Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.

1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

Chapter 2: Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals Support System and Locomotion 1. Provided by a skeleton. 2. Types of skeleton: a) Exoskeleton s!ell " insects and crabs " importance: i) supports important body or#ans ii) protects t!e internal structures from dama#e iii) allo$s movement iv) $axy cuticles found on t!e surface of insects prevents $ater loss. b) Endoskeleton bones and cartila#e " vertebrates " importance: i) maintainin# body s!ape ii) supportin# soft tissue iii) protectin# internal or#ans from in%ury iv) stores mineral &calcium and p!osp!orus) v) produce blood cells c) 'ydrostatic skeleton internal $atery fluids !eld under pressure contained $it!in confined spaces in t!e body surrounded by t!e muscles. " caterpillar and eart!$orm The human skeleton 1. Parts: a) axial skeleton b) appendicular skeleton T!e axial skeleton 1. (onsists of: a) skull b) vertebral column c) t!e ribs d) sternum 2. Skull consist of: a) (ranial bones enclose and protect t!e brain b) )acial bones protect and provide support for t!e entrances to t!e di#estive system and respiratory system c) Suture immovable %oints $!ic! securely !old bones t!at make up t!e skull d) *a$ movable %oint

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r. !erard Sel"ara#

Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

Prepared by:

r. !erard Sel"ara#

Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

+. ,ertebral column &spine or backbone) a) composed of vertebrae. b) encloses and protects t!e spinal cord. c) supports t!e !ead d) serves as a point of attac!ment for t!e ribs- pelvic #irdle and t!e muscles of t!e back and neck. e) cervical- t!oracic and lumbar are moveable. f) sacrum and coccyx are immovable. #) invertebral discs in t!e vertebrae permits movement of t!e vertebral column and absorb vertical s!ock. !) varies in si.e and s!ape. i) vertebral foramen encloses t!e spinal cords.

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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

/. (ervical vertebrae a) 'ave transverse formaen t!rou#! $!ic! blood vessels and nerve pass. 0. T!oracic vertebra a) 'ave spinous processes t!at are lon# directed do$n$ards. b) Spinous and transverse processes serve as points of attac!ment of muscles and li#aments.

1. Lumbar vertebra a) Lar#est and stron#est. b) 'ave lar#e centrums $!ic! bear t!e $ei#!t of t!e lo$er back.

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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

2. T!orax: a) t!oracic ca#e &consists of ribs and t!e sternum) b) encloses and protects t!e or#ans in t!e t!oracic cavity and upper abdominal cavity. The appendicular skeleton 1. (onsists of: a) Pectoral #irdle clavicle and scapula b) 'umerus upper arm- lon#est bone c) 3lna d) 4adius e) (arpals " $rist f) 5etacarpals palm of t!e !and #) P!alan#es fin#ers and toefin#ers #) Pelvic #irdle consists of t$o !ip bones $!ic! provide stron# and stable support for t!e vertebral column. !) )emur t!i#! bone- lon#est- !eaviest and stron#est i) Tibia %) )ibula k) Patella kneecap l) Tarsals " ankle m) 5etatarsals foot The structure of a joint 1. *oint a place $!ere t$o or more bones meet. 2. Li#aments 'old bones to#et!er and allo$ t!em to move +. Synovial %oint: a) *oint t!at contains a cavity filled $it! fluid t!at allo$ free movement. b) / features %oint capsule &%oint enclosure- reinforced and stren#t!ened $it! li#aments) " lined $it! t!in synovial membrane &inner surface of t!e capsule) " secretes synovial fluid lubricant $!ic! reduces friction bet$een t!e ends of

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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

t!e bones) " covered $it! cartila#e /. (artila#e cus!ions t!e %oint- absorbs s!ock and reduces friction bet$een t!e ends of t!e bones. 0. *oints:"

a) 'in#e %oint

knee- elbo$- fin#er and toe. " allo$s t!e le# to s$in# back and fort! &one plane). " 167 de#ree

b) 8all and socket %oint

rotational movement of bones in all directions. " s!oulder and !ip %oint. " +17 de#ree

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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

How movement is rou!ht a out in a lim

1. Skeletal muscle are responsible for voluntary movements of t!e body. 2. 9 muscle is attac!ed to at least t$o bones across %oints t!rou#! tendons. +. Tendons are tou#!- stron# and inelastic strands of dense connective tissues. /. Skeletal muscle produce movements by pullin# on tendons attac!ed to bones. 0. 9 muscle can only pull. 1. :t pulls $!en it contracts. 2. 9 pair of muscle &anta#onistic muscle) $ork to#et!er to allo$ coordinated movement of t!e skeletal %oints. 6. T!is means $!en one muscle contracts- t!e ot!er muscle relaxes. ;. 8endin# and strai#!tenin# of t!e arm a) <!en t!e biceps contract. b) T!e tendons transmit t!e pullin# force produced by t!e contraction to t!e forearm. c) 9t t!e same time- t!e triceps relaxes. d) 9s a result- t!e elbo$ %oint flexes or bends and t!e forearm moves up$ards. e) T!is causes t!e bendin# and strai#!tenin# of t!e arm.

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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

The structure of a muscle

1. 9 skeletal muscle suc! as t!e biceps consists of bundles of muscle fibres and lar#e supply of nerves and blood vessels. 2. 9 muscle fibre is a sin#le- lon# cylindrical cell t!at contains many nuclei. +. 9 muscle fibre is made up of bundles of smaller units called myofibrils. /. Eac! myofibril is made up of actin and myosin & protein filaments). 0. T!e interaction of bot! t!ese proteins causes muscle contractions. 1. 5uscle contraction involves t!e nervous systema and re=uires ener#y. Conse"uences of impaired musculoskeletal s#stem on support and locomotion 1. 5uscle cramp >efinition: sudden contraction of one or more muscles $!ic! results in a sudden- intense pain and inability to use t!e affected muscle. (auses: " common amon# endurance at!letes. " inade=uate stretc!in# and muscle fati#ue. 2. 5uscular dystrop!y >efinition: (aused by t!e pro#ressive de#eneration and $eakness of t!e skeletal muscles T!at control movement. (auses: " mutated #ene $!ic! is found on t!e ? c!romosome and mainly affects t!e boys.

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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

+. @steoporosis >efinition: (ommon bone disorder- especially amon# elderly $omen. T!e bones become t!inner- more brittle and more porous. (auses: " Loss of bone mass be#ins after t!e a#e of +7 and accelerates #reatly around t!e a#e /0. " :f dietary intake of t!e of p!osp!ate and calcium is insufficient. " 8one production and bone tissue $ill suffer resultin# in brittle and fra#ile bones. Symptoms: " fractures of t!e vertebrae- $rist or !ips " loss of !ei#!t and stooped posture Prevention: " 9de=uae intake of calcium- p!osp!orus and vitamin >. " 4e#ular exercise /. 9rt!ritis >efinition: " >ecreased production of synovial fluid in %oints and cartila#e bet$een bones become t!inner &osteoart!ritis)- and li#aments s!orten and lose some of t!eir elasticity. " Suffer from a painful and stiff knee $!ic! restricts daily activities like $alkin#.

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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

The mechanism of locomotion in animals Locomotion in an animal $it! a !ydrostatic skeleton &eart!$orm)

1. Eart!$orms !ave a !ydrostatic skeleton &t!e force of contraction is applied to a coelum &fluid filled c!amber). 2. (oelom is surrounded by t$o anta#onistic muscle: a) circular muscles surround t!e c!amber b) lon#itudinal muscles extend from one end to t!e ot!er. +. T!inner and lon#er: <!en circular muscle contract and t!e lon#itudinal muscle relax. /. S!orter and t!icker: <!en circular muscle relax and t!e lon#itudinal muscle contract. 0. T!e muscles contract r!yt!mically to produce peristaltic $aves $!ic! be#ins at t!e front and move to$ards t!e end of t!e body. 1. Eart!$orm !as c!aetae &bristles) $!ic! anc!or parts of t!e body to t!e #round so t!at ot!er parts can be pulled to$ards it.

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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

Locomotion in an animal $it! exoskeleton &#rass!opper)

1. 9 #rass!opper uses t!ree le#s to support t!e body off t!e #round- $!ile t!e ot!er t!ree le#s move to#et!er to make successive steps $!ile $alkin#. 2. T!e flexor and extensor &anta#onistic) muscles are attac!ed to t!e internal surface of t!e exoskeleton. +. )lexor muscles bend a %oint. /. Extensor muscles strai#!ten it. 0. T!e rear le#s of a #rass!opper are lon# and muscular and is adapted for !oppin#. 1. Sittin# position: <!en t!e flexor muscle contracts- t!e lo$er le# is pulled to$ards t!e body. T!e !ind le# is folded in a A s!ape and ready for a %ump. 2. *ump: <!en t!e extensor muscle contracts- t!e le# %erks back$ards- propellin# t!e #rass!opper for$ard and up$ard into t!e air.

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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

Locomotion in an animal $it! an endoskeleton &fis!)

1. <!y can a fis! s$im in a viscous and dense environment: a) body $i#!t is supported by $ater to overcome #ravity. b) sleek and streamlined body to overcome resistance. c) overlappin# scales on t!e body of a fis! face back$ards to overcome resistance. d) covered by slimy coatin# to minimi.e frictional dra# and maintains a smoot! flo$ of $ater. 2. ,ertebral column of t!e fis! is moved from side to side by t!e contraction and relaxation of myotomes.

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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

+. 5yotomes < s!aped muscle blocks t!at make up eac! side of t!e body of a fis! and carry out opposite action. /. 9lternatin# $aves of contraction and relaxation pass do$n t!e myotomes on eit!er side of t!e body from t!e !ead to t!e tail. 0. T!ese cause different parts of t!e body to be s$ept from side to side pus!in# $ater back$ards and side$ays and t!e body for$ards. 1. Tendency for a fis! to become unstable in $ater durin# movement- leadin# to:" a) ya$in# side$ays movement b) pitc!in# vertical plane movement c) rollin# transverse plane movement 2. 5ovements are countered by fins. (audal fin provides t!rust and controls t!e fis!Bs direction.

6. T!ese movements are countered by:" a) ya$in# resisted by t!e median &dorsal and ventral) fin b) rollin# resisted by median fin c) Pitc!in# resisted by paired pelvic fin and pectoral fin $!ic! acts as brakes and rudders. ;. 8ony fis! !ave s$im bladders to !elp t!em maintain buoyancy in t!e $ater. 17. T!e s$im bladder is a sac inside t!e abdomen t!at contains #as. 11. (ontrollin# t!e amount of #as in t!e s$im bladder- a fis! can c!an#e its buoyancy so t!at it !as t!e same relative density as t!e surroundin# $ater.

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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

2.2 Appreciatin! a Health# $uscoskeletal S#stem 1. 9de=ute calcium intake 2. P!ysical activities and exercise 2.% Support in &lants 1. <!yC a) Plant #ro$s and it produces more leaves. b) Dro$ tall t!erefore needs to $it!stand t!e forces of #ravity. c) Spreadin# of leaves and branc!es !ori.ontally. 2. 9=uatic plants are supported by buoyancy and support. Support in a"uatic and terrestrial plants Submer#ed plants 1. Hydrilla sp. !ave t!in- narro$ and flexible leaves. 2. T!is type of leaves provide little resistance to $ater flo$s- plants can be tu##ed at and pulled by $ater currents $it!out bein# dama#ed. +. 9ir sacs inside t!e leaves and stems keep t!e plant floatin# close to t!e surface to obtain maximum sunli#!t. /. T!eir stems !ave no $oody tissues. )loatin# plants 1. <ater !yacint! &$ichornia crassipes) !ave broad leaves t!at are firm but flexible enou#! to resist tearin# by $ave action. 2. 9erenc!yma tissues &spon#y tissues $it! lar#e air spaces bet$een t!e cells) in t!e stems and leaves provide buoyancy so t!at t!e plants can float on t!e surface of t!e $ater. 'erbaceous plants &Terresterial plants) 1. Support provided by t!e tur#idity of t!e parenc!yma and collenc!yma cells. 2. Tur#or pressure of t!e fluid content in t!e central vacuole pus!es t!e cell membrane and t!e cell contents a#ainst t!e cell $all- creatin# support for t!e stem- root and leaves. +. T!e t!ickenin# of t!e cell $alls $it! cellulose and pectin in collenc!yma cells provide additional mec!anical stren#t!. <oody plants 1. Support provided by sclerenc!yma and xylem tissues. 2. Sclerenc!yma tissue is composed of cells $it! secondary cell $alls t!at are usually li#nified $!ic! support non"#ro$in# parts of plants. +. T$o types of sclerenc!yma tissue: a) fibres lon#- strai#!t and t!in stren#t!en %oint structures- increase muscular performance and delay t!e pro#ress of art!ritis.

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Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals

" found around vascular tissues b) sclereids s!ort- circular and irre#ular s!aped " found in fruit and seeds /. >urin# primary #ro$t! development- t!e cell $alls of xylem vessels and trac!eids are t!ickened $it! li#nin and forms vessels .

0. Type of vessels: a) annular &rin# s!aped) vessel b) spiral vessel c) scalariform &ladder like) vessel d) pitted vessel 1. Secondary #ro$t! of xylem results in t!e formation of $ood $!ic! makes t!e plant stron#er and and provides support.. 2. @t!er supportin# structures: a) 8uttress root roots t!at come out from t!e lo$er part of t!e trunk and #ro$ into t!e #round- providin# support for t!e tree. b) (reepers- vines and lianas use ot!er trees for support.

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