(Re)Membering African Religion and Spirituality in the African Diaspora Author(s): Helen Pyne Timothy Source: Journal of Haitian

Studies, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Spring 2002), pp. 134-149 Published by: Center for Black Studies Research Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41715122 . Accessed: 10/03/2014 17:08
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Vol.8 No. 1 2002 Journal Studies ofHaitian

Helen Pyne Timothy University of the West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago

African Religion (Re)Membering and Spirituality in the African Diaspora In 1991, Rex Nettleford wrote:"The germof a Caribbeancivilization itcommandsis a special kindof givingto theAfrican presencethecentrality consciousness but deon the yetto be fullyacknowledged, reality hovering it invests the the with which energy region's ontologisms, spite pervasive psychic and worldviews." (Warner-Lewis XVIII).1 The "psychicenepistemologies nowhere moreapparent thanin thearea of is perhaps ergy"to whichhe refers - a continuand theunderstanding ofAfrican traditional religion2 spirituality in theDiaspora,whichhas beenthemostproblematic ationofAfrican society inCaribbeansocietinterms ofitsfullacknowledgment as an important force This stateof affairs is not ies and,indeed,in all New World African societies. since thisis perhapstheaspect of Africansocietiesthatwas the surprising, mostviolently within theperiodof slavery, and againstwhichan suppressed in confrontation war still is ideological beingwaged today.Originally, direct thisreligion withChristianity forthemindand soul oftheenslavedAfricans, continues to present to the zeal of the missionary militantly proschallenges that nowhavefloodedthe Christian elytizing evangelical/born-again religions of "true and to whichAfrican Caribbean, religionis stilltheveryanti-thesis religion."3 becomesfarmorecomplexthana simplecase of The problem, however, African traditional had been implicated as providconflict. religion religious to generandthesenseofpowerand control for, necessary ingthe justification ate thedesireforrebellion, forrevolution, timeand again in Cuba, in Haiti,in and indeed,throughout theperiodof slavery. Jamaica, Simplytheconsciouswas ofcourse ness ofhavinggods other than thosepossessedbytheenslavers and servedto inspirit thedesireforrevolt. tremendously mentally liberating, not only on captureand coersuccessfulenslavement thrived Furthermore, of culture and on division, and on fragmentation cion,butalso on insecurity, invites andcohesion nature, community, kinship, society. byitsvery Religion, - all threatening andthe thecolonialist, factors fortheruleoftheslave master, so that infreedom as have succeededthesesystems; economicoligarchies that continues. in slavery toward theAfrican thehostility vented religions

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The powerfulideological bashingconcerneditselfwithcharacterizing "devil worship," African "evil," and "superstition," religionas "witchcraft," the "folklore." All civil structures within Caribbean morerecently perhaps, ofthis"specialkindof todenytheexistence alwayshave denied,andcontinue where children cannot is as true of the education and this systems reality;" to to anAfrican when declarethemselves as belonging religion they go school, wherelaws againstthepracticeof "obeah," or because of thelegal system, Caribbeansystems. "witchcraft" have notbeen repealedin theIndependent theHindusand wheretheother Even in theParliaments "heathens," previous on their and may now swear Moslems, have been forgiven Holy Books to ofAfrican stillmust all thepeople of theState,adherents religions represent thepopulationas a whole. swearlegallyon theBible, in orderto represent thefull toexert influences Social stigmatizing also continues against powerful so in the five hundred of this of Caribbean life; that, years aspect recognition New this were first to the since enslavedAfricans World, brought aspectof their yetto be giventheunderpresencehas yetto be fullyacknowledged, and therecognition that itdeserves. standing the subjectof thispaper pointsto interesting Despite thesereflections, in selectedlitofAfrican consciousness occurrences and treatments religious African erarytextsfromthe Caribbeanregion. These recordevidence that the African in minds and of have remained the imaginations people religions the and artists are aware,and that at a level ofconsciousnessofwhichwriters that areunassailably still constitute forces rituals andpractices beliefs, powerful marks that constitute of those and tangible intangible identifying part African are nottheonlyartists who have brought "Caribbeanness."Writers Musicians of course. to theforefront of Caribbeanconsciousness, religions and have used the the consistently drumming rhythms, throughout region long ofpopularmusicinthe thechants, and musicaltonesand keysas thelynchpin zouk or calypso; it be in thereggae,mambo,meringue, Caribbean,whether butthisrhythmic connection has become so commonplace as to be accepted theuse ofAfrinoteorcomment. In theliterature, without however, particular constitute a trend that has has become so that it seems to can religion pervasive and that is notyettakenforgranted. African to be remarked, have,in religions been a partofthewritten texts on theCaribbeanfora verylongtime;but fact, and recordedby the outsider, the when the Caribbeanwas being surveyed Africanreligious external class or of the traveler, eye of the slave-owning diswithin theframework of thedominant beliefsand practices weretreated the of the and of as course,i.e., part people: benighted superstition ignorance who stilltreat thesemaniand even to thepresent are manywriters day there as local color,exoticism, festations of a whollydifferent ontologicalsystem, a mode of without to this within humorous interludes, system anyattempt put

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of withthedominant discourse. In recent timesthisassessment contestation beliefs and has become the case more therole ofAfrican religious practices are attempting to "fully acknowland moreand itis mythesisthat thewriters ofAfrican to theconsciousnessof Caribbean edge" the"centrality" religion to (re)member boththefragand and in this to way attempt society people, traditional and the disassociated consciousmented of African pieces religion ness of thisaspectof theAfrican presencein theNew World. ofAfrican in theNew World, itis to In discussing manifestations religion be expectedthatone shouldbeginwitha Haitiantext,since thepresenceof influences on all aspectsof Vodunin Haitihas been one ofthemostpervasive intheHaitianRevolution, Caribbean life.Notonlywas Voduna crucialfactor theessential in the mix of forces and therefore leadingto theaboliingredient in theentire but it also has been a and contionof slavery region, powerful, ofAfricans into forcein Haitiansocietyand politicssincethearrival tinuing that in one of the classic novels of the San Domingue.It is therefore fitting 's MasHaitianexperience, Vodunshouldplay a vitalpart.JacquesRoumain 4 thecontext ofanAfrican ters oftheDew examinesHaitianpeasantlifewithin that with the notion that and evil are but twosidesof philosophy engages good thesame coin in humanlife,that evil and harmare generated the negative by andthat the forces inhuman suchas envy, personality jealousy,hateand spite, of human life can be on the African by calling gods vulnerability protected theproper rituals and ceremonies. Roumainwas, of course,strongly through influenced of Black lifein theNew World, bytheideas aboutthechronicling and writers of theHarlemRewhichwere beingarticulated the thinkers by in 1923), and he givesrespect to all manifesnaissance(hisworkwas written in Haiti.But whatis remarkable is therichand autations ofAfrican culture thentic detailwithwhichhe records theceremony of thanksgiving to Legba all connected with the whose attributes include (Elegua), god possibilities getin one's life,bothliterally and symbolically, and who tingto thecrossroads 's treatment also brings thegods to humanbeings. Roumaine messagesfrom ofVodunin Haitiis stunning in itsnaturalness and itsrefusal to hide or mask thedetailsoftheceremony in an era whenthepresentation ofthecontinuities butthemaniofAfrican culture in theNew Worldwerenotseen as anything theapfestations of ignorance and illiteracy. Indeed,formanydecades after still were of Masters the African ceremonies being of Dew, religious pearance content treated as exoticism, devoid of philosophical superstition theological inthepopularcinema).Interestevennow,arebeingtreated (as they perhaps, is themanifestation of good, a Roumain makes his hero who Manuel, ingly, as an observer oftheCeremony, whichhismother organizes slightly skeptical his toLegba forleadinghimsafely homefrom essential mark ofthanksgiving of his future endeavin also for a the Cuba, sojourn being guidethrough path

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is that homefor a long ors;butthesuggestion Manuel,havinglivedawayfrom to thebeliefsystem as he once was, and sees it as time,is notas committed less usefulthan hismother does. Depicting one oflife'sironies perhaps during thetragic he is murdered ending, by theforcesofhumanevil - a jealous rival - theverykindof evil from whichtheceremony seeks to protect him. thebeliefsystem that informs thismanifestation of Apartfrom rendering African traditional as coherent and as well as an alternative holistic, religion theunpredictable andtheoccurrence ofsuffering, and wayofcontrolling grief deathwithin humanlife, Roumainalso confronts thechallengesofpresenting some ofAfrican whichare interpreted as savage and backwardin Eurituals, as emotionally discourses, ropeanand colonialmaster appealingand spirituin the to he describes in detailthe Thus, ally acceptable. ceremony Legba nature of spirit the and details the in character and possessionby gods change that thepeasant, whomwe have metinhumanform, as appearance undergoes he becomes theinstrument of thegodhead,and his prophet to humanbeings. thepouring oflibations, theblood sacrifice ofthe Againhe detailsintheritual sacredanimal,(in thiscase thekoklo)5, and thedrinking of itsblood as inteand natural of the the inclusionof these gral perfectly parts ceremony. By detailshe reasserts the authenticity of the ritualin the New World,and atto put the dismembered and discredited areas in the ritualback totempts Roumain further counters the notion that these ceremonies are theingether. struments of communion withthedevil - theinstruments of evil and black their withthegodhead,and magic- byclarifying place in thecommunication thatcleansingceremoniessuch as theseare given in love and thanksgiving even as theyseek to placatethegods. A short thetoneand passage illustrates in thework,and therespect withwhichtheepisode is treated: feeling Dormeusa pitcher ofwater. The ...BowingBienaimeoffered ittoward the and,. houngan accepteditgravely ..slowlylifted fourcardinalpoints.His lips were muttering secretwords. Thenhe sprinkled thesoil...traced a magiccircle... andbegan to sing... Papa Legba openthegateforus! Ago ye! AtibonLegba! Oh! Open thegateforus, So that we maypass:... ofthethree crossroads! Papa Legba master Masterof thethree canals! Open thegateforus!... ...AndLegba, theold god of Guinea,was there... ( MastersoftheDew. 65-66) Thispassage illustrates some waysin whichRoumainsucceedsin investthe of Vodoun with certain essential ideas: First he showsthat ing presentation

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of thereligion has notbeen eradicated theperiodof slavery, memory during since theceremony is richwithdetailsof theritualand withthemusic and next he reveals thattheordinary to chanting; peasantin Haiti has theability communicate withhis gods,and does nothave to go through theintercession ofthepriest who maybe therepresentative oftheorder oftheenslaver; and it is powerfully of the notion that all indications to the conreassuring despite the old of Africa have notdeserted their oflife trary, gods people in thetravail - buthuman intheNew World lifeis unpredictable, andthere areofcourse, no no matter what the Above he to the all, points guarantees, religion. importance - such as theimporand meanings of theold symbolicorderof thereligion tanceof thenumeral'three,' and thememory of an African languagestillin use in thechant;thusbecominga sacredlanguageassociatedonlywithreliof theidea of thesacredness of waterand gion.Thereis also thenaturalness thefour cardinal But mostimportant pointsoftheearth. perhapsis theoccurrenceof thetransformative whichconverts thepowerpowerof thereligion, less Dormeusintothepowerful hounganwho can lead his people intocommunication withtheir gods,and who mayfora short space of timetransform themintogods themselves, into the of tapping power theuniverse.6 Roumain 's text also points tothehistorical between Haitiand relationship Cuba at thelevel of thepeople. Manuel,his hero,returns to Haiti after many in Cuba and thereaderis able to extrapolate from this yearsas a cane cutter the idea that the interaction of Haitians and Cubans on Cuban soil and at figure severalpointsin their musthave servedto reinforce thememory and history theobservancesof African religionin Cuba. It is well known,forexample, thata laige number of personsof Cuban descentbothinsideand outsideof Cuba continue to practiceSanterato thisday,and thereflection of various have longinformed Cuban literature. Most interesting aspectsofthisreligion is thefact that somewriters, sincetheRevolution, have chronicled thesemanifestations as integral to the recognition of thatwhich is Cuban essence or Cuban identity. Moreoverthestyleof 'magical realism,' whichis associated so closely withLatinAmericanand Cuban writing uses the"other-worldliness" ofAfrican such as thecommunication condreams, religions, through versations withdeparted theinspiriting ofthenatural as part ancestors, world, of itsmodusoperandi to conveya perception of ordinary as merely a reality veilbetween thisworldandthespirit world. Thispervasive awareness ofalternative ofmodesofbeingprovides ofthe perceptions interesting interrogations monolithic vision presented whereit seeks to supby militant Christianity the other as and thus thevalidity of other un-truth, press implicitly promotes for truth. possibilities discerning Some incorporation ofAfrican in Cuban literature, whenovertly religion is interesting, in that detailsof ritual are notnecessarily referenced, included;

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of social and communalpraxis,whichreveal the theremay be inscription to thereligion: of therelationship nature pragmatic She was takenup to thelaborroom.Obadina stayedbelow she was still At fourin the afternoon a rosary. murmuring and crying witheach new wave of pain. shouting, groaning God was not was thattheChristian Obadina's soul thought She stuffed therosary ormerciful deep into enough. powerful skirt and thefoldsof herfullstarched herpocket,smoothed Ruiz. tothehouseofbabalaoEpifanio went tothegodfather's, atthetime, was a blackmaninhisfifties tall,very ...Epifanio witha tired thin, gaitand a hollowvoice; his look was wise and gentle... theIf withtheekuel The babalao consulted , transcribing he told as it was revealed to him.Whenhe finished theOdu would be and Obadina thata boy born,strong good; son of themotto for all hisdays ofYemay ; that Changandfavorite would be Ob Ikuro , The King Didn't Lie, and any lies he come andthetruth toldwouldbecometruths, lies,andhaving intotheworldto win he'd neverlose. He also said theone on hima bitof redcloth, aboutto be bornshouldalso carry and thatforthefirst yearsof his lifehe mustwear an iron chainaroundhis leftankleso thatOggn , who was always andrespect him. jealous of sonsofChang, wouldrecognize he gave hera piece ofredclothand a hen's After this, saying he had cleansedin omiero de OlodduMare. egg that he toldher."You mustfinda "Now go back to thehospital," andputthepiece ofclothon her daughter wayofgetting your bellyand rubit withtheegg. Then you will go out intothe theboywillbe born street and smashiton thenearest corner; will live to see him and healthy, and yourdaughter strong cleansehimwith the youmust growup.As soonas he is born, itwith himalways..."My and keep itso that he carries cloth, when Obadina, nobody mother was almostbeside herself knowshow,burst intotheroom,coveredherbellywiththe itgently withtheegg. piece ofredclothand rubbed "Cawo cawosile she said. , ," Chang every day!Oba cozo, "Ay, The one about to be born is of yourson,power king kings!" and glorybe yourson man's earth, help him and help his ofmineandmostfaithful andloving woman mother, daughter of Oyl to anybody, she wentout Then,without lookingor speaking corner threw theegg to the intothestreet and on thenearest . 160-161) ( Afrocuba ground.

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This passage,takenfrom a story written in 1990,revealsaspectsofAfrithere is theunderstandcan religion in theCaribbeanthat bearmention. First, that in the Cuban and these co-exist situation, indeed,elsewhere, religions ing withtheRoman CatholicChurch in themindsand hearts of their believers, thuswe see thatObadina is telling herrosary, butmakes a consciouschoice what is obviously theYoruba(othwhento switch and to call allegiance upon erwise Orisha) versionof Africantraditional religion.It is trueto say that ofother African traditional belief tends to be faiths, accommodating religious and does notregarditself as theonly,or exclusivepathto thetruth. Hence, In the Caribbeanit is usual to ideas fromotherreligionsare incorporated. of theAfrican withtheChristian, system especially explaintheoverlapping withtheRoman Catholicversion, wherethesaintsof theChurchhave been matched withcounterparts in thetraditional as a desireto maskthe pantheon, truebeliefsystemby pretending thatit is Catholic.While thisexplanation has some validity, there is also thedimension that theadherents undoubtedly see thesesystems as relatedin profound level. To those ways at thespiritual as opposed,such a claim would probably seem who perceivethesesystems but a of the two and the readiness with which adherheretical; study systems in theother, entsof theone perceivecorrespondences revealthattheyhave certain nottheleastofwhichis thebeliefin one aspectsofbeliefin common, In the which this narrative is also theunCuban situation, reveals,there god. life that thisreligion can be used to solve problemsin everyday derstanding In the and a reminder thatit is partof thewhole way of lifeof itsadherents. theredcloth(the referenced, quotation justas thechildwho is bornmust carry theyearsof his childhood, symboland colorof Shango) in his pocketduring in his life.Quiones so thisreligion and his Guinea god will be remembered solutions for thepeople, that because of its role in pragmatic suggests providing thisreligion will continue to be consulted, and to be remembered.7 In I, Tituba, a remarkBlack Witch ofSalem,MaryseCond has provided hertextentirely within theepistemologies able tourde forceby structuring and ontologiesgenerated from Africanbeliefsystems. The seeing-eyeand narrative voice are Tituba's: an orphaned Caribbeanslave child who grows intoyoungadulthoodin isolationfromthe all-pervading European world- she learnsto communicate with view.Her socialization is entirely African of plants, theartsof herdead ancestors, as well as themedicinalproperties the survival in thewild,and respect fornature. But Cond also incorporates factthattheseverypowerscan be used to harmand afflict enemies, just as in succor. Cond a can be used to and they give help exploresthough, highly manner, playfuland satirical just whathappenswhen theEuropean worldthecentral ofdeparviewbecomes 'theother,' andtheAfrican one forms point Caribbeanenslaved ture. Tituba(theinscribed versionof theBarbadian-born

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African womanwho was imprisoned in theSalem WitchTrials)understands her religionand its applicationswithinthe natural world,and its abilityto to communication between providethekeys,whichcan removethebarriers thusrevealing thecyclicalnature of all theliving,thedead and theunborn, withthePuriexistence. Cond places thissystem intoan activecontestation tan religious, beliefsand withthe systemsof medicineand science of the uses Titubaas theskeptic who interrogates thenature ofthese and she period systems. a particular orrecCond,does not,unlikeRoumainor Quiones,record traditional butchoosesinstead toprovide an eclectic system, ognizable religious influences mix of beliefsand 'powers' culled by theCaribbeanpersonfrom nations. For example,Tituba 's from variousAfrican by individuals provided areAshantis, butthewomanwho initiates herintothe mother and stepfather the kind of secretsof her religionis Nago. In thisway Cond highlights Creolization of African thattook place in the religiousbeliefsand practices andAlleyneattest to thefactthat thebarriers Caribbean.BothWarner-Lewis betweenthe separateAfrican nationswere brokenby the strictures thatthe and that therefore the that slave system imposed, primary syncretism ensued was a syncretism betweenthereligious beliefsand practices and theoverlapterms used for Thus the sort of syncretism of various ping religious practices. in to Christian which now so salient the Cuban and Haitian beliefs, appears would have been a second stage,occurring after thekindof pansituation, Tituba 's practices arenotcompletely African interaction that Cond presents. a calquing of practices Yoruba-dominated or Congo-dominated, but rather from Conde thusconveysand dignifies thenotion that variousparts ofAfrica. in the can never be a comthe(re)membering ofAfrican Caribbean religion ofa particular as itexistsinAfrica butis sureto pleteresurgence system today, inthenew circumstances be a new creation, forged imposedbytheslave past. uses African Interestingly enoughCond rarely languagesin herdescriptionsof rituals and uses few names ofAfrican gods. Rathershe tendsto use Caribbean Caribbean thus a new ethosinthe proverbs, folk-songs substituting outofAfrica, butforming itself intosomething new.Of Caribbean;generated courseCond also pointsto theunity oftheAfrican world-view on themacro that thedifferences in thebeliefsystems are in thedetails, level,and suggests notin theoverarching systems. One idea that Cond includes, whichwe have notthus far is the discussed, between African beliefsand therevolts of theslave perelationship religious riod.In herinimitable Cond represents thisidea in an ambiguous style, way: He sat down on a stool and set his candle on theground so

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HelenPyne Timothy that itmadea thousand shadows."I wanttoknowif flickering I can counton you." in I remained then said: "Forwhat, Fora moment speechless, heaven'sname?" me. "Do youremember thesongaboutTiHe leanedtoward Noel?"

Ti-Noel?I gave up trying to understand. as ifI werea at me witha look of commiseration He stared dull-witted child and started to sing in a surprisingly good voice. killhim.The man'sguncannot '"Oh Papa Ti-Noel,thewhite cannot killhim.Theybounceoff hisskin.' white man'sbullets I to make me invincible." So that was it.I want Tituba, you forfearof irritating almostburst out laughing butrefrained "I don'tknowwhether andmanaged toreply him, very calmly: I'm capable ofthat, Christopher!" "Yes orno!" "Areyoua witch?" he shouted. EvI sighed."Everyone worda different meaning. givesthat a to his of believes he can fashion witch way thinking eryone and desires..." so that she will satisfy his ambitions, dreams, he interrupted. "I'm notgoingto stayherelistening "Listen," I'm offering to you philosophize! you a deal. You make me invincible...." I recogleft theroomwhenI heardsighsthat He had hardly I decideto ignore and nizedimmediately. Abena,mymother, turned to thewall,callingon Mama Yaya. "Can I helphim?" Mama Yaya puffed on hersmallpipe and senta smokering intotheair. "How could you? Death is a doorthat nobodycan lock. Evit whenhis day and hourcome. has to go through erybody thosewe love You knowfullwellitcan onlybe keptopenfor left behind." so that can catcha glimpse ofthosethey (/, they Tituba.145-146)8 This richly I, Titubacapturesthe textured, multi-layered passage from theprocessofenslaveinthemindsoftheenslavedthrough interstices created as his contacts. Christopher, mentand theexperience of Caribbeancultural culledfrom conto some prevailing influences nameimplies, has assimilated the he has to his defense tactwith On the one hand against prepare Europeans. the other from and bullets." On derived realities of totalizing "guns power, hand,theAfrican prosongs and sayingsthathe knowsdo notimmediately

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vide theantidote to thisreality.He therefore assertsthehistorical "Ti-Noel" and in battle with "the white man." Yet to find this Creolised already engaged inAfrican heturns toTituba, one deeplysteeped belief antidote Hence, systems. transcends he goes to thepre-existing a layerofexistence that order, ordinary to curbthe"power"of "gunsand bullets." But Christ[opher] already reality, himthat he has misplaced has imbibedso muchof thecontact that surrounds Tituba. He has takenher out of thevalid place and space she holds in one her to the "other"by calling her a "witch"- a systemand has transferred beliefsandeventhen, is that has very little traditional space inAfrican concept Can Tituba"philosophize?"Can she makeChrisdifferently. conceptualized of theseterms withTituba'simmediate invincible? The juxtaposition topher withthespirits of herancestors, a pureand authentic consultation partof the revealsthechasms, structure of theAfrican traditional religions, dramatically as theunreliability that could existin theuse of languagesand their meanings different IroniAfricans intheAmericastried to synthesize very ontologisms. cally Mama Yaya does, indeed,philosophize:"Death is a door thatnobody in the can lock . . ." But perhapsthisis notwhatis meantby "philosophy" or what himself means. Europeanlanguage Christopher does revealhow theenslavedAfricans Cond Nevertheless, dependedon theAfrican self-esteemand to give themtheconfidence gods to raise their that could from either slavery, by running away and becominga they escape in revolt. For the or maroon, by engaging many solidarity imparted by the is stillnecessarytoday, religiouscommunity feelingof being in an African Tituba'slanguageand sensibilities and Christopher's and Cond modernizing to be relevant tothe confusions wouldseemto suggest that hertaleis intended situation. present It is possible to interpret I, Tituba...as being more concernedwiththe universe culledfrom African of the notion of a spiritual religions interrogation life. In her moredefinitive as beingan important of New World African aspect of thevalue ofTituba'spowers,Cond writes: assessments ...WhenI runto someone'sdeathbed. WhenI takethetremof a dead personin myhands.WhenI lethuman blingspirit theyhad lost beingscatcha glimpseof thosetheythought forever. I continue Fornowthat I havegoneovertotheinvisible world I have dedicatedmyself to to heal and cure. But primarily I am another ... I am men's hearts to task, hardening fight. I have themwithdreamsof liberty. Of victory. nourishing beenbehind revolt. insurrection. act every Every Every ofdisobedience... I do notbelongto thecivilization of theBible and Bigotry.

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in their hearts and have no My people willkeep mymemory need forthewritten word.It's in their heads. In their hearts and in their heads.... And thenthere is my island.We have become one and the same. Thereisn'tone of its footpaths I haven'ttrod.There isn'tone ofitsstreams I haven'tbathed in.Thereisn'tone of itssilk-cotton trees inwhosebranches I haven'tsat.Thisconinmyrevenge formylong stant andextraordinary symbiosis solitudein thedeserts of America.A vast,cruelland where thespirits their onlybegetevil! Soon theywill be covering faceswithhoods,thebetter to torture us. They will lock up ourchildren behind theheavygatesoftheghettos. Theywill will us ourrights andblood deny begetblood. (/,Tituba.175178) hernarrative from tothemodern theslaveperiod world; Againsheupdates not only in the and assertsthatthe spiritual has thepower of regeneration, buteveninNorth America. The transformative Caribbean, poweris still present, butnow is nottiedto a specific rather to an ritual, of,and comunderstanding munication withthe spirituality of the ancestors. As Cond makes Tituba to a within mindsand hearts of New WorldAfricans prophecy "symbiosis" thatis so empowering as to transcend the privilegethatis extendedto the written overtheoral; thebook overthespiritual and thispowerfully insight; of theAfrican reinforces thenotion ofthecontinuous transcendence spiritual or historical time. system beyondthetemporal, A similar idea is presented inPaule Marshall's Praise SongfortheWidow?, subwhere shepresents the AfricanAmerican womanwho,completely having more and limatedherAfrican as she becomes successful identity materially in Carriacou comfortable in theUnitedStates,has a prolonged re-awakening when she participates in the Big Drum Festival there. At this festivalthe thedances from the Carriacouans their ancestors as they (re)member perform African nation in which But there are no barriers theyoriginated. particular - they between them areunited inthecommunity ofCarriacou, and completely as they their honor their ancestors andinvoke their celebrate gods: heritage they outa call theironwas sending insistent, Clangorous, soaring, to loud enoughto be heardfrom one end of thearchipelago andcreator. Untilafter theother. Ironcallingfor itsnamesake Those amongtheelderly a timethecall was answered. who, could tell.They likeLebertJoseph, possessedconnaissance senseda presence inthedarkness beyondthereach squatting around ofthe hisnightly stroll Taking gas lamps. OgunFeraille. the islands he had heardthe sound of the gong-gongand in. {PraiseSong.246-47). dropped

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Marshall refers toOgun,powerful Yorubagod ofiron, as visiting thedancso that the secular the becomes sacred. But there are ritual, dance, ingthrong, Marshall's of African and differences between religions important reworking thepracticeof theold thatof Roumain.In theHaitian and Cuban contexts has theeffect of continuing theidea ofAfricaas thehomeland- on religion African mustreturn thepointofdeathforexamplethesoul oftheNew World beforegoing to join the to Africato his old village,and to visithis nation, ofCaribbeanlineage,suggests ancestors.Marshallwho is African-American is theCaribbean, because thegods ofGuinea arethere, that thehomeland just as they wouldbe inAfrica. theold gods ofGuinea are therefore, Presumably, ofAfrican intheDiaspora wherever their peopleare,so herrecapture spirituality back to themshe sees as enablingher to bringyoungAfrican-Americans of their selves, and to the understanding people. Marshall combinessome ideas from Orisha,theYorubaversionofAfrican religionwiththesyncretic Shouter the that combines elements of ChrisSpiritual Baptistfaith, religion such as baptism, withelements ofAfrican traditional such as tianity, religion in to and the while Africa; discovering ancestry spirit possession;returning trance.They also speak in tonguesto deliverthe messages of the gods.10 in Marshallperceivestheconnection betweentheoccurrence of thisreligion theCaribbeanand in theUnitedStates;in particular she connects theritual in in theRing-Shout in Carriacouto thecommunities from Africaevident ritual AfritheSea IslandsofGeorgia. Thus she declarestheconviction that young canAmericanscan recapture theirheritage the of through re-acquaintance thesespiritual ideas. a Marshall'sperception ofa unified CreolisedDiaspora achievedthrough revival ofAfrican filtered theexperience ofslavery is prespirituality through sented Erna Brodber. Brodber lives and writes from evenmorestrongly in, by but she has a similar kind of vision of the essential of all New Jamaica, unity World a unity that can be recaptured and understood Africans, through spirituBrodber's works are all-inclusive, ality. powerful, visionary designedto reverse the fragmentation the institution of wrought through slavery.It is as she seeksto reverse theMiddle Passage; butnotbythenew fragmenthough inAfrica, tation intoseparate and even hostilenations butto seek a new,unifiedvisionofwhatitmeansto be African in theNew World.Brodber'svision is steepedin thespiritual of Jamaica, and in herbook Myalu she uses history a spiritual movement thatswepttheJamaicanslave population Myalism12, fromtimeto time in the late 18th and especiallyduringthe 1830s century the 1840s. thismovement Revivalist,apocalypticand millenarian, through was directed againstevil in thesocietyand especiallythoseAfrican religious thatwere directed Africans called in the practices againstother (commonly Caribbean'obeah').13

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But in itsmorepositiveaspectsas encoded by Brodber, Myalismwas a forceforuniting all thehighlyspiritual thesocietyon thevipeople within level. Brodber therefore the entire of Caribsionary pulls together ancestry beanpeoplesinthis force. Based on "Ole which African," spiritual co-operative is theessentialingredient in its development and whichshe presents as the and she also includes some in truly pure powerful spirituality, Europeans, this case a Scottish who has the basis for similar belief from her woman, systems nativecountry. In other Brodber thetendency towards incluwords, captures sivenessalreadymentioned as a feature ofAfrican traditional religious pracall thoseofAfrican descentin theCaribbean;even tice,and in thisway unites thoseof mixed ancestry are able to findtheir thisframeway home within work.Myalismwas one ofthoseeclecticreligions, whichdrewwhatitneeded from all other manifestations inthesociety, and combined them into religious a new way of interpreting African Here again we have Brodberarreligions. a similar to that ticulating position alreadytakenby Marshall,except that Brodber'sexplication is to say,howperhaps, developedmorefully.It is true bothwriters thenotion ofCreolisation withthemixture ever,that incorporate ofthevariouselements in a mutually each and respectful system, reinforcing the other. explicating Brodbercontinues thisexploration of theemergence of thesecombined African and Christian inherlatest forms work Louisiana14. HereBrodber uses an AfricanAmericanof Caribbeandescent, married to an African of mixed race who,in Louisiana,underthetutelage of a Vodun"Mother"succeedson thespiritual ofthehistory ofall theAfrican planeto a visionary apprehension who enter her salon. She communicates with theancestors, people constantly who seek herout formessages; so thatshe is able to piercetheveil of existence just as thosepractitioners of specific African were able to do. religions Brodber the"healer"ofAfrican tradition mustnow,notonlysupimpliesthat hurt that plyherbsforthebody,butalso mustheal thedeep-rooted imprisons themindand spirit. of beThrougha complexre-working correspondences tweennames of people and names of places in Jamaicaand Louisiana, she ancestral to carry on theworkthrough the arereincarnated impliesthat spirits the and of various individuals who have of divination spirituality gift prophdescent in theunification ofall persons ofAfrican ecy.Thisworkis essentially themodern world. Brodber'shandling ofthisvastidea is astonishing in theease withwhich thefictional textis able to conveyher intentions. Using theidea of a tapetheinstrument ofthescientific ofculture, shebreaches recorder, investigation ofthevoices oftheancestors and itsobjectivity itas a receiver byconstructing rather thanhers.This deviceenablesthe themeansofrecapturing their stories butinthat thislevel of communication is notinvoluntary, author to suggest

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deed plannedand verifiable in a scientific linkis also way. But theintuitive sincetheindividual must toreceivethemessage,mustopen be willing crucial, withthe unseenworldof the ancestors. In this channelsof communication Brodber 's character becomes not the but the way possessed, by god, by CaribAmericanancestors who turn out to be one and thesame. bean and AfricanShe becomes thediviner, theprophetess, thehealerfortheentire diaspora: I felt He /they didn'tgetfar. myheadgrowbig,as ifsomeone itwas a balloonandwas blowing airinto it.My shoulthought in dersrockedlike a little boat to balance itself paper trying thesea. You need feetto helpyou balance.Mine had grown and mybody slid from stiff mychairto thefloor, fluttering likea decapitated fowl.And I spoke.I was seeingthings as if on a rolling I saw theyamvines,light a moviescreen. screen, I saw thebig brick greenon thepale yellowbamboo sticks; thebarbeque;I saw thesand-dashed oven; I saw thetombs, I saw thegreen basinwith house;I saw therush-seated chairs; theredflowers at itsside; I saw thegobletsitting in it.I saw in hermanylayeredgarb.I saw me. A baby no myGranny morethanninemonths, in herarms.I saw herputting that in its I crib. saw the onto the crib rail. baby babyrise,holding I saw myGranny reachforthebaby.I saw herfallbefore her I saw herthere handscould connect. on thefloor. I saw her watchthatbaby forhours.I heardthebaby whimpering in I saw that the troubled of the emofright. babysleeping sleep exhausted. tionally Madam motioned themto leave me alone. I saw myself on I saw themenaround thefloor. me. I saw madam'sencouragto that in a baby's ingsmile.I heardmyself talking company can I talk. saw voice, as if a nine-month-old baby space. I head had returned to its normal size. There stopped talking. My was no stiffness in but I I was so drained. anylonger mylegs sat there. Madam indicated to them that should let just they unabletomovewithout be, so I satthere things helpandwith no helpforthcoming. Thenitwas prophesying. I wenton with theweak no-gobodyintoprophesying. I lookedat thefaces of themen sitting aroundme and I saw stories. I saw long back and back on stories, stacked, ruled,six deep stretching cards. The first cards said "name,""place of birth," by eight "dateofbirth." I readthat for all ofthemengathered in nearly = Louisiana, St. thatroom.Ben's card said "place of birth Mary."... I letthat pass. ( Lousiana 88-89) Brodber 's worldseems to reflect thetransportation of theAfrican traditionalreligion, and Africanspirituality into a different thatwe space fromthe continuities

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at thebeginning ofthispaper.But itis thesyncretic had mentioned previously and cultural worldof cultural and religioussyncretism change,theworldof of the African fivehundred theCreoleandtheAfricanAmerican, nearly years butchanged, other whichis stillaffected later, incorporating bytheslave-past, maintain an that while to elements intohisreligious identity seeking practices even as theystillstandat the forceand give direction, can become a unifying theone who will "open thedoor." crossroads, craving This paperbegan withNettleford's hope of "... a Caribbeancivilization the itcommands..." to the African By lookingatthe presence centrality giving I have demonthe that is from all over Caribbean literature region, appearing to record,interpret, strated the effort change,modernize15 manyaspects of make both these andthe and to African traditional practices religious practice, of the to a new beliefs on which are understanding they based, keys spiritual theidea ofunity needs and desires, as well as to promote New World African ofdistance, leveleveninthemidst on a deeplysubconscious loss,andchange. oftheNew World to pull together all theelements The writers are attempting to and withthe steadygaze towardsAfricaas the base, trying experience, accommodate bothcontinuity and change.Marshall,Cond and Brodberare who are reinterpreting the old Guinea writers some of thosecontemporary its beliefs,symbolsand ritualsin new ways ways calculatedto religion, inthenew age, and innew spaces.They needsofAfricans servethepragmatic African that of in a new version ofpanareusingitas theinstrument endeavor, them awareofeach other, communities thenew/old together, making drawing in experiof that there is need for similarities, recognition profound realizing the are on in needs and in attitudes. ences and feelings, calling spiritual They less thanthesaviorof theNew Worldpeople,withthe element to be nothing to reconnect the thefragmentation, four hundred task,after years,to reverse to thetree. branches Notes 1Warner-Lewis, in Other Suns.TheAfrican Maureen. (1991)Guinea's Dynamic MA:TheMajority Press. Trinidad Culture. Dover, 2Theterm, allthe is usedtocharacterize "African traditional religious religion," various nations. These Africa from the that were from brought bypeoples practices and Islam African before the religion Christianity practices represent indigenous called Inthe Caribbean the most Africa. commonly pervasive, throughout spread versions from inHaiti arerelated Yorubaland Vodun orSanteria Ile-Ife, Oyo Shango, in areassuch as Kumina manifestations from andDahomey. Other Congoandother andAlleyne, See Warner-Lewis Jamaica andRadaalsoarepracticed. Mervyn. for full discussions and Pluto Culture. London: Press, (1988)Roots ofJamaican explanations.

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3Consider, inHaiti for the ofPentecostals, andSeventh-Day example, presence to convert Haitians Vodoun. others Adventists, among actually seeking awayfrom 4Roumain, Dew.London: Heineman (1978)Masters ofthe Jacques. 5A cockthat tothe is cooked andeaten. hasbeenritually dedicated god.Theflesh 6Allofthese In Marshall andBrodber, ideasalsoareusedbyCondandQuiones. ofthe texts andseektoreflect the usesofthese ideasenrich the meanings symbolic as the subliminal base. religion 7Perez Pedro andJean Cuba. 1993.OceanPress. Victoria, Stubbs, (eds.)Afro Sarduy, inCubais TheOrisha Australia. "Ifasays." 159-161. (1990)TatoQuiones religion "orisha" derived from Yoruba "Ori" inthis text. that the term discussed (Note fully and more to be as the name "the is more regarded proper meaning gods" becoming of as is to be because for all observances ofthis expected, fragmenreligion, although insecret the oral ofobservance andtransmission tation andthe centuries through ineachisland. outthat inpractice Warner-Lewis there aredifferences tradition, points inTrinidad visit of the Ooni of the since the Ife, official, spiritual state-sponsored the thrust hasbeentowards and headofthe Ile-Ife Orisha (Yoruba) religion, "purity" inthe toitsbaseinNigeria. TheOoni as the becomes re-united religion unity practice inthe inCuba,andinvarious cities States. alsohasvisited hisflock United 8Cond, Tituba Black Witch New York: Ballantine Salem. , (1994)/, of Maryse. and this book was and Books.Maryse Condis from Guadeloupe originally written in French. Tituba Noire de Salem. Sorcire... Moi, , published 9Marshall, Widow. NewYork, Dutton. Paule.(1984)PraiseSong forthe 10 See Warner-Lewis andSchler, Monica. Alas Alas 1980. John U. , ,Kongo. Hopkins full oftheShouter Faith. Marshall links one Press.Baltimore for discussions Baptist inCarricou inSouth ofthe Nation Dancesre-enacted with the Danceperformed Ring andSchler.) Carolina. (See Warner-Lewis 11 Erna. al. Brodber, My 12 andSchler for discussion ofMyalism. See Warner-Lewis 13 todescribe all "Obeah" became a negative term usedinthe Caribbean commonly ofAfrican as the became more entrenched to manifestations religion tendency "black and"witchcraft." Thepractice associate allAfrican rituals with "evil," magic," of"Obeah" wasa criminal the andinsomeareas the offence Colonial during period lawhasnot beenrepealed. See Warner-Lewis andSchler for further discussions. 14 Louisiana. London: NewBeaconBooks. Brodber, Erna.(1994) 15 in Forfurther discussions onthe nature ofAfrican traditional changing religion Africa In Contemporary see:Olupona, Jacob K. (1991)African Traditional Religions NewYork: House. Society. Paragon

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