How Bit Profile and Gauges Affect

Well Trajectory
S. Menand, SPE, and H. Sellami, SPE, Armines/Ecole des Mines de Paris; C. Simon, SPE, DrillScan; A. Besson, SPE,
TotalFinaElf; and N. Da Silva, SPE, Security DBS
Summary
The importance of wellbore deviation is well recognized by the
drilling industry. An analysis of a drilling systems directional
behavior must include the directional characteristics of the drill bit.
This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the directional
behavior of polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits, includ-
ing the effect of bit profile, gauge cutters, and gauge length. Nu-
merical simulations as well as laboratory tests have been carried
out to better understand the mechanisms of PDC bit deviation and
to evaluate the most important parameters affecting the directional
behavior of PDC bits.
The analysis presented in this paper shows that each part of the
PDC bit (profile and active and passive gauges) plays a major role
in its walking tendency and steerability. A quantitative evaluation
of how these factors contribute to well trajectory (inclination and
azimuth) is given.
For the first time, a full-scale directional-drilling bench was
built to measure the walking tendency and steerability of PDC bits.
The results obtained demonstrate that the bit profile, gauge cutters,
and gauge length have a significant effect. A 3D theoretical rock-
bit interaction model was developed to reproduce the drilling
test results.
Introduction
The oil and gas industry relies greatly on directional drilling to
develop petroleum reserves in environmentally sensitive areas or
in restricted surface areas through an increasing number of multi-
lateral, horizontal, and extended reach wells. Many directional
systems can be used to drill and control the deviation of these more
complex wells. Depending on well characteristics, one can select a
rotary bottomhole assembly (BHA), a steerable mud motor, or,
more recently, a rotary steerable system (RSS). Whatever the sys-
tem used, the drill bit has an influence on the systems directional
behavior. This paper defines the contribution of the different PDC
bit parts on its directional behavior (steerability and walking ten-
dency) and their impact on well trajectory.
Background
Theory. The directional behavior of a PDC bit is generally char-
acterized by its walk tendency and steerability. The walk tendency,
or bit turn, is a concept well known by drillers and a natural
phenomenon existing in any rotating cutting drilling heads. From
this tendency, Ho
1
introduced the walk angle for PDC bits, the
angle measured in a plane perpendicular to the bit axis, between
the direction of the side force applied to the bit and in the direction
of the lateral displacement of the bit (Fig. 1). The walk angle
quantifies the intrinsic azimuthal behavior of the PDC bit. When
bit lateral displacement is on the left of the side force, the bit has
a left tendency. If the displacement is on the right of the side force,
the bit has a right tendency. A neutral bit means that the lateral
displacement is in the same direction as the side force. According
to the surface position (and considering the previous definition), if
the bit goes to the left when we are in a building phase, then its
tendency is left; if it goes to the right in the same phase, then its
tendency is right. However, if the bit is going to the left while
dropping, its tendency is right; if it goes to the right, then it has a
left tendency. It is worth noting that an intrinsic neutral bit does not
necessarily give a zero turn rate, because this depends not only on
bit characteristics behavior but also on the BHA behavior and the
formation characteristics, mainly anisotropy.
The bit steerability (B
S
) corresponds to the ability of a bit to
initiate a lateral deviation when submitted to lateral and axial
forces. The bit steerability can be defined as the ratio of lateral to
axial drillability.
B
S
=
D
lat
D
ax
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
The lateral drillability (D
lat
) is defined as the lateral displacement
per bit revolution over the side force. The axial drillability (D
ax
) is
the axial penetration per bit revolution over the weight on bit
(WOB). The B
S
(equivalent to the bit anisotropic index
1,2
) is gen-
erally in the range of 0.001 to 0.1 for most PDC bits, depending on
the cutting profile, gauge cutters, and gauge-pad characteristics, as
evaluated here. A bit with a high steerability means a strong pro-
pensity for lateral deviation, enabling us to obtain a maximum
potential for the build or drop rates. Assuming that the BHA ap-
plies a nonzero side force to the bit without bit tilt angle, the bit
steerability can be linked to the build or drop rate of well trajec-
tories in the field.
Field and Laboratory Observations. Steerability. Many studies
have been carried out in the laboratory or in-situ to estimate the
effect of PDC bits on the build and drop rate of well trajectories.
In analyzing the data from Gulf of Thailand wells, Perry
3
reported
that the profile and gauge length of PDC bits could affect the build
and drop tendencies of BHAs. Pastusek et al.
4
conducted some
directional tests in the laboratory to study the behavior of antiwhirl
PDC bits and noticed that these bits had a lower side-cutting ability
than conventional PDC designs. Pastusek et al.
4
attributed this
difference to the smooth gauge pads used for the antiwhirl bits and
concluded that the build rate of antiwhirl bits on steerable systems
was lower than on conventional PDC designs.
OBryan and Huston
5
studied the effects of gauge length on the
build and drop tendencies of PDC bits. In testing two different
lengths (88.9 and 152.4 mm), the authors reported that the highest
build/drop rate was obtained with the longer gauge. This phenom-
enon was explained by a higher WOB on the PDC bit with the
longer gauge, generating a higher side force on the bit.
5
More
recently, Norris et al.
6
carried out a study in the laboratory and
in-situ to evaluate the bit side-cutting ability. One roller-cone bit
and two PDC bits, with various gauge aggressiveness, were tested
on Carthage marble in the laboratory. With varying WOB and side
force applied on the bit, the authors observed a B
S
in the range of
0.04 to 0.4. The lateral drillability of the PDC bit with an aggres-
sive gauge was almost 10 times higher than the one with an un-
aggressive gauge. However, some irregularities and ledges on the
borehole were observed with the most aggressive PDC bit. Fur-
thermore, the roller-cone bit showed a lower side-cutting ability
than the two PDC bits. In analyzing field data, the authors noticed
a good correlation between the PDC bit side-cutting ability evalu-
ated in the laboratory and the build/drop rate measured in the field.
Walking Tendency. Based on field observations, it is generally
accepted that roller-cone bits almost always have a right tendency
Copyright 2003 Society of Petroleum Engineers
This paper (SPE 82412) was revised for publication from paper SPE 74459, first presented
at the 2002 IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Dallas, 2628 February. Original manuscript
received for review 22 March 2002. Revised manuscript received 25 November 2002.
Paper peer approved 3 December 2002.
34 March 2003 SPE Drilling & Completion
and most PDC bits have a left tendency. Kerr
7
noticed that PDC
bits generally have a left tendency but emphasized that the azi-
muthal behavior of the drilling system is influenced by formation
characteristics, bit profile and size, formation dip, WOB, BHA,
and other factors. In analyzing some well trajectories in the Gulf of
Thailand, Perry
3
concluded that the bit profile could affect the
azimuthal behavior of the BHA. Indeed, a BHA with a flat PDC bit
profile showed a right tendency. Perry
3
also supposed that the
gauge cutters and length did not influence the turn rate. In studying
BHA azimuthal behavior in the Alwyn North field, Bannerman
8
confirmed the observations made by Perry
3
: the right turn mea-
sured in the field is supposedly attributed to the flat PDC bit
profile, although the parabolic profiles exhibited a left tendency.
Synthesis. These laboratory or in-situ studies show that a com-
prehensive analysis of PDC bit directional behavior has never been
conducted to quantify the intrinsic azimuthal behavior of the PDC
bit. Moreover, the directional behavior of a whole drilling system
cannot be explained solely by that of the bit. A bit with a high
side-cutting ability does not necessarily produce a high inclination
rate on the well trajectory. This rate depends on the side force and
weight applied on the bit, the bit tilt angle, and the rock formation.
Likewise, the azimuthal behavior of a drilling system must not be
attributed only to the walk tendency of the bit. Some friction
phenomenon along the BHA (mainly at stabilizers levels) can
greatly influence the azimuthal tendency of the drilling system.
The formation effect (rock anisotropy) may be decisive in both the
build/drop and azimuth rates for the trajectory.
9
Rock-Bit Interaction Model
During the past 30 years, Ecole des Mines de Paris has developed
a methodology for designing and selecting cutting and drilling
systems. Drilling efficiency,
10
wear reduction, vibration control,
and efficient cleaning have been studied carefully. A 3D rock-bit
interaction model
9,11
has been developed to calculate the direc-
tional behavior of PDC bits in isotropic and heterogeneous forma-
tions. The bit model takes into account the three bit parts that
interact with the formationthe cutting structure, the active gauge
(trimmers or gauge cutters), and the passive gauge (gauge pad), as
shown in Fig. 2.
Cutting Structure. The rock-bit model includes an elementary
PDC-interaction model that takes into account PDC geometry (cut-
ter size and geometry, back rake angle, chamfer, wear, and fric-
tion) and the rock characteristics (cohesion, angle of internal fric-
tion, uniaxial compressive strength, pore pressure, and dip angle).
From the cutting structure, a cutting profile is defined geometri-
cally and can be divided into two parts according to IADC clas-
sification
12
: the inner cone (height C) and the outer structure
(height G). The cutting structure is defined through the rock-bit
model by its cutting profile (geometric parameters) and its cutter
position and orientation.
Active Gauge. The active gauge corresponds to PDCs that are
truncated (trimmers or gauge cutters) to the bit diameter corre-
sponding to the transition between the cutting structure and the
passive gauge. From single-cutter laboratory experiments, a trim-
mer-rock interaction model was developed and integrated into the
rock-bit model. The active gauge is then defined by its length L
AG
,
trimmers number, trimmer back rake angle, and rock-friction sur-
face, depending on the trimmer truncation.
Passive Gauge. The passive gauge (or gauge pad), which plays a
great role in stabilizing the PDC bit, can have many design fea-
tures. The main passive-gauge characteristics are the length, the
circumferential coverage (depending on the blade spiral angle),
and the surface roughness (smooth gauge pads, such as the low-
friction gauge pads
13,14
or aggressive gauge pads, depending on
the carbide- or diamond-insert type for protection). According to
these features, the passive gauge is characterized in the rock-bit
model by its length L
PG
and its blade characteristics (number,
spiraled or straight, diamond- or carbide-insert type), which define
a friction surface with the borehole.
Kinematics. The bit is assumed to rotate continuously on its axis
and is given a prescribed axial and lateral motion. The motion of
the bit is described with five variablesthree for a transla-
tion movement and two for a rotation movement. After prescrib-
ing a bit motion, the rock-bit model then calculates the forces on
all cutting elements and integrates the single forces on the
bit surface to produce global forces and moments averaged for one
bit revolution.
Results. The 3D rock-bit model calculates WOB and lateral force
on the bit required for axial and lateral motion, imbalance force,
efficiency index, and wear evolution. It also computes the steer-
ability and the walk angle of each part (cutting structure and active
and passive gauges) of the bit. It is important to note that the bit
steerability, calculated from the rock-bit model, is mainly a func-
tion of WOB, lateral force, and rock strength and anisotropy.
Assuming all the PDC cutters have an identical back rake angle
along the bit profile, Menand
11
found that the walk angle is then
a function of the inner cone depth, C, and the outer structure
height, G, and can be simply approximated by
= arctan
2C G
tan
c
+
f
C + G
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
Fig. 1Definition of the walk angle according to Ho.
1
Fig. 2Description of the PDC bit structure.
35 March 2003 SPE Drilling & Completion
C and Gthe inner cone and outer structure heights, respectively,
according to the IADC classification;
12

c
the back rake angle;
and
f
the friction angle between the PDC and the rock.
Directional Laboratory Tests
Directional Drilling Bench. To measure bit steerability and walk-
ing tendency, the drilling bench at Ecole des Mines de Paris was
modified, enabling us to test the drill bit under simulated downhole
conditions (Fig. 3). The new system tests the side-cutting ability
and the walk tendency of a bit up to a 311.1-mm diameter. The
directional tests can be performed with a maximum 15-ton WOB
and a lateral force up to 1500 daN. The directional test principle
(Fig. 4) is as follows. During axial bit penetration, a lateral force,
F
x
, is applied to the rock sample, which is free to move in the
direction of the applied force, generating a lateral displacement.
Two sets of strain gauges are mounted on the drilling shaft to
measure the bending moments (magnitude and orientation). The
total resulting lateral force, F
lat
, at the bit is computed with the
bending moments readings; the orientation difference between the
lateral displacement and the resulting lateral force, F
lat
, at the bit
gives the bit walk angle (Fig. 4).
The lateral drillability, D
lat
, of the bit is calculated from the
lateral displacement of the rock sample measured by the linear-
variable differential transformer (LVDT) sensor and the resulting
lateral force F
lat
. The axial drillability, D
ax
, is measured from the
rate of penetration (ROP), rotation speed, and WOB.
Test Procedure. All the tests were carried out in the Vosges sand-
stone (homogeneous, porous, medium-hard sandstone, uniaxial
compressive strength40 MPa). A 1150-kg/m
3
water-based mud
(bentonitic) was used with the mud flow fixed to 600 L/min.
During the tests, the rotation speed was held constant at 60 rpm,
while the WOB and lateral force were varied to evaluate their
effect on steerability and walking tendency.
Off-bottom tests were also performed to test the lateral drill-
ability of active and passive gauges. During the off-bottom test, the
Fig. 4Principle of the directional test.
Fig. 3Drilling bench and directional drilling bench in Pau, France.
36 March 2003 SPE Drilling & Completion
bit was maintained above the bottom of the hole and a lateral force
was applied, enabling testing of the gauge interaction with only the
borehole formation.
Characteristics of the PDC Bits Selected. Three PDC bits having
different profiles have been tested on the directional drilling
benchBits A, B, and C (see Fig. 5). The back rake distribution
is identical along these three profiles, ranging from 15 inside the
cone to 30 in the outer structure. The common characteristics of
the bits are a 215.9-mm diameter, eight highly spiraled blades with
13.3-mm PDC cutters, and four nozzles. The bits have different
active gauge lengths, ranging from 15 mm for Bit A to 30 mm for
Bit C. The bits have passive gauges with different types of pro-
tection inserts. To evaluate the effect of the three different parts of
the bit (cutting structure and active and passive gauges), each bit
was tested with five different configurations, as shown in Fig. 6.
First, each bit was tested with passive gauge lengths L
PG
101.6,
50.8, and 25.4 mm. Then, the bits were tested with only their active
gauge and cutting structure (no passive gauge). Last, each bit was
tested with only the cutting structure (i.e., without any active or
passive gauges).
Results
Steerability. For the various bits tested, one can notice that the bit
steerability highly increases with the reduction of the passive
gauge length (Fig. 7). All the tests plotted for this figure have been
carried out with the same WOB and lateral force. The highest
measured steerability is for Bit A. These results are explained
mainly by the different active gauge lengths and bit profiles and
are confirmed by the 3D rock-bit model calculation (see Table 1).
Tests carried out without a passive gauge (i.e., with only the
active gauge and cutting structure corresponding to Bit Configu-
rations 4 and 5) have revealed that the highest steerability for Bit
Configuration 4 was obtained with Bit A, and the lowest steer-
ability was for Bit C (see Fig. 8). This result can be attributed
mainly to the active gauge length because Bit C has the longest
active gauge and Bit A has the shortest one. Nevertheless, one can
also notice that the highest steerability for Bit Configuration 5 (test
with the cutting structure alone) was observed with Bit B, although
Bit C exhibited the lowest steerability (Fig. 8). This result can be
analyzed by examining the bit profiles. Indeed, the highest steer-
ability is obtained for Bit B with a flat profile (IADC bit profile
code 9), although the lowest measured steerability corresponds to
Bit C with a medium taper and cone (IADC bit profile code 5).
Some tests performed with various lateral forces demonstrated
that steerability of a PDC bit depends on the intensity of the side
force. For example, Bit Cs steerability with a 50.8-mm passive
gauge (Configuration 2) is increased by 30% with a 25% increase
in the lateral force. The off-bottom tests confirmed that the lateral
drillability of the active and passive gauges depends on the lateral
force applied. Indeed, the off-bottom lateral drillability of Bit B in
Configuration 3 is multiplied by almost three as the lateral force
increases from 268 to 710 daN (see Fig. 9). WOB seems to have
no effect on the lateral drillability of the three bits tested.
Walk Tendency. For the various bits tested with an active or
passive gauge, one can clearly notice that the PDC bits have a left
tendency, whatever the passive gauge length is (see Fig. 10). Even
Fig. 7Bit steerability measured on the directional drilling
bench (whole bit). Fig. 6The three PDC bit profiles tested.
Fig. 5Description of the five bit configurations tested.
37 March 2003 SPE Drilling & Completion
the tests carried out with the cutting structure and the active gauge
demonstrated that the bits have a left tendency. When the cutting
structures were tested alone, Bit A demonstrated a right tendency,
Bit C a left tendency, and Bit B a neutral tendency. Measured on
the directional drilling bench, these walk tendencies correlated
well with the values computed from the rock-bit model (Table 1).
Bit B showed a tendency to spiral in the hole because the
walking tendency was successively neutral, left, right, neutral, etc.
(see Fig. 11). Nevertheless, the mean walk angle measured was
close to 0. These spiraling problems, observed only for Bit B, can
be generalized to bits with a flat profile.
Bit-BHA Coupled Computer Model
In coupling the 3D rock-bit model with a 3D BHA mechanical
model, Ecole des Mines de Paris developed software enabling
prediction of the inclination and azimuth of well trajectories.
Based on the finite-element method, the 3D mechanical model
allows the deformed shape of the structure, forces exerted on the
system, and contact forces between any part of the drillstring and
the borehole wall to be known. In integrating the directional be-
havior of both the BHA and bit, the software calculates the theo-
retical 3D equilibrium curvature of the drilling system.
Case Study
PDC Bit Characteristics. To evaluate the influence of walk ten-
dency and steerability on the well trajectory, some PDC bits, with
an assumed B
S
and walk angle, were selected for the analysis. For
each bit (Bits X, Y, and Z), with various bit steerabilities (Table
2), the walk angle was varied between 20 (bit intrinsic left
tendency) and +20 (bit intrinsic right tendency).
Well and BHA Characteristics. To observe the influence of the
bit directional behavior on well trajectory, two assemblies that
produce a significant side force on the bit were selecteda drop-
ping and a building assembly (Fig. 12). The data used come from
two wells in phase 250.8 mm drilled by TotalFinaElf with the same
PDC bit (Bit W). The run on Well 1 was performed with the
building assembly from 1380 to 2534 m measured depth (MD),
producing a measured build rate of 0.29/30 m and turn rate of
0.11/30 m. The Well 2 run was performed with the dropping
assembly from 2405 to 3881 m MD, producing a measured drop
Fig. 8Bit steerability measured on the directional drilling
bench (cutting structure and active gauge).
Fig. 9Off-bottom lateral drillability vs. lateral force for Bit B
(Configuration 3).
Fig. 10Bit walk angle measured on the directional drilling
bench. Fig. 11Spiraling tendency of Bit B (Configuration 5).
38 March 2003 SPE Drilling & Completion
rate of 0.55/30 m and turn rate of 0.30/30 m. Table 3 gives the
parameters used for BHA simulations. As discussed previously, bit
steerability depends on the side force applied. In the two cases
studied, two theoretical bit steerabilities have been calculated be-
cause the side force generated by the dropping assembly is greater
than the one generated by the building assembly. The theoretical
steerability of Bit W is 0.03 for Well 1 (building assembly) and
0.04 for Well 2 (dropping assembly). The intrinsic theoretical walk
angle is 12 (left tendency).
Results. The bit-BHA model was used to compute the build/drop
and turn rates for the two wells. In the calculations performed, all
stabilizers are full gauge, which prevents evaluating any walk rate
caused by BHA walking tendency. Concerning Well 1 (Fig. 13),
one clearly notices that the bit steerability has an influence on the
predicted build/drop rate of the drilling system because it varies
from 0.12/30 m with Bit Z to 0.34/30 m with Bit X. The
theoretical bit steerability (B
S
0.03) calculated for Bit W, used to
drill Well 1, produces a predicted build rate very close to the
measured one (0.29/30 m). For Well 2 (Fig. 14), the predicted
build/drop rate varies from 0.42/30 m with Bit X to 0.38/30 m
with Bit Z. The theoretical bit steerability of Bit W for this well is
not high enough to give a predicted drop rate close to the measured
value (0.55/30 m), but qualitatively, the increase in bit steer-
ability because of the higher side force is consistent with the higher
drop rate observed in the field. Moreover, as discussed previously,
one must keep in mind that the build/drop rate is caused by not
only the side force applied on the bit but also by the bit tilt angle.
It is interesting to note that in both cases, the bit steerability has
such an influence that it can turn the drilling system from a build-
ing to a dropping angle. This result is caused by the bit tilt and
lateral force acting in opposite directions. These results confirm
the impact of bit steerability on the well trajectory and show a
strong necessity to calculate an accurate bit steerability to predict
the inclination of well trajectories correctly. The simulations have
shown that the walk angle has no influence on the predicted build/
drop rate, whatever the bit steerability.
Concerning the azimuth predictions, one can clearly observe
that the bit walk angle and steerability have an influence on the
predicted turn rate (Figs. 13 and 14). For Well 1, with an intrinsic
left-tendency bit, the simulations give a left turn up to 0.06/30 m,
although with an intrinsic right-tendency bit, the predicted turn is
to the right. This result is accentuated for Well 2 because the
predicted turn rate is in the range of 0.7/30 to 0.7/30 m, de-
pending on the intrinsic bit walk angle. It is also interesting to note
that for a given bit walk angle, the predicted turn rate depends on
bit steerability, and the influence grows more important as
steerability increases. This tendency can be attributed to the bit
side-cutting ability, making the bit walk on the borehole wall.
Comparison between predicted and actual turn rates for Well 2
shows that the theoretical bit steerability (B
S
0.04) and walk
angle (12) produce a turn rate very close to the measured
value (0.3/30 m).
Synthesis. Even though the directional behavior of a drilling sys-
tem can not be attributed only to the bit directional behavior (for-
mation effect, curvature of the borehole, hole enlargement, friction
phenomenon, etc.), these simulations have shown that bit steer-
ability and walk angle have a strong influence on well trajectory.
Conclusions
Analysis of the directional behavior of PDC bits presented in this
paper leads to the following conclusions.
1. The walk angle of a PDC bit depends not only on the bit profile
but also on the active and passive gauges. Directional lab tests
have demonstrated that the various bits tested with a passive
gauge had a left tendency, despite their bit profiles and PDC
setup.
2. The walk angle of a PDC cutting structure is calculated with a
simple equation that links the inner cone and outer structure
heights and the PDC back rake angle.
3. The active and passive gauges dramatically affect the walk
angle of PDC bits.
4. The directional tests enable observation of spiraling problems
and define the minimum requirements for avoiding such
phenomena.
5. The steerability of a PDC cutting structure depends greatly on
the bit profilethe flatter the profile is, the more steerable
the bit is.
6. Bit steerability is a nonlinear function of the active gauge length
and decreases as the active and passive gauge lengths increase.
7. Bit steerability depends on the applied side force.
The bit-BHA simulations and comparisons with field results have
shown the following.
1. The bit walk angle has no influence on the build/drop rate of
well trajectories.
2. There is a strong correlation between bit steerability and build/
drop rate.
3. An accurate calculation of bit steerability is necessary to make
a good trajectory prediction.
4. The bit steerability and walk angle have an influence on the
predicted turn rate.
Nomenclature
B
S
bit steerability, dimensionless
C inner cone depth, L, mm
D
ax
axial drillability, L/m/rev (mm/Mg)/rev
D
lat
lateral drillability, L/m/rev (mm/Mg)/rev
F
lat
resulting lateral force, mL/t
2
, N
F
x
lateral force applied by the jack, mL/t
2
, N
F
y
lateral force in the y-axis direction, mL/t
2
, N
Fig. 12Description of the BHAs.
39 March 2003 SPE Drilling & Completion
G outer structure height, L, mm
L
AG
active gauge length, L, mm
L
PG
passive gauge length, L, mm
walk angle, rad, degrees

f
friction angle between PDC and rock, rad, degrees

c
back rake angle, rad, degrees
Acknowledgments
Part of this work was carried out within the EEC Thermie PAB-
BIT project conducted by Ecole des Mines de Paris/Armines, To-
talFinaElf, and Security DBS. The authors would like to thank the
European Commission for its financial support enabling us to carry
out a part of the work presented in this paper. Thanks are also ad-
dressed to DrillScan Co. for performing well trajectory calculations.
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Fig. 13Effect of bit steerability and walk angle on the predicted build/drop and turn rates (Well 1).
Fig. 14Effect of the bit steerability and walk angle on the predicted build/drop and turn rates (Well 2).
40 March 2003 SPE Drilling & Completion
SI Metric Conversion Factors
ft 3.048* E01 m
in. 2.54* E+01 cm
lbf 4.448 222 E+00 N
lbm/gal 1.198 264 E+02 kg/m
3
psi 6.894 757 E+00 kPa
ton 9.071 847 E01 Mg
*Conversion factor is exact.
Stephane Menand is currently a research scientist in the Dept.
of Mining and Underground Works Engineering at the Paris
School of Mines (ENSMP) in Fontainebleau, France. e-mail:
stephane.menand@ensmp.fr. His main areas of interest are di-
rectional drilling, drillstring mechanics, and rock-cutting tools.
Menand holds a PhD degree in drilling engineering from
ENSMP. Hdi Sellami heads the Rock Cutting and Drilling group
of the Dept. of Mining and Underground Works Engineering at
the Paris School of Mines (ENSMP). e-mail: hedi.sellami@
ensmp.fr. He is an expert on rock fragmentation for mining,
tunneling and oil drilling applications, and has provided sev-
eral PhD theses, written numerous papers, and patented vari-
ous techniques for cutting and drilling hard rocks. Sellami holds
a PhD degree from ENSMP. Christophe Simon, after 10 years of
research at the Paris School of Mines (ENSMP), has started
DrillScan to commercialize expertise and software in the fields
of directional drilling, torque and drag, and bit performance.
e-mail: christophe.simon@drillscan.com. Simon holds a PhD
degree in drilling engineering from ENSMP. Alain Besson is the
former head of Downhole Drilling Tool section of TotalFinaElf,
Pari s, France. e-mai l : al ai n.besson@total fi nael f.com.
Nuno Da Silva is Design Support Manager for Halliburton (Se-
curi ty DBS) pl ant l ocated i n Brussel s, Bel gi um. e-mai l :
nuno.dasilva@halliburton.com. His main areas of interest are
core heads and drilling bits, but more specifically directional
drilling and hard/abrasive drilling.
41 March 2003 SPE Drilling & Completion