Introduction to Rotating Machines

AC MACHINES
Synchronous Machines
the armature winding of a synchronous machine is on the stator.
the field winding is on the rotor. The field winding is excited by direct current conducted to it
by means of stationary carbon brushes which contact rotating slip rings or collector rings.
The conductors forming the coil sides a and a! are "arallel to the shaft of the machine and are
connected in series by end connections not shown in the figure!.
The rotor is turned at a constant s"eed by a source of mechanical "ower connected to its shaft.
#ig. $.$ A sim"le% two&"ole salient "ole!% single&"hase synchronous generator.
Figure $.' a! S"ace distribution of flux density B!.
b! corres"onding wa(eform of the generated (oltage e! for the single&"hase generator of #ig. $.$.
Figure 4.6 A sim"le% four&"ole% single&"hase synchronous generator.
Figure $.) S"ace distribution of the air&ga" flux density in an ideali*ed% four&"ole synchronous generator.
+
, number of "oles
, angle in electrical units electrical angle!
, s"atial angle mechanical angle!
ae a
ae
a
P
P

,
The electrical fre-uency f
e
of the (oltage generated in a synchronous machine,

H*
+ ./
, mechanical s"eed in re(olutions "er min.
, s"eed in re(olutions "er second
./
e
P n
f
n
n
_

The electrical fre-uency of the generated (oltage in radians "er second is

radians "er second rad.0sec.!
+
, mechanical s"eed in radians "er second.
e m
m
P

,
Figure $.1 Elementary two&"ole cylindrical-rotor field winding.
#or the "roduction of a set of three (oltages "hase&dis"laced by 2+/ electrical degrees in time% a
minimum of three coils "hase&dis"laced 2+/ electrical degrees in s"ace must be used.
#igure $.2+ Three&"hase generators a! Two&"ole b! #our "ole c! 3 connections of the windings.
Induction Machines

The stator winding of an induction machine is excited with alternating currents.
4otor currents are "roduced by induction% i.e.% transformer action. The induction machine may
be regarded as a generali*ed transformer in which electric "ower is transformed between rotor
and stator together with a change of fre-uency and flow of mechanical "ower.
It is seldom used as a generator exce"t in wind&"ower a""lications!.
The stator windings are essentially the same as those of a synchronous machine.
The rotor windings are electrically short&circuited and fre-uently ha(e no external connections
squirrel-cage rotor!.
Figure 4.15 Ty"ical induction&motor s"eed&tor-ue characteristic.
! Machines
The armature winding of a dc generator is on the rotor with current conducted from it by
means of carbon brushes.
The field winding is on the stator and is excited by direct current.
S"ace distribution of air&ga" flux density in an elementary dc machine
wa(eform of (oltage between brushes
MMF of distri"uted #indings
distributed winding, coils are s"read o(er a number of slots around the air&ga" "eri"hery.
winding consisting of a single N&turn coil which s"ans 21/ electrical degrees full&"itch!,
The air&ga" mmf,
MMF of A! Machines$
The rectangular air&ga" mmf wa(e of the concentrated two&"ole% full&"itch coil can be resol(ed into a
#ourier series com"rising a fundamental com"onent and a series of odd harmonics. The fundamental
com"onent F
ag2
is

2
$
cos
+
ag a
Ni
F

,
sinusoidal s"ace wa(e!
Am"litude, ( )
2
"ea5
$
+
ag
Ni
F

,
"ea5 aligned with the magnetic axis of the coil!
istri"uted #inding$ coils distri"uted in se%eral slots.
The winding is arranged in two layers% each full&"itch coil of N
c
turns ha(ing one side in the to" of a
slot and the other coil side in the bottom of a slot a "ole "itch away. This two&layer arrangement
sim"lifies the geometric "roblem of getting the end turns of the indi(idual coils "ast each other.
air&ga" mmf of "hase 6a7 alone
The distributed winding "roduces a closer a""roximation to a sinusoidal mmf wa(e than the
concentrated coil.
#or a distributed multi"ole winding ha(ing N
ph
series turns "er "hase% the fundamental mmf is
2
$
cos
+
w ph
ag a a
k N
P
F i
P

_
_

,
,
where k
w
, winding factor8 ta5es into account the distribution of the winding.
The factor k
w
N
ph
is the effecti(e series turns "er "hase for the fundamental mmf. The "ea5 am"litude
of this mmf wa(e is
( )
2
$
w ph
ag a
peak
k N
F i
P
_

,
&xa'(le 4.1
The "hase&a two&"ole armature winding of #ig. $.+/a can be considered to consist of 1 Nc&turn% full&"itch coils
connected in series% with each slot containing two coils. There are a total of +$ armature slots% and thus each slot
is se"arated by 9./:0+$ ; 2':. Assume angle a is measured from the magnetic axis of "hase a! such that the
four slots containing the coil sides labeled a! are at a ; .).':% 1+.':% <).':% and 22+.':. The o""osite sides of
each coil are thus found in the slots found at &22+.':% &<).' :% &1+.' : and &.).' :% res"ecti(ely. Assume this
winding to be carrying current ia.
a! =rite an ex"ression for the s"ace&fundamental mmf "roduced by the two coils whose sides are
in the slots at a;22+.': and &.).':.
b! =rite an ex"ression for the s"ace&fundamental mmf "roduced by the two coils whose sides are
in the slots at a ; .).': and &22+.':.
c! =rite an ex"ression for the s"ace&fundamental mmf of the com"lete armature winding.
d! >etermine the winding factor kw for this distributed winding.
a. The magnetic axis of this "air of coils is at a ; 22+.': & .).':!0+ ; ++.': and that the total am"ere&
turns in the slot is e-ual to +Ncia. The mmf "roduced by this "air of coils is

( ) ( )
2
++.'
+ $
cos ++.'
+
c a
ag a a
N i
F i

_


,
o
o
b. ( ) ( )
2
++.'
+ $
cos ++.'
+
c a
ag a a
N i
F i

_
+

,
o
o
c.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2
total ++.' ).' ).' ++.'
+ $
cos ++.' cos ).' cos ).' cos ++.'
+
)... $
cos
+
$.11 cos
ag ag ag ag ag
c
a a a a a
c
a a
c a a
F F F F F
N
i
N
i
N i

+ + +
_
1
+ + + + +

]
,
_

o o o o
o o o o

d.
( )
2
total
/.<'1
$
1 cos /.<'1
+
ph
ph c ag a a w
N
N N F i k

_


,
Magnetic Fields in Rotating Machines
?niform air&ga",
It is assumed that the magnetic field intensity ) in the air ga" has radial com"onent only and has
constant magnitude across the air ga".

ag
ag
F
H
g

The fundamental s"ace&harmonic com"onent of H
ag
can be found directly from the fundamental
com"onent F
ag2

( )
2
2 2
$ $
cos
+ +
ag
ag a ag
peak
F
Ni Ni
H H
g g g

_ _


, ,

>istributed winding,

2
2
$
cos
+
ag w ph
ag a a
F k N
P
H i
g gP

_
_


,
,
N
ph
, the total number of series turns0"hase.
4@TATINA MM# =ABES IN AC MACHINES
MMF *a%e of a Single-+hase *inding

2
$
cos
+
w ph
ag a a
k N
P
F i
P

_
_

,
,
=hen this winding is excited by a sinusoidally (arying current in time at electrical fre-uency
e

! cos !
a a e
i t I t
Then% the mmf distribution becomes

( )
2 max max
max
$
cos cos !
+
cos cos !
w ph
ag a e a
ae e
k N
P
F F t F I
P
F t

_
_


,
,

?sing
2 2
cos !. cos ! cos ! cos !
+ +
X Y X Y X Y + +
( ) ( )
2 max
2 2
cos cos
+ +
ag ae e ae e
F F t t
1
+ +
1
]
, rotating mmf wa(es

( )
( )
2
2
max
max
2
cos rotates in C direction
+
2
cos rotates in direction
+
ag
ag
ae e a
ae e a
F F t
F F t


+

+
MMF *a%e of a +oly(hase *inding
Dalanced three&"hase currents "hase se-uence a"c!,



! cos !
! cos 2+/ !
! cos 2+/ !
a m e
b m e
c m e
i t I t
i t I t
i t I t

+
o
o





( )
( )
2 2 2
2 max
2 max max
2
cos
+
2 $
cos
+
a a a
a ae e
w ph
a ae e m
F F F
F F t
k N
F F t F I
P

+
+

+

_
+

,
#or "hases b! and c!% whose axes are at
ae
; 2+/: and
ae
; &2+/:% res"ecti(ely%

( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 max 2 max
2

2 2
cos cos
+ +

b b b c c c
b ae e c ae e
b
F F F F F F
F F t F F t
F

+ +
+ +

+ +

( ) ( )
max 2 max
2 2
cos +$/ cos +$/
+ +
ae e c ae e
F t F F t

+ + +
o o
The total mmf is the sum of the contributions from each of the three "hases

2 2 2
% !
ae a b c
F t F F F + +


( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2 max
2 2 2 max
2
% ! cos cos +$/ cos +$/ /
+
9
% ! cos , mmf wa(e tra(eling in "ositi(e direction.
+
ae a b c ae e ae e ae e
ae a b c ae e ae
F t F F F F t t t
F t F F F F t



+ + + +
1
+ + + + + + + +
]
+ +
o o
In a! t ; / % ia is maximum ia ; Im!% hence standing mmf wa(e due to "hase a! has maximum "ea5 in the
direction of its magnetic axis8 ib and ic are e-ual and negati(e ib ; ic ; Im0+!% hence their mmf7s are e-ual in
magnitude and o""osite to their magnetic axes.
In b! t ; E09Fe % ic is negati(e maximum ic ; Im!% hence standing mmf wa(e due to "hase c! has maximum
"ea5 in the direction o""osite to its magnetic axis8 ia and ib are e-ual and "ositi(e ia ; ib ; Im0+!.
In c! t ; +E09Fe % ib is maximum ib ; Im!% hence standing mmf wa(e due to "hase "! has maximum "ea5 in the
direction of its magnetic axis8 ia and ic are e-ual and negati(e.
AENE4ATE> B@GTAAE
A! Machines
The field winding "roduces radial s"ace&fundamental air&ga" flux of "ea5 flux density B
"ea5
. #or
uniform airga"

/
"ea5
$
, air&ga" length
, total series turns in the field winding

f f
f
f
k N
B I g
g P
N

,
, field&winding winding factor
, field current dc!
f
f
k
I
=hen the rotor "oles are in line with the magnetic axis of a stator "hase% the flux lin5age with a stator
"hase winding is w ph p
k N
% p

where is the air&ga" flux "er "ole. Magnetic flux density as a function
of angular "osition in the air&ga"% measured from the magnetic axis of the field winding


"ea5
! cos
+
r r
P
B B
_

,

0 0
"ea5 "ea5
0 0
+
. ! cos +
+
P P
p r r r r
P P
P
l B r l B r lrB
P




_ _


, ,

, a
l , axial length of the stator0rotor iron. If the rotor rotates at constant angular s"eed
m
% the flux&
lin5age of "hase&a winding

( )
! cos
+
cos , mech. rotor s"eed ex"ressed in elec. rad.0sec.
a w ph p m
w ph p me me
P
t k N t
k N t


_


,

Boltage induced in "hase a,
( ) ( )
!
! cos sin
p
a
a w ph me w ph p me me

t
e t k N t k N t
t t

The "olarity of this induced (oltage is such that if the stator coil were short&circuited% the induced
(oltage would cause a current to flow in the direction that would o""ose any change in the flux
lin5age of the stator coil.
#irst term, transfor'er %oltage% "resent only when the am"litude of the air&ga" flux wa(e changes with time
Second term$ s(eed %oltage generated as a result of the relati(e motion of the air&ga" flux and the stator.
In normal steady&state o"eration% the am"litude of the air&ga" flux wa(e is constant the first term is
*ero. The term electromoti!e force emf" is used for the s"eed (oltage. #or constant air&ga" flux%

( )
max
! sin
Maximum (alue, +
4ms (alue , + , elec. s"eed of r
a me w ph p me
me w ph p me w ph p
rms e w ph p me
e t k N t
# k N f k N
# f k N f

otor H*!
e
f
! Machines
AC (oltages are induced in the armature winding coils as the
coils rotate through the flux created by the dc field winding on
the stator.
The commutator "ro(ides full rectification of the AC (oltage.
Boltage between the brushes.
The a(erage (alue of the brush (oltage,

/
2 +
sin ! !
a me p me me me p
# N t t N

0 +!
me m a p m
P
P # N

T@4H?E IN N@NSAGIENT&I@GE MACHINES

!ou(led-!ircuit -ie#(oint
#ig. $.9$
Assum"tions,
mmf wa(es can be a""roximated by s"ace sinusoids.
the reluctances of the stator and rotor iron are negligible.
the stator and rotor self&inductances $
ss
and $
rr
are constant.

The stator&to&rotor mutual inductance de"ends on the electrical angle
me
between the magnetic axes of
the stator and rotor windings.

! cos !
sr me sr me
$ L
The stator and rotor flux lin5ages,

! cos !
! cos !
s ss s sr me r ss s sr me r
r sr me s rr r sr me s rr r
$ i i $ i $ i
i $ i $ i $ i


+ +
+ +
L
L
The terminal (oltages are,

s
s s s
r
r r r

! % i
t

! % i
t

+
+
=hen the rotor rotates at s"eed
me
,


cos ! sin !
cos ! sin !
s me r
s s s ss sr me sr r me
s me r
r r r rr sr me sr s me
i i
! % i $ $ $ i
t t t
i i
! % i $ $ $ i
t t t

+ +
+ +

Electromagnetic tor-ue,
Co&energy
+ +
2 2
cos
+ + +
fl ss s rr r sr s r m
P
& $ i $ i $ i i
_
+ +

,


( )
%
% % !
sin
+ +
sin
+
s r
fl s r m
sr s r m
m
i i
sr s r me
& i i
P P
' $ i i
P
$ i i

,


The negati(e sign means that the electromechanical tor-ue acts in the direction to bring the magnetic
fields of the stator and rotor into alignment.
&xa'(le 4.6
Consider the elementary two&"ole% two&winding machine of #ig. $.9$. Its shaft is cou"led to a mechanical de(ice
which can be made to absorb or deli(er mechanical tor-ue o(er a wide range of s"eeds. This machine can be
connected and o"erated in se(eral ways. #or this exam"le% let us consider the situation in which the rotor
winding is excited with direct current Ir and the stator winding is connected to an ac source which can either
absorb or deli(er electric "ower. Get the stator current be


! cos !
s s e
i t I t
where t ; / is arbitrarily chosen as the moment when the stator current has its "ea5 (alue.
a! >eri(e an ex"ression for the magnetic tor-ue de(elo"ed by the machine as the s"eed is (aried by
control of the mechanical de(ice connected to its shaft.
b! #ind the s"eed at which a(erage tor-ue will be "roduced if the stator fre-uency is ./ H*.
c! =ith the assumed current&source excitations% what (oltages are induced in the stator and rotor windings
at synchronous s"eed m ; e!J
Solution,
a! #or a two&"ole machine%

( ) sin
sr s r me
' $ i i
Get
m m
t +


,
m

the cloc5wise angular (elocity im"ressed on the rotor by the mechanical dri(e.
, the angular "osition of the rotor at t ; /.

( )
[ ] [ ] { }
cos ! sin
2
sin ! sin !
+
sr s r e m
sr s r m e m e
' $ I I t t
$ I I t t


+
+ + + +
b! The time a(erage of the tor-ue is *ero exce"t when
m e

. #or this synchronous case
{ }
2
sin+ ! sin
+
sr s r e
' $ I I t + +
A(erage tor-ue,

2
sin
+
a! sr s r
' $ I I
A non*ero a(erage tor-ue will also be "roduced when
m e

.

+ ./ 2+/ rad.0sec.
m e
t t t
c! Boltage induced on the stator winding,


cos ! sin !
sin ! sin !
s me r
s ss sr me sr r me
e ss s e e sr r e
i i
e $ $ $ i
t t t
$ I t $ i t

+
+

[ ]
cos ! sin !
cos ! sin ! cos ! sin !
sin ! cos ! cos ! sin !
sin+ !
s me r
r rr sr me sr s me
sr e e s e sr s e e e
e sr s e e e e
e sr s e
i i
e $ $ $ i
t t t
$ t I t $ I t t
$ I t t t t
$ I t

+
+ +
+ + +
+
Magnetic Field -ie#(oint
Sim"lified two&"ole machine,
Fs . Fr $ s"ace "hasors re"resenting the stator and the rotor mmf wa(es in the air&ga".
Fsr $ s"ace "hasor re"resenting the resultant mmf wa(e.
The magnitude of the resultant mmf,

+ + +
+ cos
sr s r s r sr
F F F F F + +
The resultant radial H
ag
field is a sinusoidal s"ace wa(e with "ea5 (alue H
ag%"ea5

%
sr
ag peak
F
H
g

Get
%
! cos !
ag m ag peak m
H H

Coenergy density in the air&ga" is
+
/
0 +!
ag
H
. Therefore% the total coenergy in the air&ga" is

+
+ +
/ %
/
2
cos ! 0 +! , axial length of the air&ga"
+
, a(erage diameter of
fl ag peak m m
& H ( ( gl ) l
)

+
+ /
/
air&ga"
2

$ $
sr
fl sr
F )l
& l)g F
g g


_


,
( )
+ + /
+ cos
$
fl s r s r sr
)l
& F F F F
g

+ +


Tor-ue for a two&"ole machine,

/
%
sin
+
s r
fl
s r sr
sr
F F
&
)l
' F F
g

#or a P&"ole machine,

/
sin
+ +
s r sr
)l P
' F F
g

_


,

The angle
sr

is the s"ace angle between the stator and rotor mmf "hasors in elec. rad. The minus sign
means that the fields tend to align themsel(es. #rom the "hasor diagram


sin sin
sin sin
is the angle between the resultant mmf and the rotor mmf "hasors.
is the angle between the resultant mmf and the stator mm
s sr sr r
r sr sr s
r
s
F F
F F

f "hasors.


/ /
sin sin
+ + + +
sr r r sr s s
)l )l P P
' F F F F
g g


_ _


, ,
&xa'(le 4./
An 21//&r0min% four&"ole% ./&H* synchronous motor has an air&ga" length of 2.+ mm. The a(erage diameter of
the air&ga" is +) cm% and its axial length is 9+ cm. The rotor winding has )1. turns and a winding factor of /.<)..
Assuming that thermal considerations limit the rotor current to 21 A% estimate the maximum tor-ue and "ower
out"ut one can ex"ect to obtain from this machine.
Solution

$ $ /.<). )1.
21 $9<' A&turns
$
r r
r r
k N
F I
P
_ _


, ,

Assume that the maximum air&ga" flux density is 2.' T.

( )
/
sin
/.+) /.9+ 2.' $9<' sin
2)</ N&m
sr
sr sr r r
r
B
F g ' )l B F

Iower generated by the machine,

21//
+ 2)</ 99) 5=
./
m
' +