INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, glands, and nails.

Functions of the Integumentary System The integumentary system separates and protects us from the external environment. Other functions include sensation, vitamin D production, temperature regulation, and excretion of small amounts of waste products. Hypodermis

The hypodermis is loose connective tissue that attaches the skin to underlying tissues. About half of the body's fat is stored in the hypodermis.

Skin Dermis
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The dermis is dense connective tissue. Collagen and elastic fibers provide structural strength, and the blood vessels of the papillae supply the epidermis with nutrients.

Epidermis
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The epidermis is stratified squamous epithelium divided into strata. Cells are produced in the stratum basale. The stratum corneum is many layers of dead, squamous cells containing keratin. The most superficial layers are sloughed. Keratinization is the transformation of stratum basale cells into stratum corneum cells. Structural strength results from keratin inside the cells and from desmosomes, which hold the cells together. Permeability characteristics result from lipids surrounding the cells.

Skin Color

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Melanocytes produce melanin, which is responsible for different racial skin colors. Melanin production is determined genetically but can be modified by hormones and ultraviolet light (tanning). Carotene, a plant pigment ingested as a source of vitamin A, can cause the skin to appear yellowish. Scattering of light by collagen produces a bluish color. Increased blood flow produces a red skin color, whereas a decreased blood flow causes a pale skin color. Decreased blood oxygen results in the blue color of cyanosis.

Accessory Skin Structures Hair

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Hairs are columns of dead, keratinized epithelial cells. Each hair consists of a shaft (above the skin), root (below the skin), and hair bulb (site of hair cell formation). Hairs have a growth phase and a resting phase.

Muscles
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Contraction of the arrector pili, which are smooth muscles, causes hair to "stand on end" and produces "goose flesh."

Glands
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Sebaceous glands produce sebum, which oils the hair and the surface of the skin. Merocrine sweat glands produce sweat, which cools the body. Apocrine sweat glands produce an organic secretion that can be broken down by bacteria to cause body odor.

Nails
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The nail consists of the nail body and nail root. The nail matrix produces the nail, which is stratum corneum containing hard keratin.

Physiology of the Integumentary System Protection

The skin prevents the entry of microorganisms, acts as a permeability barrier, and provides protection against abrasion and ultraviolet light.

Sensation
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The skin contains sensory receptors for pain, heat, cold, and pressure.

Vitamin D Production
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Ultraviolet light stimulates the production of a precursor molecule in the skin that is modified by the liver and kidneys into vitamin D. Vitamin D increases calcium uptake in the intestines.

Temperature Regulation
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Through dilation and constriction of blood vessels, the skin controls heat loss from the body. Evaporation of sweat cools the body.

Excretion
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Skin glands remove small amounts of waste products but are not important in excretion.

Effects of Aging on the Integumentary System

Blood flow to the skin is reduced, the skin becomes thinner, and elasticity is lost. Sweat and sebaceous glands are less active, and the number of melanocytes decreases.

The Integumentary System as a Diagnostic Aid

The integumentary system is easily observed and often reflects events occurring in other parts of the body (e.g., cyanosis, jaundice, rashes).

Burns

Partial-thickness burns damage only the epidermis (first-degree burn) or the epidermis and the dermis (second-degree burn).

Full-thickness burns (third-degree burns) destroy the epidermis, dermis, and usually underlying tissues.

Skin Cancer

Basal cell carcinoma involves the cells of the stratum basale and is readily treatable. Squamous cell carcinoma involves the cells immediately superficial to the stratum basale and can metastasize. Malignant melanoma involves melanocytes, can metastasize, and is often fatal.