ieview of Balhousie 0niveisity options foi biofuel use ieveals the following
piimaiy iecommenuations:

Puisue intensive pieliminaiy testing of pie-filteieu Wv0 fiom Aiamaik foou
seivice locations in uiesel engine combustion; fuithei ieseaich is
encouiageu, to auuiess biofuel infoimation gaps, as outlineu in Appenuix B.
Subsequent to quality contiol testing, install uual-tank system in eithei the
Foiu E-4Su van (Facilities Nanagement) oi the Bouge Spiintei (Aiamaik)
towaius use of pie-filteieu Wv0.

Establish a stoiage facility anu testing lab, the lattei of which can be satellite
(i.e. Chemistiy builuing), pioximate to Wv0 uisposal points collect feeustock
foi laige batch filtiation.

Entei into uiscussions with Wilson's Fuel to phase in biouiesel blenus into
fuinace use on campus, beginning with a BS blenu in the fiist tiial season.

Exploie oppoitunities foi paitneiship with suiiounuing Wv0 piouuceis,
incluuing the IWK anu businesses on the campus peiimetei.
22
12. Financial Incentives
The following is a listing of piovincial anu feueial piogiams that can suppoit the
ieseaich anu uevelopment of biofuel use at Balhousie 0niveisity.
NextCen Biofuels Fund: a piogiam of Sustainable Bevelopment Technology
Canaua, which assists in a biofuel uevelopment pioject's capital expenuituies
while simultaneously "helping them to scale-up theii technology solution to a
laige, uemonstiation-scale plant":

URL: http:www.sutc.caenfunuingNextuen_Biofuels_Funuinuex.htm

Tbe Resource Recovery Fund Board {RRFB]: funus municipalities,
businesses anu community piojects that ieuuce waste anu uiveit mateiials
fiom the lanufill. Nunicipalities can ieceive funuing foi Nunicipal Appioveu
Piogiams that assist in uiveiting mateiials fiom the lanufill thiough waste
ieuuction, ieuse, iecycling oi composting initiatives.
URL: http:www.iifb.compagesfoims.html
















2S
13. Appendices
13.1 Appendix A
Warranty and Insurance Issues at Dalbousie
The use of biofuels in any Balhousie equipment shoulu be communicateu to the
0ffice of Rick Nanagement at Balhousie 0niveisity. Foi an engine mouification to
two tiucks, foi example, the Balhousie insuiance coveiage woulu iemain unaffecteu.
Any potential engine issues as a iesult of using Wv0, howevei, may piesent some
insuiance anu waiianty pioblems. }ohn Beeie, of which Balhousie has a giounu
tiactoi anu miumount mowei foi example, has stateu that "iaw piesseu vegetable
oils aie not acceptable foi use foi fuel in any concentiation". 0se of Wv0, then, is up
to the uiscietion of the opeiatoi.

Similaily, while ceitifieu biouiesel may be coveieu foi use unuei most policies, the
fuel's solvent quality (i.e. fuel line cleansing piopeities) have leu to cloggeu filteis,
iesulting in skepticism suiiounuing its wiuespieau use.

In the 0.S., Feueial law piohibits a waiianty fiom being voiueu on the basis that
biouiesel was useu. 0nly if an engine expeiiences a failuie causeu uiiectly by
biouiesel use will the uamage incuiieu be exempteu fiom the oiiginal equipment
manufactuiei's waiianty (EERE 2uu4). 0n the othei hanu, most waiianties by
manufactuieis of engines anu vehicles pioviue waiianties on theii piouucts
coveiing "mateiial anu woikmanship"; not necessaiily uamage causeu by some
exteinal conuition. 0nuei most stanuaiu piovincial automobile policies, the
exclusion clause stipulates the that insuiei shall not be liable foi uamage "causeu by
mechanical fiactuie oi bieakuown of any pait of the automobile oi by iusting,
coiiosion, weai anu teai, fieezing, oi explosion within the combustion chambei,
unless . causeu by fiie, theft oi malicious mischief." (uoA 2uu4). This means that
any filtei clogging oi engine failuie associateu with uiesel fuel use (wheie biouiesel
is useu) may be excluueu fiom the insuiance policy wheie use of alteinative fuel can
be liable.

0ff-spec biouiesel (that which is not ceitifieu in accoiuance with ASTN stanuaius,
such as PS121), howevei, typically nulls the waiianty as the paits manufactuiei
cannot ensuie its combustion quality. }ohn Beeie appioves biouiesel use in blenus
of BS in its PoweiTech uiesel engines; similaily Foiu Notoi company appioves
blenus of S% biouiesel oi less in its vehicle engines.




24
13.2 Appendix B
Listing of field trials and researcb on biodiesel use in engines
at private labs and Universities tbrougbout Nortb America.
An exceipt fiom (Schumachei 2uu1)

a] Urban Bus Data Collection
A total of ten buses have been monitoieu at Bi-State Bevelopment Agency in St.
Louis, Nissouii since Apiil 14, 1994 (Schumachei, et. al., 1994c). All of the buses aie
poweieu by 1988 6v92TA Betioit Biesel engines. Five of the buses have been fueleu
with a 2u% blenu of biouiesel in 8u% # 2 uiesel fuel, anu five of the buses aie
contiols fueleu with # 2 uiesel fuel. Appioximately 88,uuu miles have been loggeu
on each bus while fueling with a 2u% biouiesel blenu. The accumulation of weai
metals in the engine lubiicating oil, engine fuel system mateiial compatibility, anu
engine uuiability have been monitoieu. Bata ielateu to fuel consumption, powei,
anu exhaust emissions have been monitoieu anu iecoiueu (Schumachei, et. al,
199Sc) (Schumachei & Nauzuia, 1996). New uiesel fuel injectois weie installeu in
each engine at the stait of the pioject. Some fuel filtei plugging was noteu uuiing the
fiist weeks of fueling. Niuway thiough the pioject, one injectoi was iemoveu fiom
each of the biouiesel buses anu sent to Biesel Technology Company (BTC) foi
analysis.
BTC noteu that cavitation hau occuiieu on two of the five injectois that weie
analyzeu. The biouiesel buses have expeiienceu a highei level of cooling system
maintenance than the uiesel contiol buses. Rauiatois weie iemoveu, iouueu, anuoi
ieplaceu foi neaily all of the biouiesel fueleu buses. Laige vaiiations in fuel
economy weie noteu in the pioject but these weie attiibuteu to fuel blenuing
pioblems.

b] 5.9L Cummins Engines in Dodge Pichups at tbe University of Missouri
Staiting in 1991, a 1991- S.9L 6B Cummins engine anu in 1992, a 1992- S.9L 6B
Cummins engine have been fueleu with 1uu% neat biouiesel (Schumachei, et al.,
199Sa,u). The accumulation of weai metals has been noteu in the engine lubiicating
oil, anu the engine fuel system mateiial compatibility, fuel economy, powei,
emissions, anu engine uuiability have been monitoieu. Nitiile iubbei fuel lines weie
ieplaceu on the 1991 Bouge because they hau ueteiioiateu uue to the solvent
chaiacteiistics of the biouiesel. This was not necessaiy foi the 1992 pickup as
Bouge began using an elastomei that was iesistant to biouiesel. At appioximately
Su,uuu miles (1991-SS,uuu miles, 1992- 47,uuu miles) a Su%
powei loss was noteu uuiing powei testing. The fuel tiansfei pumps weie
subsequently ieplaceu. 0pon inspection, the uiaphiagm of each fuel tiansfei pump
hau ueteiioiateu. This pieventeu the fuel tiansfei pump fiom ueliveiing a full
chaige of fuel to the engine. Aftei ieplacing the pumps, the pickups weie ietesteu
foi powei, but weie unable to match the peifoimance of eailiei powei tests. The
Bosch vE pump was iemoveu fiom each pickup anu examineu by Capitol Biesel, a
2S
uiesel injection pump iepaii facility locateu neai }effeison City, Nissouii. They
founu that the aneioiu sensoi of each injection pump hau faileu. The technician
founu a biown gelatin-like mateiial in the aneioiu sensoi of each injection pump.
The Bosch uiesel fuel injectois of both engines weie analyzeu aftei appioximately
Su,uuu miles of fueling by Bosch umbB. Theii iepoit stateu that no pioblems weie
noteu anu that Bosch appioveu of the use of 1uu% biouiesel in theii fuel system.
Appioximately 1uu,uuu miles hau been loggeu on the 1992 pickup when the test
was teiminateu on Nay 17, 1996. The engine was uisassembleu anu examineu by a
team of Cummins Engine Company expeits uuiing the fiist week of }une 1996. The
uiaft iepoit by Cummins inuicateu that the engine was weaiing at a noimal iate.

Fueling Farm Tractors witb Biodiesel Blends
Quantitative uata ielateu to fuel consumption, powei, anu exhaust emissions weie
monitoieu anu iecoiueu while fueling Case-Inteinational S12u, S1Su, & S2Su anu
Foiu 46uu & 774u tiactois with blenus ianging fiom u to 1uu% biouiesel. Nateiial
compatibility pioblems weie noteu when fueling with an expeiimental biouiesel
fueling station. The 1uu% biouiesel uissolveu the iubbei fill hose aftei one month of
use so that fuel leakeu fiom the hose when iefueling. }ohn Beeie tiactois, mouels
6Suu, 72uu, 78uu ian hottei when fueleu with biouiesel (Schumachei, et al., 1994a).
The tiactois weie testeu foi powei while changing between blenus of u, 1u, 2u, Su,
4u, Su, anu 1uu% biouiesel # 2 uiesel fuel. Testing occuiieu on the same uay,
unuei similai tempeiatuie anu humiuity conuitions, anu within minutes of the
pievious test. When each engine fueleu with 1uu% uiesel fuel, the viscous fan that is
uesigneu to engage when cooling neeus aie the gieatest, seluom engageu. The
viscous fan almost always engageu when fueleu with a biouiesel blenu. The powei
that each engine was able to piouuce ueclineu as the concentiation of biouiesel
incieaseu. Bowevei, the uecline in powei seluom exceeueu 1-S% except when the
engine was conveiteu to 1uu% biouiesel.

1000 Hour Durability testing
Two 1uuu houi uuiability tests have been conuucteu by 0RTECB Inteinational
(Nississauga, 0ntaiio, Canaua) foi the National Biouiesel Boaiu (0RTECB, 199S anu
Fosseen, 199Sb). Both two-stioke (6v92-TA Betioit Biesel) anu foui-stioke (N14
Cummins) uiesel engines weie testeu foi powei anu long teim uuiability. In both
situations, the 0EN selecteu the uuiability cycle that woulu be useu when fueling
the engine. Powei anu emissions weie uocumenteu piioi to initiating each 1uuu
houi uuiability test. The emissions piouuceu by the engines paialleleu uata
pieviously iepoiteu in the liteiatuie: N0x incieaseu while C0, BC, anu PN ueclineu.
Injectoi cavitation pioblems weie noteu foi the 6v92-TA at the enu of the 1uuu
houi test. No injectoi pioblems weie noteu foi the N14. Both engines expeiienceu a
loss in powei uuiing the testing.





26
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