Mayank Kumar Environment

ENVIRONMENT What is Environment? The purpose of this essay is to familiarize you with the relationship between man and his environment. After reading it you will be able to understand the meaning of Environment and mans place in the environment. You will also be able to see the complexities of, man-environment inter-change and the impact that has been made on the environment since the beginning of the industrial revolution. Environment may be broadly understood to mean our surroundings. It can be divided into non-living and living components. The Environment provides resources which support life on the earth and which also help in the growth of a relationship of interchange between living organisms and the environment in which they live. It is important to realise that humans enjoy a unique position in nature due to their exceptional ability to influence and mould the environment. In the recent past the term nature has been used as parallel to word environment. It has been generally believed that nature is what man has not made. In our discussion environment and nature have been used as synonym, which incorporate most of the visible manifestation of geography. Raymond Williams defines nature as the material world itself, taken as including or not including human beings. Tracing the history of the term he suggests that nature has meant the countryside, the unspoiled places, plants and creatures other than man. (Keywords, London, 1988. p. 219-223). Similarly, there are several vantage points from where environment has been studied and most of us follow a complex combination of these methods. There are ecologists who are primarily biological scientists and focus on relationships between environment and the living being in general. Another set of scientists, generally termed as environmental scientists, try to examine the functioning of the earth and the nature of human interactions with it. Declining bio-diversity has

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

given rise to conservationist biologists who stress application of scientific knowledge for conservation of bio-diversity, which they rightly consider as centre of existence of life on earth. Accepting the role of human agency in the deterioration of environment, the environmentalists are suggesting scientific interventions to mitigate the ill impacts of human activities. Conservationists along with accepting the role of human activities in the deterioration of environment also recognise the needs of present and future generations of humans. They stress the prudent use of resources to ensure the present and future needs of human society. More recently, the role of disparity both economic and social within the society and among societies and nations has defined the agenda for the study of the environment by social scientists, particularly at the level of policy formulations. The traditional understanding of nature has been that it is a system created by God for the sustenance of humans. The general belief was that the Earth was the hub of the universe and man had a central place in it. It was also believed that the environment was a static entity with little or no possibilities of change. This had been the dominant view until the advent of enlightenment in the early modern era. However, with the growth of scientific thinking and reason it came to be gradually accepted that neither the Earth was at the axis of Universe, nor the Humans were the core of the Earth. Science also established that there has been continuous change in the nature of environment all along the history of the Earth, though the speed of change differed for different components of nature and even this speed had not been a uniform speed. This holds true for the evolution of both living and non-living components. The industrial revolution heralded a completely new era in which the term environment attained new dimensions. The present day concerns of environmental pollution, decay of bio-diversity and the green-house effect have necessitated a redefining of the concept of the man-nature relationship. Another

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

corollary has been the problems related with the modern concept of development and resultant compulsions of conservation. In their attempt to conserve the dwindling bio-diversity, humans started demarcating fragile ecological zones ranging from forests, wet lands, bio-sphere reserves, mangroves, etc., as reserves to preserve not only the flora-fauna but also the physical attributes of ecological niche itself. It often led to conflicts with the communities sustaining on such resources, e.g. forest-dwellers. Similar kind of conflicts can be located on the sites for big-dams and ancillary activities which necessitated displacement. Therefore, it is mandatory on our part to also examine the historical evolution of social relations in their interaction with the ecological conditions on the one hand and the multiple issues of contemporary environmental discourse on the other. The first section of this essay deals with the historical evolution of the concept; it is then followed by a discussion on the contemporary conflict between notions of development and environment; the last section traces the significance of biodiversity and firms up the case of inevitability of bio-diversity conservation for survival of life on Earth. Human- Environment Interaction Human beings are endowed by nature to be reflective and active. Their biological evolution gives them capacity to forge tools and establish an adaptive relationship with nature. In the beginning, human life was more biological than cultural and was somewhat similar to other animals where environmental considerations dictated the place of human residence. In the process of adaptive relationship man gradually evolved tools with the help of which the resources of the environment could be put to use. The tool making ability developed over a very long period of time as it began with the use of materials locally obtainable. The tools shaped human life such that we witness the emergence and growth of cultures. The different stages of human culture have been identified on the basis of the tools used by them. The earliest was the paleolithic age representing the beginning of

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

the tool industry. In this age humans lived by gathering plant foods and hunting animals. It was inherent in the nature of the economy of the period that humans could not lead sedentary life and were forced to migrate to new places in search of plant foods and game. This kind of life-style restricted the size of the peregrinating human groups. It can be safely argued that during this phase of human history the environment dictated terms and humans had just started making an effort to modify their dependence on nature. Nonetheless, it is necessary to point out that mobility had led to greater interaction between numerous groups of humans spread over different parts of the world. It will be not out of place here to delineate the adaptive strategy of the early humans so as to explain his interaction with the environment. For this purpose we focus on southwest France. During the upper Palaeolithic phase (35000-12000 years ago), the climate of this region was strongly oceanic, with cool summers and mild winters (by Ice age standards) affecting the environment. Summer temperature may have been in the 53.6 to 59 F range, with winter readings around 32 F. The vegetation-growing season was longer on the open plains to the north and east, and snow cover had retreated considerably. Thus food resources for large herbivores were now more readily available, perhaps resulting in a much higher density of game animals as well as more plentiful edible foods. This region was marked as a region of diverse food resources. The people were mainly subsisted off Reindeer, but they took wild ox, red deer, bison, ibex, chamois, woolly rhinoceros and mammoth too. Many of these resources were relatively predictable. The large-scale salmon fishing during seasonal runs was a major factor in the evolution of complex hunter-gatherer societies in the region. Effective exploitation of salmon runs requires not only efficient fishing technology but the services of considerable numbers of people to dry and store the thousands of fresh fish before they spoil. These people extensively used fishhooks and harpoons. The people tended to choose many of their settlement sites with reference to plentiful

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

water supply and good views of the surrounding landscape, so they could observe game. When the people occupied a rock shelter or cave, it invariably faced south, so they could benefit from the suns rays on cool days. Some of the largest cave and rock shelter sites lay close to river fords, places, perhaps, where migrating reindeer would cross each year. (Fagan B.M., People of the Earth: An introduction to World Prehistory, Illinois & Boston, 1989). The relationship between nature and man was redefined with the advent of agriculture. Till the beginning of agriculture, the sources of food had mostly been naturally available products and man had no control over their availability. An important contribution of agriculture has been the cultivation of cereals. The fact is that the shelf-life of cereals is unlimited whereas fruits and meat had very limited shelf-life. It has been a very significant factor as this property of cereals encouraged accumulation, which perhaps was one of the causes for the introduction and intensification of social stratification. In the beginning agriculture was a highly unreliable source of food, and transition from hunter-gatherer to peasant was not very smooth and was a long drawn process. The development of technology/tools to increase agricultural production was a continuing process in which development of irrigation technology too played an important role. Slowly but surely agriculture became the major source of subsistence and increased productivity contributed towards increase in population. Initially agriculture was confined to highly favourable locations with natural irrigation. With the growth in population, however, man was forced to migrate to less-favourable locations, necessitating irrigation. The development of irrigation facilities required larger social participation and better management resulting in a transition towards complex society. Furthermore better management of agriculture insured food security and provided humans with surplus time since agriculture was a seasonal activity. Likewise demand for improved tools and technology for better irrigation to ensure larger

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

production led to depletion of locally available raw materials for tools (for example stone, as man moved away from foothills to open plains). This compelled man to look for other kinds of materials and other locations to augment the supply of raw material for tool making. Meanwhile, the introduction of the wheel had revolutionized movement and encouraged the emergence of wheel-based pottery, a highly specialized occupation. The gradual development in technology attained another stage as metallurgy developed. The discovery of metallic ores once again redefined the man-environment interaction. The major advantage of metal tools over stone was its reusable character: stone tools once broken could not be used again whereas metal tools could be remoulded. However, the relative scarcity of mineral ores together with the limited capabilities of processing, beginning from procurement to transportation and finally extraction made metal procurement a labour intensive and expensive proposition. The most important feature of metallurgy was the highly specialized knowledge required and expertise, which made it a full-time occupation. The emergence of such professionals could be sustained only with the availability of agricultural surplus. This led to the emergence of a section of the population not directly involved with the food production. The parasitic character of this section of population gradually liberated from direct dependence on nature and heralded a new era where certain sections of the inhabitants survived solely on their professional knowledge. The character of agriculture based societies has been defined in terms of complex social stratification with specialization of craft. The growing ability of humans to make use of a variety of environmental resources opened up the possibilities of the exploitation of natural resources for self-benefit. The larger equity based and open community now witnessed a transition towards a rudimentary system of sociopolitico-economic hierarchy. Still, we cannot say that humans were controlling the

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

environment rather the nature of dependence on environment had changed drastically. The most defined form of control over nature became visible only in the Industrial Age. Unprecedented growth of technology during the Industrial Age (second half of the 18th century to the beginning of 20th century) liberated man from physical labour and an alienation with the natural world gradually set in. The Industrial Age introduced the exploitation of abiotic source of energy (which are not biologically procurable) and gradually replaced human and animal energy as the dominating forms. Since the ancient past thermal energy had been used in direct application, but during the Industrial Age it was used to mechanize tools. The Industrial Age witnessed the conversion of thermal energy to mechanical energy and thus enhanced the possibilities of greater exploitation of natural resources. The conversion of thermal energy to other forms of energy tremendously increased the overall demand for energy and resulted in a gradual depletion of the sources of energy. Consequently search for newer sources of thermal energy began: hydrocarbons, i.e., coal, petroleum products, etc., were explored and the magnitude of their exploitation widened. Unlike the earlier renewable source of energy like human and animal labour and wood, newer sources of energy i.e. hydrocarbons are non-renewable in character or have economically unviable extralong cycles of renewal. The introduction of non-renewable source of energy redefined the relationship between the environment and humans. In the modern age ever-growing demand for energy coupled with the steady depletion of sources of energy forced man to reconsider priorities and we see the beginning of the movement for conservation. Better technology ensured greater agricultural production which contributed to a rise in life-expectancy and decline in the mortality rate. The resultant increase in the population in real terms was unprecedented. It is not that human civilisation had never witnessed the growth of population in the past, but the magnitude has

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

been very high in the modern age- the nineteenth century. Ferdinand Braudel has attempted to define it in terms of the ecological watershed, i.e., the end of the Biological ancien regime. He writes: What was shattered with the eighteenth century was a Biological ancien regime, a set of restrictions, obstacles, structures, proportions and numerical relationships that had hitherto been the norm. The chief constituents are: 1. Number of death roughly equivalent to the number of births; 2. Very high infant mortality; 3. Famine; 4. Chronic undernourishment; 5. Formidable epidemics. It is rather broader definition to explain the ecological watershed as it traces the causes in a very long-term perspective beginning with the middle ages and at-least the geographical explorations. (Braudel, Ferdinand, Civilisation and Capitalism 15th-18th century, Vol- I., The Structures of Everyday Life: London, 1985.) At this juncture it is necessary to point out that since the ancient past in Europe we could witness the prevalence of anthropocentric social attitudes. The clearest manifestation was seen in the concept of cosmology in ancient discourses. The earth, the abode of humans, was considered at the centre of the universe and was enveloped by seven strata. All the seven strata were supposed to have emanated from the earth. The growth of capitalism and the breakdown of the biological regime led to an exponential growth in population. Another corollary of excessive exploitation of environmental resources during the Industrial Age has been the growth of democratic values and institutions. In the same era, scientific knowledge along with technological development provided a world vision where technology was portrayed as a solution to all human problems, especially the problem of hunger and poverty. Moreover, the growth of scientific and technological knowledge furthered the traditional anthropocentric view and the exploitation of the environment gained a fresh momentum that continues unabated till today. The Limits of the Possible, tr. Sian Reynolds,

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

The greater use of energy led to major problem of environmental pollution. The greater consumption and generation of energy induced a green house effect. However, what has been a more bothersome fall-out of this process is the development of materials not naturally available in the world, i.e., polymers. The chemical revolution of the 1930s & 1940s developed an artificial material which was not biodegradable and was thus difficult to destroy and decompose. At the same time, the wider applications of the material in industrial and domestic use and low cost of production encouraged its wider circulation. However, the problem of decomposition of the material made it a major cause of concern for the scientific community. Similarly, the question of the viability of nuclear fuel as a source of energy has been a major issue of concern. The production of non-natural radioactive substance for energy production has been a major scientific and technological development, but again the decay or the proper and cost effective decomposition of the residue has been a major technological failure. Development Concerns While according due importance to the role of new technologies in manenvironment interaction, we must not neglect socio-political considerations. Until the end of the eighteenth century, the rights and rewards of exploitation of the natural world lay largely in the hands of an elite aristocracy. The democratic revolutions of the late eighteenth century, including the American Revolution of 1775-76 and the French Revolution of 1789-1799, triggered a restructuring of the framework of society throughout most Western societies. With this change came increasing access of individuals to productive resources, and increased ability to use them for improving economic and social status. The legitimate rights, of exploitation of resources of the environment were now extended to individuals at large in society. Finally, in the nineteenth century came the culmination of a period of the worldwide spread of Western culture through colonialism and establishment of world trade. The western system of environmental exploitation

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

was thus spread widely, so that it became the operational system even in areas where the basic philosophical view of human and nature was quite different. (Ranajit Guha, History: At the limit of World History, New Delhi, 2003.) It is now a well known fact that environmental preservation took a back seat with the unfolding of developmental initiatives. Development has today become such a central idea that anything contrary is considered the most undesirable hindrance. Precisely for this reason it was not appreciated for long that environmental preservation and development were not concerns that were mutually exclusive. In fact environmental problems in developing countries like India are in many ways the product of development. Development here entails disproportionate access/ control over tangible and intangible assets/resources. This disproportionate access and control not only culminates in marginalisation and subsequent deprivation of due to class and caste location but also endorses the use of resources in such a manner as to result in an enviro-development crisis. Thus, inequality and deprivation force social groups to exploit the obtainable environmental resources in their proximity and use them in a way that the process of erosion of these resources sets in. Environmental degradation and uneven development become the two sides of the same coin. The history of development in the colonial and postcolonial world stretched itself in a manner that it accepted the supremacy of enlightenment in thought and practice in both the socio-economic and intellectual domains. The industrialised economy accompanied by the democratic state (universal adult franchise) and modernised society (equality between citizens) equipped humans to serve the goal of continuous macro-economic growth that is identical with development. Universal standard of progress based on a set of values in the social and political arena were unquestioningly assumed to be the bedrock of development. Translated into practice this meant the embracing of scientific knowledge to bring in industrial intensification by displacing traditional agricultural activity. Even when developmental policies were demonstrated to be in contradiction to the
10 mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

needs and wishes of marginalised social groups, the proponents and beneficiaries of development continued to chart out a course of progress for the former from their standpoint. Ignoring the agency of the subordinate segment of the society in the path of development and making them mere instruments in realizing the end objectives defined on their behalf by the dominant social group became dominant trends. This also disallowed the common people from being in charge of evaluating and controlling the path of development and envisaged a pattern of economic growth (hence development) that would never take into account the limits to the use of environmental resources. Moreover, the political economy discourses within Liberal Democracy and Marxism, the two most important paradigms, also believed that there was no contradiction between them so far as the understanding of the means to achieve economic growth/development was concerned. This form of development has relentlessly been criticised both from within as well as outside the environment and development strategy establishment. The response to these criticisms came from institutions as well as independent writers, policy analysts and activists. The institutional reply to the evidently interconnected crisis of environment and development was witnessed in formulations of the World Commission on Environment and Development Report (WCED), commonly known as the Brundtland Report. This report generated a wide debate on the wider issues pertaining to environment and development and finally culminated in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992 also known as Agenda 21). The report and the subsequent deliberations have shaped the thought and practice with respect to environment and development in the past decade. The WCED Report talked about four important factors, which contribute to the present day crisis in matters relating to environment. These are: poverty, growth, survival, and economic crisis. (Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, New York, 1987).

11

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

The cause of poverty is traced to multiple factors at multiple levels. Global factors include disadvantageous terms of technological transfer, protectionism, and insufficient financial flow. Domestically poverty is considered to be the result of unequal distribution of land and other assets, ever-increasing population, and commercialisation of natural resources (ibid). The Brundtland Report further points out that economic growth increases the total amount of resource use based on energy intensive growth, which at the same time also results in increased human intervention in natural cycles. While discussing survival the Report points out the vulnerability of human survival owing to threats like green house gases, radioactivity, toxic wastes etc. Lastly, the Report points out that environmental degradation also results in the reversal of economic growth and development or in sluggish growth, thus leading to economic crisis. The basic source of the above-discussed problem, according to the Report, is the fragmented nature of institutions and policies which is not able to integrate production with resource conservation and enhancement. Hence, the Report advocates sustainable development (which meets the need of the present generation without compromising with the ability of the natural resource base to meet the demands of the future generations) with the help of reviving growth. It also stresses changing the quality of growth (less energy intensive) in order to meet the essential human needs. In the realm of natural resource management, it promotes effective decentralisation of powers for implementing, monitoring and evaluating developmental projects in order to make such initiatives sustainable and to enable the poor to achieve sustainable livelihoods. This Conference (UNCED) generated a vigorous debate on the concept of sustainable development, which had become a buzzword and was used by authors and critics across all schools of thought almost universally. It was rightly argued that the concept of sustainable development had proven to be rather ambiguous due to its conceptual and ideological resemblance with the mainstream view. This

12

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

perhaps was due to the fact that the top priority accorded was for economic growth (reviving growth) and development rather than changing the focus from there and placing it on environment. The objective again remained identical, i.e., modernisation through industrialisation. The WECD Report and subsequent other reports provide a perceptive diagnosis of the interrelated enviro-development crisis. It is clearly recognised by all the reports that there is a close linkage between poverty and unsustainable use of resources, but when it comes to alternatives these reports do not go much beyond traditional ideas and methods. Ever since environment has come centre-stage in the discourses regarding the directions in which the developmental paradigm should be moulded, several views have appeared that abandon the primacy of humans as the pre-eminent beneficiary of development. One such school is Deep Ecology, which rejects the human centred outlook of development and supports a discourse which is eco-centred. It promotes the ethics of conducting human affairs according to the principles of environment. This school of thought locates the present crisis in the realm of ecological policies practised by mainstream environmental groups whose main aim is to protect those components of environment which are useful/necessary for the present well being of humans. This is termed as shallow ecology. Hence the need of the time is to uphold value based Deep Ecology. Deep Ecology stresses scientific insight into the interrelatedness of all systems of life on Earth; it believes that anthropocentrism - human-centeredness - is a misguided way of seeing things. Put in other words, it argues for equality of all natural things - ecosystems, life and landscape and argues that all of them have an intrinsic right to co-exist. This eco-centric approach is more consistent with the truth about the nature of life on Earth. Instead of considering humans as special beings exclusive or chosen by God, they see us as integral threads in the fabric of existence. Therefore, it demands a less aggressive human approach towards nature.

13

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

The second component of Deep Ecology stresses the need for human selfrealization. Instead of identifying with our egos or our immediate families, we must learn to identify with trees and animals and plants, indeed the whole ecosphere. This would necessitate a radical change of consciousness, but it would make our deeds more consistent with what scientific knowledge tells us is necessary for the well being of life on Earth. (Arne Naess, Deep Ecology, 1988 at http://www.proinco.net/staff/mogens/deepeco/english/). Thus, an attempt to synchronise with the diversity visible and available at multiple levels is to be aimed at and what is required is acceptance of a plurality of approaches to counter the hegemony of scientific-technological thought so forcefully propagated and ultimately imposed by the capitalist world. Another alternative to the contemporary development paradigm was proposed by Gandhiji. The Gandhian model of development tries to turn away from the modernization based on the heavy industry mode of production. At first glance the Gandhian model appears somewhat anachronistic, but a scrutiny of its underlying doctrine would reveal an analytical, organized system at work that clearly offered a viable alternative to the modern industrial mode of development. The tenets of his philosophy are best enumerated in his book Hind Swaraj. Hind Swaraj, with its pithy remarks on the Western ideals of techno-modernism and its formulation of the integral determinants of Swaraj (Indian Home Rule), provides valuable theoretical and methodological insights into the Gandhian idea and vision of the Indian nation. It suggests the need for an alternative approach to development moving away from the self-enclosed cosmos of modernism. This approach is an amalgamation of the theoretical framework of Swaraj and the realistic tenet of a non-violent, self-contained village society. Gandhijis alternative proposes that priority in development work should be given to villages and village industries. As villages were the hub of democracy in India, the work of development should begin from there. He argues that the heavy

14

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

industries were destined to alienate people from their immediate social milieu; a development based on them was more likely to benefit those who were wealthy and prosperous. Hence he suggested State ownership, where a large number of people have to work together. The ownership of the products of their labour, whether skilled or unskilled will vest in them through the State. However, he questions continuance of colonial notions of state which were implemented in India in the name of modernisation. Gandhijis disapproval of modern and by consequence modern democratic society is nicely explained by Parel thus: The Reader believes that the adoption of the modern state is sufficient for achieving self-government. Gandhi disputes this. He believes that the modern state without swaraj as self-rule would only replace the British Raj with an Indian Raj. Bio-diversity: Significance and preservation Biodiversity is a mixture of two words biological and diversity, meaning diversity of life forms. Biodiversity is generally defined as the number and variability of all the life forms pertaining to plants, animals and micro-organisms and the ecological complex they inhabit. As biodiversity refers to the entire range of life forms, the relationship between plants and animal life and with other living organisms is also covered under this definition. Biodiversity has been an important aspect of human existence. Perhaps the most important value of biodiversity, particularly in a country like India, is that it meets the basic survival needs of a vast number of people. Even today there are a significant number of traditional communities which depend, wholly or partially, on the surrounding natural resources for their daily needs of food and shelter, clothing, household goods, medicines, fertilizers, entertainment etc. (Biodiversity, ed. Kiran B. Chhokar, Delhi, 1997, p.20). Among the other benefits of biodiversity is the preservation and continuance of the food chain. It is now established that each species in a food web is dependent on the other. The extinction of any one species therefore, may let loose a chain reaction where many known and unknown

15

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

life forms would vanish altogether. Apart from the economic considerations, the significance of bio-diversity in sustaining a food chain in itself speaks a lot about its potential. Each species is of potential value to humans. So are healthy ecosystems. The global wealth of genes, species, habitats and ecosystems is a resource that provides for human needs now, and is essential for human survival in the future. Humans depend on other species for all of their food and for medical remedies and industrial products. Genetic diversity is important in breeding crops and livestock. The loss of crop species has severe repercussions for worldwide food security. Crop breeders need a diversity of crop varieties in order to breed new species that resist evolving pests and diseases. There are instances where crops have been rescued with genetic material from wild relatives or traditional varieties. In spite of the established benefits of biodiversity, we are faced today with a problem of accelerated extinction of life forms. The main factors behind this depletion have been human interventions, the resultant destruction of ecological niches, over- exploitation for commercial purposes, causal or purposeful introduction of exotic species, outbreak of diseases, ever-increasing air and water pollution, soil degradation, climatic changes etc. These are in addition to the natural rates of extinction of flora and fauna. This process culminates in the total extinction of many species while others are endangered. It is important to note that many species may have been lost without being documented. Another disturbing aspect of this predicament is that even if all human activities were to cease with immediate effect, species extinction due to impacts that have already taken place would continue for decades. Some instances of biodiversity loss in India include cheetah and the pink-headed duck. The adverse effects of biotic pressures on fisheries can be easily noticed in the Damodar and Hoogly rivers in West Bengal, Choliyar river near Calicut and Kalu river near Kalyan, Bombay. Similarly, a-

16

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

biotic pressures are also responsible for the silting of the Dal Lake in Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir) and the Naini Lake in Nainital (U.P.). The established and potential benefits of biodiversity make it an imperative to take corrective measures. Conservation efforts are all the more necessary in the wake of loss of life forms on a daily basis. India has a long tradition of conservation practice based on local knowledge systems and community efforts. In modern times scientific queries have fuelled extensive mapping of various life forms and the preparation of a taxonomic database. However, what is needed is a scientific policy and comprehensive strategy to conserve the languishing biodiversity. World-wide efforts of conservation have been attempted in two ways; Ex-situ conservation off site conservation, and In- situ conservation on site conservation. Ex-situ conservation means conservation of life forms in areas outside their natural ecological niche. Such a situation may arise when populations of endangered species become so fragile that their survival may not be possible in the wild, or for reasons of logistics or legality, their conservation in the natural settings is not possible. Insitu conservation refers to conservation of the endangered species in their natural surroundings. In situ conservation has been carried out in the following areas: National Parks and Sanctuaries, Reserved and Protected Forests, Biosphere Reserves, Nature Reserves etc. In India the government has taken a variety of steps to ensure biodiversity conservation. While some of them are directly and specifically targeted at conservation of life forms, others play a secondary role in rehabilitation and proliferation of different species and ecosystems. An attempt is being made to complement the efforts of the government by active participation of the large sections of the population. The involvement of tribal groups, rural communities, NGOs and other grass-root institutions in species management plans is of great help. Traditional knowledge and community ethics and practices at preservation of biodiversity are now increasingly being recognised. The need is to involve them

17

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

in a comprehensive way. Some experts have also floated the concept of a Peoples Biodiversity Register (PBR). Therefore, the government programmes have to be more targeted and focused. Another related concern with the various efforts of conservation-in-situ or ex-situ has led to the disruption in the traditional rights and practices of inhabitants of such places. The creation of reserves has disturbed the inhabitants- forester, tribal, pastoralist communities. This disturbance has been in and around the forest, or in and around reserve water-parks. By creating reserves an attempt is being made to conserve the bio-diversity, but inhabitants claim that in this process their livelihood is threatened. Thus they question the rationale of protecting biodiversity at the cost of human settlement, for example, in the Sanjay Tiger Reserve near Mumbai and the Sunderbans in West Bengal where tigers have threatened neighbouring human settlements. However, the question can be asked in the reverse direction also, for the gradual but continuous expansion of human population has encroached upon the land once inhabited by diverse flora and fauna. Moreover, it is a larger question whether or not the environment can and should be protected solely for humans and whether human existence will be possible without the bio-diversity which sustains humans and of which humans are also integral parts. These are the concerns in redefining mans relationship with the environment. Moreover, we must be open to new perspectives in our understanding of society and scientific development. Danial Botkin (Discordant Harmonies: A New Ecology
for the Twenty-First Century, New York, 1990) says that We must distinguish

between merely the persistence of some kinds of life and the maintenance of a biosphere that is desirable to human beings (p.182), inherent in this view is the vital question that nature is not constant and even the change is not constant, thus the only way to interact with nature is to enlarge our understanding of

18

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

environment and its functioning and at he same time to realise the limitations of human capabilities to manage environment according to his wishes.

19

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com

Mayank Kumar Environment

Further Readings 1. Mahesh Rangarajan Ed., Environmental Issues in India: A Reader, New Delhi, 2006. 2. Botkin B. Daniel, Discordant Harmonies: A New Ecology for the TwentyFirst Century, New York, 1990. 3. Ramchandra Guha & Madhav Gadgil, This Fissured Land, An Ecological
History of India, New Delhi, 1992.

4. Indira Gandhi National Open University: M.A. History course material for History of Ecology and environment in India (MHE-08). 5. Mahesh Rangarajan, India's Wildlife History: An Introduction, Delhi, 2001. 6. G. Tyler Miller, Environmental Science, available at

http://biology.brookescole.com/miller10 7. Anil Agarwal & Sunita Narayan, Citizens Reports (I, II, & V, volumes are especially relevant), Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi.

20

mayankjnu@gmail.com.com