Old English: 450 or 700 1100 Full endings/inflections; synthetical language, the alphabet (the runes); spelling- generally

y phonetic;mutation of umlaut (man-men, foot-feet)

Middle English: 1100 1500 French was used in court and by the aristocracy; 90% of the population spo e !nglishintroduced in schools after "#$9% &fter "#00 english spelling was influenced by the French' long (owels began to be doubled (fet-feet, gas-geese); single consonants after a stressed (owel were doubled ( stop-stopped); there was the tendency to shorten long (owels when followed by consonants; unstressed (owels were wea ened or lost

Modern English: 1500 present time: )oincides with the great cultural progress of *einaissance +iscrepancy between spelling and sound , more e(ident &fter "-00, !nglish sounds underwent significant changes' most (owels were changed in stressed syllables; r was modified being silenced in many cases

Received Pronunciation RP: .po en by the educated ppl of !ngland, used by radio and t( announcers /ae/ is diphtongised in /e// in 0that man / 1 a' u'/ are fully bac 2he (owel in 34nurse44 is (ery open //u/ is pronounced /ou/ /i/ is preffered to /// in words li e waited, horses, pri(ate .ome emphasis is added to a (oiceless consonant following an accented (owel ' 34it is awfully nice44 &ssimilation occurs fre5uently, 34ten minutes44 - /tem minits/ !lision, 34ne6t day44 /ne s dei/ +ropping of unstressed 34h44 in 34him44 )ompression , 34to arri(e44- / tw/rai(/

Coc ne!: 7ondon speech, described as harsh, a(oids mo(ement of the lips and 8aw as far as possible *hyming slang , words or phrases that rhyme with the words that are really meant

)lipped rhyming slang , rhyming word is left out *elations -9 relytions; time -9toime; home -9own; insult-9 inselt; as ed -9arst;

Estuar! English EE: :odified regional speech; mi6ture of non-regional and local south-eastern !nglish pronunciation; new standard accent ;lottaling' /t/ is replaced by glottal stop when preceeded by a (owel or /ln/ and followed by another consonant or at the end of the word' 34ta e it off44, 34football44, 34bentley44 <od coalescence 2ense (owels in final position, 44me44, 34city44 ha(e a longer (owel in final position than in *= >ntonation proeminence to prepositions and au6iliaries' 344let4s go 2? the mar et44

"he production #ounds: ?rgans of speech' lungs , the source of energy, windpipe/trachea; laryn6 with the (ocal cords; glottis (closed for glottal stop/@/, open, lea(ing a narrow space - /h/, (ocal cords are close together and (ibrate producing (oice, they do not (ibrate , (oiceless position , whisper); =haryn6; :outh (fi6ed parts/points of articulation' teeth, hard palate, pharyngeal wall, mo(able' lips, tongue, soft palate, lower 8aw); Aose *oof of the mouth' the al(eolar/teeth ridige; the hard palate; the soft palate/(elum

Classi$ication o$ vo%els: the position of the tongue' front (owels' /i' > e ae/; bac (owels '/ u', u, u intors lung, o, a'/; central (owels //', / 1/ the position of the lips' rounded (owels / o intors lung, o, u', u/, unrounded //, e, ae/ degree of muscular tension' tense (owels / i', u'/, la6 (owels / o, /, i/

Classi$ication o$ Consonants: acti(ity of the (ocal cords' (oiced' / b d g B m n l r/; (oiceless' / p t position of the soft palate' oral c' all e6cept nasal - /m n nasal n/ place of articulation' bilabial' /p b m/, labio dental' /f (/, dental'/ ch"CD/, al(eolar'/t d s B n l/, post al(eolar C retrofle6 /r/; palate-al(eolar labio-(elar /w/; glottal /h @/ manner of articulation' plosi(es / p b t d g @/; affricates / h/, continuants' /m n n nasal/; lateral /l/ force of articulation' fortis - (oiceless / p t s/, lenis- (oiced / b d g m n l r/ s/

/ t d/; palatal' /8/; (elar'/

t
d

g n naBal/,

/; fricati(es' / f ( s B

semi(owels or appro6imants /w 8/

Phoneme: distincti(e feature' choice between two polar 5ualities of the same category or between the presence or absence of a certain 5uality (the way you pronounce it, degree of opening your mouth) phonemeE bundle of distincti(e features, realiBed in the acoustic substances of its (ariants or allophones phonemes of a lg can be established by a process of commutation or the disco(ery of minimal pairs , paris of words that are different in only one segment' not, nod

&llophones: 3tin4, 3 in4, are different phonemes , they distinguish diff meaning, but in 34time, sta e, bottom, little44 , the phoneme 3t4has different realiBations depending on the phonological conte6t in which it occurs, these realiBationsEallophones of the phoneme4t4, E positional allophones, 2hey are in complementary distribution as they cannot occur in the same position, their configuration depending on the ad8acent sound; &llophones for /p' 34pea 44- aspirated, 34spea 44- unaspirated

'ntonation: - an utterance is di(ided into tone groups or intonation units, a tone group has a nucleus which bears the change direction of the (oice or a change in the pitch of the (oice which is the terminal contour of the utterance (ront vo%els: / i', >, e, ae/ ' /i'/ - front, close, tense, unrounded , e6' 5uai, people, beauchamp /i/- front, close, short, la6, unrounded, e6' .unday, women, build, busy, minute, englang, money, pretty /e/- front, mid-open, short, la6, unrounded, e6' says, said, friend, again, leopard, 8eopardy, leonard, ate, leisure, bury /ae/ - front, open, short, la6, unrounded, e6' plait, plaid, re(eille

)ac vo%els: /a' u intors scurt, o intors lung, u, u'/ /a'/ bac , open,long, tense, unrounded, / u intors scurt/ - bac , open, short, la6, slightly rounded, e6' ou,ow-cough, au-sausage, ua5uality /u intors lung/ - bac , half-open, long, tense, rounded, e6; water, broad, wrath /u/ - bac , close, short, la6, rounded, e6' bossom, wolf, woman / u'/ - bac , close, long, tense, rounded,

Central *o%els: / 1 , / lung, // /1/ - central, open, short, la6, unrounded / / lung/ - central, mid-open, long, tense, unrounded, e6' colonel / // - central, mid ,open, short, la6, unrounded

+iphthongs: ,falling ("st element is the nucleus), Frising; Fwide , there is a considerable mo(ement of the speech organs from the position of the nucleus so that of the glide /ai au oi/, Fnarrow' the mo(ement is less mar ed /ei /u i/ e//; Fclosing' nucleus is more open than the (owel /ei ai oi/, Fopening' nucleus is closer than the glide /i/ e/ u/

Consonants: /p/ - bilabial, fortis, (oiceless, plosi(e, ec' hiccough, silent in pn, ps, pt /b/ - bilabial, lenis, (oiced, unaspirated, plosi(e /t/ - al(eolar, fortis, (oiceless, plosi(e /d/ - al(eolar, lenis, (oiced, unaspirated, plosi(e / /- (elar, fortis, (oiceless, plosi(e, silent before n ;lottal stop /@/ - sudden cessation of the preceeding sound or it occurs with the sudden onset of the following sound; (oiceless and fortis /

t /

- palato-al(eolar, fortis, (oiceless, affricate

/d

/ - palate-al(eolar, lenis, (oiced, affricate, e6' gaol

/ f/ - labio-dental, fortis, (oiceless, fricati(e, e6' lieutenant leftenant /(/- labio-dental, lenis, (oiced, fricati(e / /

/ - dental, fortis, (oiceless,fricati(e, occurs in initial position, / - dental, (oiced, lenis, fricati(e, occurs in functional words, the, this, that, there, they / - palato-al(eolar, fortis, (oiceless, fricati(e

/s/ - al(eolar, fortis,(oiceless, fricati(e /

// - palate-al(eolar, lenis, (oiced, fricati(e /8/-leisure, pleasure

/h/ - glottal, fortis, (oiceless, fricati(e / m/ - bilabial, (oiced, nasal /n/ -al(eolar, (oiced, lenis, nasal /n nasal/ - (elar, (oiced, lenis, nasal

&pro-imants: (owel li e frictionless continuant sounds' 7ateral consonant /l/- al(eolar, (oiced, lenis lateral ' "% )lear /l/- lea(e, million, has the resonance of a front (owel; D% Goiceless /l/- when preceeded by a (oiceless cons, plea, climb; #% +ar /l/ - in final position, before a consonant, leap, fill, little, middle /r/- "%al(eolar tap /r/- has a short duration'(ery, marry, D%lin ing r' near it, far awar, #%intrusi(e r' lin ing /r/ in the case of /// endings' the ideea of it

"he semi.vo%els /0 %/ /8/ - unrounded, palatal, (oiced, frctionless, in words spelt eith u, ue, in,ew, eu /%/. rounded, labio-(elar, non-fricari(e

Romanian consonants: D0, (oiced /b d g/, (oiceless / p t /, plosi(es/ p b t d m n/,fricati(e /t d/ are al(eolar in !nglish and dental in *omanian / ch "CD/ do not e6ist inr omanian /s B/ are al(eolar in !nglish are dental in *omanian /n naBal / does not e6ist in *omania

&ssimilation: phenomenon through wich a sound assimilates one or more of its features to a neighboring sound, repr the process of replacing one sound under the influence of a thirs sound%

>s progressi(e' the assimilated phoneme is infl by the preceding phoneme, regressi(e, reciprocical, nasaliBation, partial nasaliBation

Elision: the dropping of a sound which once e6isted or which still e6ists in precise speech Historical (a sound that e6isted in an older word disappeared in a later form ), conte6tual elision' occurs in rapid speech

#!lla1le: structure' Fthe onset (the opening segment, which can consist of up to # cons), Fthe coda(closing segment, up to $ c), Fthe nucleus or the pea , Fthe rhyme (the nucleus and any con following it); types' Fopen (ending in a (owel), Fclosed, Flight (ha(ing a short (owel in the nucleus and no coda), Fhea(y(long (owel or diph in the nucleus and coda)

#tress: relati(e degree of force used by a spea er on the (arious syllables he is utterning, a stressed syllable is more prominent than the others, stress is phonemic , >t distinguishes meaning Fi6ed stress , same syllable is stressed in all words Free stress , can fall on any syllable in the word; romanina, !nglish, sanish Function words are stressed at the end of a sentence, when are used in tag 5, used in the negati(e form, introducing a 5uestion (ha(e you%%)

&nal!tic 2 s!nthetic lg: &' low ratio of morphemes to words, sentences are compound of independent root morphemes, grammatical categories are indicated by word order , !A;7>.H; .' forms words by affi6ing a gi(en nr% of dependent morphemes to a root morpheme; word order is less imp; rel between words are e6pressed by inflections , *?:&A>&A, german, .panish, gree