UNIT 3 Nuclear Structure and Nuclear Transformations

3.1 Nuclear Composition :

The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in each of its atomic nuclei. In the neutral atom, the numbers of electrons are equal to the atomic number of that element. Atomic number of hydrogen is 1, and that of helium is 2. In the hydrogen there is only one proton. Isotopes of hydrogen contain neutrons. Deuterium is stable. (1H2) Tritium is radioactive (1H3). It is gradually converted into helium. It is found on the earth. Elements (atoms) which have same number of protons but different number of neutrons are called Isotopes. For example, Deuterium is isotopes of hydrogen. Heavy water is a made up of Deuterium. Protons and neutrons are jointly called nucleons.

ZXA is the symbol for atomic nuclides.

Where X is the chemical symbol of an element Z is the atomic number. A is mass number/ number of nucleons (Protons + Neutrons)

Figure 3.1 Isotopes of Hydrogen

17Cl 35

, 17Cl37 are the isotopes of Chlorine.

MCQ: (1) 1H3 is (A) Isotone of hydrogen. (C) Radioactive

(B) (D)

Stable in nature Not found on the earth

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MCQ: (1) The elements with the same number of proton are called as (A) (B) Isotones Isotopes (C) Isobars (D) Isomer. 22 (2) The Number of Neutron in 10Ne (A) 10 (C) 22 (D) 32 (B) 12

3.2 Atomic Mass:

Atomic mass is the mass of the neutral atom of the element. It is equal to the mass of the nucleon and electrons of the atom. Atomic mass is expressed in mass Unit (u), the mass of the carbon 12 is exactly 12 u. Atomic Mass Unit 1 u = 1.66054 x 10-27 Kg The energy equivalent of mass unit is 931.49 MeV. The chemical properties of elements depend on the number and arrangement of electrons in its atom. The physical properties depend on the mass number. Therefore, isotopes of an element can have different melting point. MCQ: (1) The chemical properties of elements depend on _______. (A) (B) Number of Neutrons. Number of electrons. (C) Number of Nucleons (D) Number of Protons. (2) The energy equivalent to mass unit is . (A) (B) 393.49 MeV 931.49 Mev (C) 393.94 MeV (D) 931.94 MeV

3.3 NUCLEAR ELECTRONS:

Mass of the different nuclei are very close to integral multiple of the mass of hydrogen atom. Before the discovery of neutron, nucleus was considered to be made of protons and electrons. The bita decay process was explained on the basis of nuclear electron. Arguments against the idea of Nuclear electrons: 1) If electron is confined in the nucleus then on the basis of calculation its energy turns out to be more than 20 MeV. Such electron when is emitted in form of decay is found to have only 2 3 MeV energy. This shows that electron is not confined to the nucleus. [Proton has 0 2 MeV energy in the nucleus. 2) Nuclear Spin: Proton and Electron are fermions with spin . So, for even number of protons and electrons the total spin of the nuclei should be 0 or integer. For Odd
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number of protons and electrons the total spin of the nuclei should be half integer. When the actual calculation was made results where found different. For example, Deuterium nucleus (1H2) contains two protons and one electron, the nuclear spin should be 1/2 or 3/2, but experimentally it was found 1. 3) Magnetic Moment: Magnetic moment of proton is about 1.5 % that of electron. If electrons recite in the nucleons then the total magnetic moment output to be found of the order of magnitude of electron. But experiments show that the magnetic moment of the nucleus is of the order of proton. 4) Electron Nuclear interaction: Nuclear particles are bound by certain force on am average the binding energy per nuclear is found 8 MeV. Only few electrons can recites in the nucleus and others have to remain outside of it.

Questions : (1) State and explain four points which go against the assumption of nuclear electrons. (2) Explain different arguments against the idea of nuclear electron.

3.4 Some Nuclear Properties:

Size and Density of Nuclear: Lord Rutherford performed the experimental of scattering of particle and estimated
the size of the nucleus. He found the size as 10-14 m. Several other scattering experiments were carried out.

Electron scattering provides the information about the charge distribution in a nuclear. Neutron scattering provides the information about the charge distribution of nuclear
matter. On the basis of scattering experiments it was found that the volume of the nucleus is directly proportional to the mass number.

i.e.

4 R3 A 3
R3 A

In inverse form,

R A

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 The nuclear radius is given by

R R0 A

The value of R0 = 1.2 x 10-15 m = 1.2 fm [1 Fermi = 10-15 m which is called femtometer] The radius of 6Cl12 nucleus is

R (1.2)(12)
Similarly for
107 47Ag

2.7 fm

the nuclear radius = 5.7 fm. And for uranium 238, R = 7.4 fm.

MCQ: Select the correct relationship between nuclear radius and its mass number (A) R A 3 (B) A R3 (C)

A R

(D)

R 2 A3

Questions : (1) Find the density of 8O16 nucleus. Given 1U = 1.66 x 10-27 kg/U and R0 = 1.2 fm. Example: 1 Find the density of the Carbon 12 nucleus. Solution: Neglecting the mass of the electron outside the nucleus of carbon 12, The density is given by (12 u )(1.66 10 27 ) Kg u Kg M 2.4 10 17 3 4 V m 3.14 (2.7 10 15 ) m 3 3 Example: 2 Find out the repulsive force between two protons separated by 2.4 fm distance. . Solution: Using Coulombs law the force is given by, 1 e 2 (8.99 10 9 )(1.60 10 19 ) 2 F 40 N 4 0 r (2.4 10 15 ) 2
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 SPIN & MAGNETIC MOMENT:

Protons, Electron & Neutron are Fermions. Each has spin quantum number S = 1/2. The (total) spin angular moment is given by

S S ( S 1)
Spin magnetic quantum number ms

1 . 2

1 1 3 ( 1) 2 2 2

In nuclear physics, magnetic moments are expressed in nuclear magnetrons N given by

N
Where,

eh 2m p

e = charge of electron. mp = mass of proton. h = Planks constant. Spin magnetic moment of .. Proton Neutron

PZ 2.793 N NZ 1.913 N

The magnetic moment of the Protons & Neutrons have direction as shown in figure 3.3. P for the proton is in the same direction of the Spin angular moment S. N for the neutron is in the opposite direction of S. Neutron is electrically neutral particle, yet it has magnetic moment. The reason is that it is made up of equal amount of positive and negative charges. For the hydrogen atom, the nucleus is made up of a single proton with a angular moment is given by 3 S S ( S 1) 2
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 For the complex nucleus, the nucleons may have orbital angular momentum and spin

angular momentum. The total angular momentum of the nucleus is the vector sum of the both the momentum.
The magnetic potential energy is given by

Um z B
When Z is Parallel to B, Um is Negative. & Z is Opposite of B, Um is Positive. & The energy difference between Sublevel is given by

E 2 pz B
In the figure energy level of a proton in a magnetic field are shown. A photon is emitted when a proton falls to lower state The frequency of the light is denoted by L and called Larmor frequecncy and given by 2 pz B E Larmor frequency L h h The proton in the lower state can be raised to the upper state by absorbing this energy Larmor frequency is equal to the frequency of magnetic dipole processing around the magnetic field. Example: 3 Find the energy difference between the spin up and spin down state of a proton in a magnetic field of B = 1 Tesla. Also calculate the Larmor frequency of a proton in this field. Solution: (i) The energy difference is E 2 PZ B (2)(2.793)(3.153 10 8 eV )(1)
1.761 10 7 eV

(ii)

E 1 . 761 10 7 L 4 . 258 10 7 Hz 42 . 58 MHz 15 h 4 . 136 10

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 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE:

The phenomenon of flipping of spin to higher state by incident radiation with Larmor frequency on same sample kept in an external magnetic field is called NMR. Suppose a sample containing nuclei with spin is kept in a magnetic field B . Most of the nuclei then will align with. when electromagnetic radiation with a frequency L is incident on the sample, nuclei receive the energy and flip their spin to higher state. Using this technique, the magnetic moment can be determined. Usually, energy with radio frequency is supplied using a coil around the sample.

APPLICATION OF NMR:
1) Nuclear magnetic moments of different elements can be found out. 2) NMR SPECTROSCOPY: Chemists use this technique to understand detail structure of compound and chemical reaction. 3) IN MEDICAL FIELD: NMR imaging method has higher resolution than X-ray tomography. It is also safer in comparison to X-rays. The rf radiation of NMR method do not harm the living tissue. NMR is called MRI in medical science. By changing different direction parts of the body can be seen on the screen monitor of the computer.

Long Question : (1) Give a brief account of MNR along with its applications. OR (1) Write a short note on : Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR). (2) State the application of NMR. [2]

STABLE NUCLEI:
Light nuclei having atomic number A<20 have equal number of protons & neutrons. For heavier nuclei the neutron number is found more than the proton number (N>Z). The ratio N/Z gradually increases with the increase of A. In the following figure a graph of NZ is shown. All nuclides with Z>83, N>126 & A>209 are unstable. The stability of nuclei depends on the energy level of nucleons.
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 Nucleons have spin they obey exclusion principle. So there cannot be more than two nucleons in each energy level. The nucleon energy levels are filled in sequence. so that the energy becomes minimum & stability becomes maximum. 5B12 isotope has more energy than 6C12 . One of the neutrons of boron is in higher energy state so it is unstable & as soon as the 5B12 is created during nuclear reaction, it decays into 6C12 emitting beta particle. Protons repel each other in the nucleus for the stability neutrons are required which attractive force only. So with the increase of Z, neutron number is found more. Sixty percent of the stable nuclides have even Z & N. they are called even- even nuclides. All other may have even Z odd N or odd Z even N. Only five odd-odd nuclides are known to exists which are stable.
1H 1

, 3Li6, 5Be10, 7N14, 73Ta180.

In the following figure stable & unstable nuclei are shown:

Stable nuclei have configuration with minimum energy. Nuclei with filled levels have less tendency to pick up other nucleons than those with partly filled levels. MCQ: Following is an unstable Nucleus (A) 1H2 (C) 1H3

(B) (D)

6C

12

8 4H

Question : (1) What are the stable nuclei? Explain [02]

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 NUCLEAR DECAY:
Nuclear amongst nucleons are short range forces. A nucleon can interact with other nucleons which are near by it. The Colombian repulsive forces amongst proton are long range. They prevail throughout the nucleus. is the heaviest stable nuclide. All other heavier nuclei (Z > 93) and (A > 209) emits alpha particles and get transform into lighter nuclei.
83Bi 210

X
1

Z 2

A 4

2 He
0

Due to the emission of one alpha particle Z is reduced by 2 and A is reduced by 4 unit When a neutron is transformed into a proton, a negative bita particle is emitted.
0

n1

H1

e 1

OR e

n1

e 1

In the positive bita decay the proton becomes neutron and the positron is emitted.

p n0

Due to the e emission number of neutron decreases and the proton capture one inner most electron near the nucleus and is converted into neutron.

p
This is called electron capture.

e 1 n 0

MCQ: The number of neutrons in heavier nuclei is ______ number of protons. (A) Less than (B) More than (C) Equal to (D) None of these Question : (1) What is Nuclear Decay? Discuss the various nuclear decay processes.

BINDING ENERGY:
It is that energy which keeps nucleons together in the nucleus. Hydrogen nucleus has only one proton. The deuterium nucleus 1H2 has one proton and one neutron.
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 The mass of deuterium atom should be equal to the mass of H atom and a neutron.

When the actual mass of the deuterium atom is measured it is found 2.014102 u. 2.016490 - 2.014102 = 0.002388 u This is mass defect. This missing mass is utilized in conversion of energy which binds the nucleus. The binding energy = E = (0.002388)(931.49)

E = 2.224 Mev
If the deuterium nucleus is to be divided into a proton and neutron than exactly 2.224 MeV is required as shown in figure below.

It is more energy is supplied to the nucleus then it goes to particles in form of kinetic energy.
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 The formula for the binding energy is given by

1 Z Eb z m (1 H ) Nm ( n) m( A X ) (931.49) MeV 1 where m 1 H mass proton

m( n)

mass of neutron

Z m( A X ) mass of nuecleus

The energy equivalent to the mass defect (missing mass) is called Binding Energy. If the binding energy is more of the given nucleus, large amount of energy is required to break up the nucleus. Long Question : (1) Give a brief account of Binding Energy with suitable illustration.. What is the binding energy? Give an account of binding energy with an example of deuterium. MCQ: The binding energy of deuterium nucleus is ______ MeV. (A) 2.442 (B) 2.424 (C) 2.224 (D) 4.422 MCQ: The Negative bita decay .. (A) Decreases the atomic number (C) Increase the neutron number (2)

(B) (D)

Increases the atomic number Does not affect the neucleus.

BINDING ENERGY PER NUECLEON:

The energy that keeps nucleons together in the nucleus is called binding energy. When the binding energy is divided by the number of nucleons (contained by the nucleus), we get binding energy per nucleon. The binding energy per nucleon

For 2 1 H (Deuterium ) is For

209 83

2.2 MeV 1.1 Mev per nucleon 2

Bi is

1640 MeV 7.8 MeV per nucleon 209

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 Figure below shows the binding energy per nucleon Mass Number A for the different nuclei.

Following features can be stated from the above graph. 1) The B.E/A is maximum at 8.8 MeV/nucleon for A = 56. 2) Higher value of B.E/A shows the stability of nucleus. 3) When the heavier nucleus gets splitted into two lighter nuclei, extra energy is given off. For uranium nucleus it is 188 MeV. This phenomenon is called Nuclear Fission. 4) When the two lighter nuclei are joined to form a medium size nucleus, the energy is released, which is called Nuclear Fusion. This is the main energy source in the sun.

Long Question : (1) Give sketch of binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number along with the salient feature of graph. MCQ: The most stable nucleus among all nuclei given below is (A) 82Bi209 (B) 5B11 (C) 26Fe56 (D) 2He4
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 THE LIQUID DROP MODEL:

Nuclear forces are short range and shortest force. A nucleon within the nucleus can be attracted other only in the small range. A nucleus is like a drop of liquid. Let a nucleon nucleon bond energy be U. This shared by two nucleons, so far each the binding energy is U. In the nucleus there are 12 nucleons in contact with the given nucleon. So the energy becomes (12)( U) = 6U. If A is the mass number the energy that binds the nucleus is, due to its volume is called volume energy i.e

Ev 6 AU
Therefore, Volume energy . E v a1 A ------------------- [1] Volume Energy is directly proportional to the Mass number. If R is the nuclear radius, the surface area of the nucleus becomes 4R2. Using the value of R in terms of mass number Surface Area = 4R2 = 4R02A2/3 Surface Area

A2/3
2

On the surface the nuclear bonds are less. This reduces the binding energy So, the surface Energy E s a 2 A
3

--------------------------- [2]

The binding energy decreases due to repulsion between protons. Repulsion arises due to Coulomb force. If r is the separation between two protons in the nucleus the potential energy of a pair is Since there are z(z-1)/2 pairs the coulomb energy Ec becomes

EC

1 r avis the average value of the protons. It is proportional to

So that,

z ( z 1) Z ( Z 1) 1 V ------------- [3] 2 8 0 r av
1 R

and hence to 1/A1/3

EC a 3

Z ( Z 1) A
1 3

-------------------------------- [4]

The total binding energy is given by

Eb Ev E s Ec ------------------------------------ [5]
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 The binding energy per nucleon is given by

Eb a2 z ( Z 1) a1 1 a3 4 A A3 A3
In the given diagram the different terms are shown in the graph of
Eb E A . The graph of b A match A A

the experimental curve. So the liquid drop model of the nucleus becomes acceptable to account for some nuclear phenomenon.

Long Question : (1) Considering the liquid drop model of the nucleus derive the equation for binding energy per nucleon for the nucleus. (2) Write a Short Note on: Liquid Drop Model

HALF LIFE:
As shown in the figure radioactivity of the radio nuclide decreases with the increase of time. Every radioactive element has characteristic value of half life 1 .
2

The time-interval during which the number of nuclei of a radioactive element becomes half of its value at the beginning of the time-interval, is called the half life ( 1 ) of that element. It is derived from the activity law as follow.
2

Activity law

---------------- [1]

Where is the decay constant and R0 is the initial activity.

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---------------- [2] Disintegration constant: is the time rate of probability of disintegration of radio nuclide. In the time interval dt, dt becomes probability of disintegration. Suppose there are N number of nucleus present in the same at a time t, the number of nuclei decaying in time interval dt is equal to product of N and (dt). N decrease with increase of time.

Integrating both side we get

dN dt N N0 0

-------------- [3] Equation [3] is called the exponential law of radioactive disintegration. It shows that as time passes, the number of nuclei of a radioactive element decreases exponentially.
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MCQ: (1) (A) (C) (2) (A) (C) (3) (A) (C) The nature of the graph of 1 for different radio nuclide is
2

(B) Parabola hyperbola Straight line (D) Sinusoid The decay constant of some radioactive element is 0.693 s-1 then its half life period is hyperbola (B) Parabola Straight line (D) Sinusoid The average life and decay constant of a radioactive nucleus are related as (B) 0.693 1

/ 1

(D)

Long Question : (1) From the activity law of the radioactive elements derive the equation for half life. (2) Define the term Half Life of radioactivity and giving all necessary steps, derive equation for the same. (3) Define the Half Life and Radioactive constant. Establish the relation between them.[2-4] (4) Define the term half life and Decay constant. [2]

RADIOMETRIC DATING:
Using the radioactivity property, it is possible to estimate the age of biological and geological specimen. The technique used to measure age of ancient material based on property of radioactivity is called radiometric dating. The radioactivity property (decay rate) does not depend on the environmental. If the daughter element of the radioactive element is stable, its proportion is proportional to its age. Material of biological origin can be dated using radiocarbon 6C14, which emits ray Cosmic rays from the outer space enter the atmosphere of the earth. They collide with the nuclei of atom s of gas (in air) secondary particles are produced which again colliding with nitrogen nuclei produce radio carbon as follow.
14 7N

+ 0n1 6C14 + 1H1

The proton produced is converted into hydrogen atom by picking up the electron from the atmosphere. The radiocarbon produced has a Half Life of about 5760 years. This radiocarbon combines with oxygen and forms carbon dioxide. Plants take this
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carbon dioxide to form carbohydrate. So we can say each plant has some proportion of radiocarbon in it. Now living animal take this plant so they also have some proportion of radio carbon in them. The radiocarbon C14 gets deposited in the living bodies and plants till they remains alive. When they die, the deposited C14 start decaying. C14 gets converted into N14. After 5670 half of the C14 remains into the sample after 11520 years one fourth portion of the C14 left. Determining the amount of C14 in the old sample one can calculate the age of sample. This method of carbon dating help us to find the age of mummies, ancient objects, wooden furniture, leather material, charcal of ancient civilization can be decided. MCQ (1) (A) (C) (2) (A) (C) The half life time of radioactive Carbon C14 is (B) 5670 years 5760 years 5870 years (D) 5860 years For radioactive nuclei, the radioactivity ____ as the time increases. (B) Increases Decreases Remains Constant (D) Not Predicable.

Long Question : (1) Write a note on: Radiometric Dating.

EXAMPLES:
Example: 4 Derive the equation t Solution: The equation of the activity at time t is given by

1 R0 ln R

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Example: 5 Find out the activity of 1.00 mg radon 222.

1 = 3.8 days = (3.8)(86400) seconds 2

Solution:
0.693 0.693 2.11 10 6 s 1 1 3.8 86400
2

In the Sample ,

1 106 2.71 1018 27 222 1.66 10

Now Activity, R N (2.11 106 ) ( 2.71 1018 ) 5.72 1012

Example: 6 How long it takes for 60 % of a sample of radon to decay.

1 = 3.8 days. 2

Solution:

Here

0.693 0.693 1 3.82

2

and

N (1 0.6) N 0 0.4 N 0

Therefore,
t 3.82 N ln( 0 ) 5.05 days 0.693 4 N 0

Example: 7 Find out the decay constant of the radioactive element with half life 5.00 hours. Solution: 0.693 0.693 3.85 10 5 s 1 1 5.0 3600
2

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