Submitted by: Nguyen Thi My Huong

Learning Strategies in English Language Acquisition and English Language Teaching

Abstract - There are many factors controlled by nature or shaped by nature that affect the level of language learning acquisition, for example, the learners styles and strategies on their language perception. On this paper, the writer presents and synthesizes her review on the importance of language learning strategies in English learning and teaching through some previous studies. Keywords: L2 (the second language), EFL (English as a foreign language) I. INTRODUCTION: In the field of teaching, the term language learning styles is quite familiar with many researchers. The awareness of students learning styles is one of the main factors that raise the effectiveness of teaching for creating a good match between students learning styles and teaching methods. At the same time, the use of language learning strategies have also been in concerned with learning styles of both L2 learners and teachers since it helps students enhance their learning outcomes and autonomy. There have been many studies involving in the necessity of learning strategies in English learning and teaching. In term of individual learner differences, there are links between each students learning style and their strategy use; however, almost students recognize their learning styles but are not aware of their use of L2 learning strategies. Furthermore, there appears to be no single set of strategies appropriate for recommendation to all learners. But students can be trained to take full advantage of all the potentially useful strategies matched with their styles to make a success in learning a foreign language. This paper describes L2 learning strategies with the importance of the awareness and use of these strategies in learning and teaching process. II. 1. Definition There are some different definitions of L2 learning strategies, but this paper would like to bring about a specific and easily understandable one. In the study titled The importance of Learning Styles and Learning Strategies in EFL Teaching in Japan, Chiya states that language learning strategies are specific actions taken by the learner use to make language learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations (as cited in Oxford, 1990). And Stern (1983), had noted that learning outcomes are much influenced by learning process, and the learning process is affected by the learners internal characteristics and learning conditions. Brown SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

LECTURER: Nguyen Hoang Tuan, PhD.

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Submitted by: Nguyen Thi My Huong

(2000) argues that the choice of learning strategies is strongly influenced by the nature of their motivation, cognitive style, and personality, as well as by specific contexts of use and opportunities for learning. Naiman et al. (1978) noted that good language learners appeared to use a larger number and range of strategies than poor language learners. According to Principles of Language Learning and Teaching by H. Douglas Brown, strategies are contextualized battle plans that might vary intraindividually, from moment to moment, or day to day, or year to year. The book also says: Each of us has a number of possible ways to solve a particular problem, and we choose one or several in sequence for a given problem. Learning styles are various ways of learning that differentiate one individual from another involving educating methods which are presumed to allow that individual to learn best. Meanwhile, strategies are those specific attacks that we make on a given problem. They are techniques that we employ to solve problems posed by second language input and output. Lee in his article titled An Overview of Language Learning Strategies presented that language learners will be successful in the tasks due to use of an appropriate language learning strategy (cited in Richard, 1994). Naiman, Frohlich, & Stern listed the Good Language Learner (GLL) strategies as follows: 1) Find a learning style that suits you. 2) Involve yourself in the language learning process. 3) Develop an awareness of language both as system and as communication. 4) Pay constant attention to expanding your language. 5) Develop the L2 as a separate system. 6) Take into account the demands that L2 learning imposes. As we turn to a study of strategies in second language learning, we can benefit by understanding these layers of an onion, or points on a continuum, ranging from universal properties of learning to specific intraindividual variations in learning. Furthermore, Oxford states that learning strategies can enable students to become more independent and autonomous lifelong learners ( cited in Allwright, 1990; Little, 1991). However, students are not always aware of the power of consciously using L2 learning strategies to learn more quickly and more effectively. Oxford (1990, p.9) claims that language learning strategies have the following features as shown in the following figure.

LECTURER: Nguyen Hoang Tuan, PhD.

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Submitted by: Nguyen Thi My Huong

2. Classifications of learning strategies There exist several language learning strategy classification systems by many scholars. The research of the mid-1980s resulted in some very careful defining of specific learning strategies. Wendens (1983) research examined the strategies that adult foreign language learners use in order to direct their own learning which consist of three general categories of self-directing strategies: (1) Knowing about language and relating to what language and language learning involves; (2) Planning relating to the what and how of language learning; (3) Self-evaluation. It relates to progress in learning and learners responses to the learning experience. Dansereau (1985) drew a distinction between a primary strategy and support strategies, the former is used to directly manage learning materials, and the latter helps to establish an appropriate learning attitude and Rubin (1987) proposed a typology of three major kinds of strategies: learning, (interactive) communication, and social strategies. Overall, learning strategies were typically divided into three main categories: metacognitive, cognitive, and socioaffective strategies. (Brown, 2000). As Purpura (1997) states that meta-cognitive is a term used in information-processing theory to indicate an executive function, strategies that involve planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of ones production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed (as cited in Brown, 2000). Take self-monitoring strategy as an

LECTURER: Nguyen Hoang Tuan, PhD.

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Submitted by: Nguyen Thi My Huong

example of this kind of strategies. Self- monitoring is correcting ones speech for accuracy in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, or for appropriateness related to the setting or to the people who are present. Cognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and involve more direct manipulation of the learning material itself. There are many Cognitive strategies used in learning English such as Repetition, Resourcing, Translation, Grouping, Note Taking, Recombination, Imagery, Keyword, Contextualization, Elaboration, Inferencing. For instance, Transfer is using previously acquired linguistic and/or conceptual knowledge to facilitate a new language learning task. Socioaffective strategies have to do with social-mediating activity and interacting with others. For example, Cooperation strategy means working with one or more peers to obtain feedback, pool information, or model a language activity. Or asking a teacher or other native speaker for repetition, paraphrasing, explanation, and/or examples is also a socioaffective strategy which is called Question for Clarification. Meanwhile, Oxford (1990) classified (L2) learning strategies into six major groups: cognitive, metacognitive, memory-related, compensatory, affective, and social. Oxford's (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) which developed for learners of English has been used extensively by researchers throughout the world, indicating high validity, reliability and utility (Oxford & Burry-Stock, 1995). This classification is more specific and easier for the L2 learners to follow. Memory-related strategies are used for storage of information. They help learners link one second or foreign language item or concept with another but do not necessarily involve deep understanding. Learners are to be given the chance for linking mental images, applying images and sounds, reviewing well, and employing action. Cognitive strategies are mental strategies that enable learners to understand and produce new language by many different means. When manipulating cognitive strategies, the learner is involved in practicing, receiving and sending messages, reasoning, analyzing, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing information to develop stronger schemas (knowledge structures), practicing in naturalistic settings, and practicing structures and sounds formally. Metacognitive strategies are essential for the leaner to plan, monitor and evaluate learning. They are employed for managing the learning process. Learners are required to centre, arrange, plan and evaluate their learning. According to OMalley and Chamot (1990), metacognitive (planning, organizing) and

LECTURER: Nguyen Hoang Tuan, PhD.

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cognitive (translating, analyzing) strategies were often used together, supporting each other. The assumption was that using a combination of strategies often had more impact than single strategies. Compensatory strategies help the learner make up for missing knowledge. Examples of such strategies include guessing from the context in listening and reading, using synonyms and talking around the missing word to aid speaking and writing and strictly for speaking, and using gestures or pause words. Affective strategies are concerned with the learners emotional needs such as identifying ones mood and anxiety level, talking about feelings, rewarding oneself for good performance, and using deep breathing or positive self-talk. Social strategies help students learn through interaction with others and understand the target culture. They lead to more interaction with the target language through cooperating with others, empathizing with others, asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification of a confusing point, asking for help in doing a language task, talking with a native-speaking conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social norms.

LECTURER: Nguyen Hoang Tuan, PhD.

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Submitted by: Nguyen Thi My Huong

3. The importance of Language learning strategies in Language Learning and Teaching Language learning strategies are good indicators of how learners approach tasks or problems encountered during the process of language learning. In other words, language learning strategies, while non-observable or unconsciously used in some cases, give language teachers valuable clues about how their students assess the situation, plan, select appropriate skills so as to understand, learn, or remember new input presented in the language classroom. According to Fedderholdt (1997, p.1), the language learners capacity of using a wide variety of language learning strategies appropriately can improve his language skills in a better way. Metacognitive strategies improve organization of learning time, selfmonitoring, and self-evaluation. Cognitive strategies include using previous knowledge to help solve new problems. Socioaffective strategies include asking native speakers to correct their pronunciation, or asking a classmate to work together on a particular language problem. Developing skills in three areas, such as metacognitive, cognitive, and socioaffective can help the language learner build up learner independence and autonomy whereby he can take control of his own learning. Lessard-Clouston states that language learning strategies contribute to the development of the communicative competence of the students (1997, p.3). And Oxford states, language learning strategies "are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed movement, which is essential for developing communicative competence." (1990, p.1). Besides developing the communicative competence of the students, teachers who train students to use language learning strategies can help them become better language learners. Helping students understand good language learning strategies and training them to develop and use such good language learning strategies can be considered to be the appreciated characteristics of a good language teacher (Lessard-Clouston 1997:3). Research into the good language learning strategies revealed a number of positive strategies that could be used by all kinds of learners. However, there are still cases that bad language learners also use the same good language learning strategies while becoming unsuccessful owing to some other reasons. At this point, it should be noticed that the success in language learning of bad learners is not ensured in spite of their use of the good L2 strategies since other factors may also play role in success. III. IMPLICATIONS

Through a series of studies on L2 learning strategies, it can be claimed that language learning strategies are 'teachable' and training language learners to use selected learning strategies can have positive effects on task performance and the language learning process. As a result, there are some implications for L2 teachers to foster students learning strategies outcomes.

LECTURER: Nguyen Hoang Tuan, PhD.

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Submitted by: Nguyen Thi My Huong

Firstly, what teachers should do is assessing strategies in the L2 classroom to form students awareness and habit of using strategies by highlighting the relationship between strategy use and language learning tasks. In order to do so, we will look at a framework strategy instruction and suggest that language course books can be ideal resources for integrating strategy instruction into ESL/EFL classrooms. The following is the Basic Structure for Introducing Strategies adapted from Scope and Sequence Frameworks for Learning Strategy Instruction in O'Malley & Chamot (1995, pp. 158-9). 1. Preview teaching material and activities to identify strategies for instruction 2. Present strategy by naming it and explaining when and why to use it 3. Model the strategy Provide opportunities to practice the strategy with various activities/tasks 4. Develop students' ability to evaluate strategy use Develop skills to transfer strategy use to new tasks Secondly, it is very useful in raising students use of L2 learning strategies by matching L2 Strategy Instruction to students learning styles and needs. We should know about students style preferences to adapt our L2 and Strategy Instructional types. Some learners might need more visual instructions, while others might require more auditory, kinesthetic or tactile kinds of instruction. It is noticeable that no single L2 Instructional Methodology could possibly fit all the students in a class with a range of stylistic and strategic preferences. Therefore, it is better for teachers to employ a broad instructional approach that consists of a variety of teaching methods and activities instead of following just one instructional methodology, for example, communicative approach that combines the focus on form and the focus on fluency is often used. That also helps teachers to be more flexible and creative in their teaching. However, it is quite hard to implement these teaching instructional patterns practically. Therefore, there need to be a good preparation to conduct L2 strategy instruction to maximize the effects of strategies on students performance. For some teachers it might be better to start with small strategy interventions for a particular skill, such as helping L2 readers learn to remember a new word by generating easily recalled images of some relationship between new word and the familiar word, rather than with full-scale strategies-based instruction involving a vast array of learning strategies and the four language skills, i.e., reading, writing, speaking and listening. Other teachers might want to follow an instructional framework called CALLA that includes explicit strategy instruction, content area instruction, and academic language development mentioned with a high level of frequency in many studies which is a suggested by Chamot, Barnhardt, El-Dinary and Robbins (1999). It would be very effective if teachers introduce

LECTURER: Nguyen Hoang Tuan, PhD.

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this idea as strategy training in their lessons which follows the five phases of the learning framework mentioned in the article The Importance of Learning Styles and Learning Strategies in EFL Teaching in Japan by Chiho Shiya. The first phase is Preparation in which students prepare for strategies instruction by identifying their prior knowledge about and the use of specific strategies, for example, setting goals and objectives, identifying the purpose of a language task, over -viewing and linking with already known materials. In the second phase- Presentation- The teacher demonstrates the new learning strategy and explains how and when to use it. Practice is the next stage in which students practice using the strategy with regular class activities such as asking questions, cooperating with others, seeking practice opportunities. Coming to the fourth step Evaluation, students self-evaluate their use of the learning strategy and how well the strategy is working for them. And the final phase is expansion, students extend the usefulness of the learning strategy by applying it to new situations or leaning for them.

(From The Learning Strategies Handbook by Chamot, Barnhardt, El-Dinary and Robbins ) IV. CONCLUSION

This article has examined language learning strategies with their importance in the L2 learning and instruction. Realizing and knowing how to apply these strategies in learning would certainly be a great advantage for L2 learners, bur they can hardly perceive them without good guidance from their teachers. Hence, teachers can provide a good map to their students by considering students learning styles and applying some suggested teaching models to enhance students learning strategies for their successful learning. Cohen states that by integrating strategy use and instruction into regular language classes, learners are provided with hands-on practice and reinforcement of strategy use (1998, p. 91). Therefore, the CALLA instructional sequence is a good approach that all teachers can apply to successfully teaching strategies to students with great care and preparation. This approach can be adapted to match the needs, instructional resources and time available according to the learning-teaching context.

LECTURER: Nguyen Hoang Tuan, PhD.

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Submitted by: Nguyen Thi My Huong

V.

REFERENCES

Chamot, A. (1999). Learning strategy instruction in the English classroom. Retrieved June 2, 1999, from http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/99/jun/chamot. Kinoshita, C. (2003). Integrating language learning strategy instruction into ESL/EFL lessons. The Internet TESL Journal, 11(4), 1-6. Retrieved April 10, 2003,

from http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Kinoshita-Strategy.html. Lessard-Clouston, Michael. (1997). Language Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2 Teachers . Retrieved December, 12, 1997 from http://iteslj.org/ Chiya, S. (2003, March). The Importance of Learning Styles and Learning Strategies in EFL Teaching in Japan, from http://www.kochinet.ed.jp/koukou/kenkyu/kaigaihaken/chiyafinal.pdf. Lee, Chien Kuo .(2010). An Overview of Language Learning Strategies. (Vol.7, pp.132-152). Retrieved from http://research.ncl.ac.uk/ARECLS/volume7/lee_vol7.pdf. Oxford, R. L. (2003). Language learning styles and strategies: an overview. Oxford, GALA. From http://hyxy.nankai.edu.cn/jingpinke/buchongyuedu/learning%20strategies%20by%20Oxford.pdf Cohen, A.D. (1998). Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. London and New York: Longman. Brown, H. D. (Ed). (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. San Francisco State University. Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House. O'Malley, M. & Chamot, A. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press. O'Malley, J.M., Chamot, A.U., Stewner-Manzanares, G., Kupper, L., & Russo, R.P. (1985). Learning strategies used by beginning and intermediate ESL students. Language Learning, 35, 21-46. Cohen, A.D. (1996) Second language Learning and Use Strategies: Clarifying the Issues [Online]. From http://www.carla.umn.edu/about/profiles/CohenPapers/SBIclarify.pdf Cohen, AD. (1998). Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. London and New York: Longman.

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Fedderholdt, Karen. (1997). Using Diaries to Develop Language Learning Strategies. Retrieved April 20, 1998, from http://www.jalt-publications.org/old_tlt/files/98/apr/fedderholdt.html Naiman, N., Frohlich, M., Stern, H.H. & Todesco, A. (1978), The Good Language Learner, Toronto, OISE. Cook, V. L2 Learning Strategies. SLA Research, from http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/L2_learning_strategies.htm

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