ToK - Introduction to Reason

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One group of philosophers believes knowledge can only be obtained through the process of pure thought. These philosophers consider information acquired through the five senses unreliable, consider experimentation fundamentally flawed, and consider the systematic application of rational thought what we might call reasoning the only way to gain any certainty in knowledge of the world. Whilst this is an extreme view, the idea of using reasoning to further our knowledge of the universe is not a bad one. hilosophers and thinkers who tend towards this school of thought are called rationalists. lato and !ocrates were both rationalists. On the opposite side of the coin we find philosophers who consider the only valid way of obtaining knowledge to be through observation and experimentation. This equally extreme view is held by thinkers called empiricists and pragmatists. "rancis #acon and $ohn %ocke were two early and influential empiricists. &n empirical and pragmatic approach to knowledge will be dealt with in later units, particularly when we study the area of knowledge !cience. Whether rationalist, empiricist or pragmatist, philosophers have sustained an intensive pursuit of truth in knowledge and understanding through research and investigation. Truth has many levels in research. "irst, it can be consistent with fact or perceived reality 'eg( )!he is a woman*+. ,t can also be axiomatic where the knowledge is self-evident or universally recognised as truth and demonstrates an established rule, principle or law 'eg( The Theorem of ythagoras+. Third, a postulate is something suggested to be true without proof but could in principle be tested 'eg( the .niverse is infinite+ and, last, an assumption is when something is presumed to be true or taken for granted without proof 'your age+. ,n order to determine the basis for acceptance of an idea as leading towards truth researchers follow five methods of investigation based upon history 'describing what has happened in the past+, philosophy 'what should be or ought to be+, description 'observes an existing situation and makes inferences+, experiment 'tests for cause and effect between independent and dependent variables+ and action 'which involves development of a set of materials that can be of practical value and usually based upon strong theoretical principles but in and of themselves need to be tested for effect eg( a syllabus or curriculum+. Rational thought /easoning, or rational thought, takes as its building blocks statements, called propositions, which must exhibit three characteristics( They must be statements that assert some claim. They must be 'theoretically+ capable of being either true or false, and must be 'theoretically+ testable for that truth value. They must make sense. Which of the following are propositions? (See ppt. for answers) 0. The 1arth is flat. 2. & triangle is defined as a polygon with three sides. 3. &ll mice are reptiles. 4. aris is the capital of "rance. 5. ,s the cat black6 7. One plus one equals a banana. 8. The house was painted red, and its garden was planted with roses. 9. , hate all men. :. 1ither Thailand will win the World ;up or !pain will land a man on the moon. 0<. ,f x = 4, then x2 = 07. 00. >elp me?
This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!. "age # of #$

02. When @inc is added to sulphuric acid, sulphur dioxide is given off. The second element of rational thought is a system or structure used to combine propositions in order to arrive at conclusions. This system is called logic. ,f propositions are the vocabulary, then logic is the grammar, to take a linguistic analogy. %ogic is traditionally divided into two parts( deductive logic and inductive logic. Deductive logic 'also called bivarient logic or &ristotelian logic after its originator, &ristotle+ has been developed to take an argument constructed of propositions, and determine if the argument is valid 'different from true --- you can have a valid argument which leads to a false conclusion if the premises 'the heart of the argument+ are false+. Inductive logic uses the idea that this proposition has been demonstrated true before 'usually many times before+, so we conclude the proposition is always true. & third kind of logic, where statements no longer need to be either true or false has been developed more recently. This logic is called multi-varient logic, or more commonly, fuzzy logic. In the two situations described below, which uses deductive logic (reasoning) and which uses inductive logic (reasoning)? (see ppt. for answer)

O servation: O servation: $rior e%perience: &onclusion:

!ohn came to class late this morning. !ohn"s hair #as uncom ed. !ohn is very fussy a out his hair. !ohn overslept.

!ee The Monty Hall "roble% and Dedu&tive 'easoning "roble%s (#st proble% ( white)bla&! hats).

'rguments
>ere we are not talking about a fight or a shouting match between angry people 'see video Monty "ython ( *rgu%ent +lini&+. /ather, we mean the process by which one person makes and supports a claim, i.e. to argue a case. &rguments always consist of two types of statement( reasons 'formally called premises+ and conclusions, together with connecting words such as )and*, )or*, )so*, )therefore*, and )hence*. &rguments may also contain irrelevant statements, padding or fillers that are not central to the argument. Aot all language is used to persuade others of a point of view. Which of the following contain reasoning (an argument) leading to a conclusion? (See ppt. for answers) 0. $ames burst out of customs, diamonds and expensive watches falling from his bag as he ran. &s he reached the taxi stand customers were sitting in all the waiting taxis. $ames ran
This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!. "age , of #$

towards the nearest taxi and leaped into it as it was beginning to move. >e pointed a gun at the driver and said Bust CdowntownD. The taxi turned towards the motorway. 2. /ecent research suggests that our understanding of how clouds interact with sunlight might be wrong( new measurements suggest that clouds absorb four times as much energy as previously thought. !ince existing models of how the climate functions are based on the original measurements, if the new measurements are shown to be accurate, models of how the climate works will need to be completely overhauled. ;limate models are used in our attempts to measure global warming so, if these models are inaccurate, we will have to completely revise our understanding of global warming. 3. Eany substantial environmental problems cannot be solved by individual or local action, for example, the pollution caused by automobile exhaust gases is a world-wide problem, so such problems can only be addresses by international action. 4. CTeachers teach to the test.D This old slogan is very true, so if examinations Bust require factual knowledge, this is what will be taught and rote memorisation will be all. >owever, if the process and quality of thinking is assessed, this is what will be taught. The only way to deliver Cthinking schoolsD is to access thinking skills and dispositions directly. 5. The nineteenth-century 1nglish theologian and biologist Fosse '090<-99+ had a problem. >e was a devout ;hristian who accepted the ;reation story as set out in Fenesis in the #ible but he was also a practising scientist who was well aware that the geological and fossil studies of %yell and others seemed to show that the 1arth was very old, perhaps millions of years old. >ow could he resolve this conflict6 #y the simple hypothesis that the 1arth was created by Fod in 4<<4 #; complete with the fossil record which made it loo! as though it was much older. Of course no amount of evidence could establish or refute his claim.

'rguments( language and logic

There are several linguistic CtricksD used to avoid needing to Bustify each premise in an argument, and to sway the audience towards ones own viewpoint. These include( &ssuring Fuarding Giscounting !lanting ersuasive definitions !uggesting indicating there are back-up reasons even if these are not given right now. weakening our claims so that they are less subBect to attack. anticipating criticisms and dismissing them. improper use of language designed to evaluate. defining something with an obvious bias towards your case. presenting an unsupported claims as if it were supported.

'ssuring &ppeal to authority( Goctors agree H.. /ecent studies have shown H ,t has been established that H. &ppeal to ones own belief( ,Dm certain that H. Over the years, , have become more and more convinced that H &buse the audience( 1veryone with any sense knows H. ,tDs common sense that H Aobody but a fool would deny H )uarding Weaken the e-tent of what has been said( e.g. retreat from )all* to )most*, or )a few* to )some*. .se probability phrases like )it is virtually certain that H*, )it is likely H*
This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!. "age . of #$

!hifting our personal state of knowing( e.g. moving from ), know that H* to ), believe that H* to ), tend to believe that H* Discounting ;onsider the two statements below( The ring is beautiful, but expensive. The ring is expensive, but beautiful. #oth statements assert exactly the same thing, yet they come across differently. Which statement would the eager bride use to convince her fiancI to buy the ring6 Which statement would the pennypinching bridegroom choose to dissuade his fiancIe6 ,n some way, anticipating the criticism, then countering it, appears to lessen the effect of the criticism. Giscounting is particularly common and easy to identify when dealing with facts that appear to pull in opposite directions. $ones is an aggressive player, but he is not dirty. The situation is difficult, but not hopeless. *lanting When we use words or phrases which are chosen to pass Budgement, infer a characteristic or suggest a meaning that is not otherwise supported by the facts, we are guilty of slanting. !lants are particularly obvious with ethnic or racial slurs, but can be used to plant a biased view in the audiences mind relating to political persuasion 'e.g. )lefty sympathiser*, )back-to-basics traditionalist*+, moral integrity ')shifty*, )#ible-bashing reactionary*+, intelligence ')know-all*, )doesnDt know what he is talking about*+, etc. !lants like these take on a different meaning depending on both the speaker and the intended audience. $ersuasive definitions & subtle form of slanting where the speaker chooses his or her own definitions to gain an argumentative advantage. /ussian ;ommunism is really state capitalism. &dmission quotas in favour of minorities are nothing more than reverse discrimination. &bortion is foetal murder. /ussian ;ommunism, admission quotas and abortion are not defined in these terms in dictionaries, but the speaker, by choosing these definitions, attempts to persuade the audience towards his or her viewpoint. *uggestion ,t is suggested that the outcome will not be beneficial. & second example is where circumstance or context predicates the action. ,t is suggested that speed was a cause for your failure to take the bend in the road. &nother case might imply the power of suggestion where belief is based on passionate persuasion. "or example, in the 08th century !alem Witch trials where the community firmly believed young girls were practising witchcraft on the basis of the girlsD claims 'which they made up possibly to get attention+. The community sought out and put forward )evidence* for the witchcraft claims. 1ach of these techniques is used by all of us on a daily basis. Aone of them strictly rely on logic, yet they are used as tools in constructing arguments. ,t is important that we, as obBective Budges of claims being made, are aware of these means of influencing our thoughts, clouding our vision or distorting the substance of the argument. One aim of the TOJ course is to make students aware of the need to be critical of claims they may encounter, to provide them with a means of recognising holes in arguments they may be presented with, and giving them the option of making up their own minds and reaching their own conclusions.
This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!. "age / of #$

DON"T +, *$OON -,D. DON"T -O..O/ .IK, *0,,$. T0INK1

Find the cases of slanting, persuasive definition, guarding, discounting, suggestion and assuring in this passage (see ppt. for answers)0

;loning is nothing more than the natural extension of our modern medical technology. We didnDt ban penicillin when it was newly discovered -- we used it, and used it to save millions. , would suggest this will involve a change in our way of thinking about ethics, but the benefits to mankind are simply enormous. !ome cases of cloning certainly should be allowedK when the process could save a life, for example. The short-sighted pro-life lobby miss the pointK we wonDt be destroying life, weDll be saving it. !urely, anyone with any sense can see the potential for cloning.

T#o uses of rational thought.

We need to handle arguments from both ends( as the person being argued to, and as the person constructing the argument. The following processes are involved( 's a receiver ,n lectures "rom books "rom newspapers TL and video ,n conversation ,n classroom debates 'nalyse What are the conclusions6 What are the reasons6 What is the structure6 What assumptions are made6 ;larify the meaning. ,valuate &re reasons acceptable6 Goes the reasoning support the conclusion6 &re there other relevant considerations6 's a transmitter ,n your TOJ essay ,n your TOJ presentation !cience lab book Eaths !tudies proBect Feography fieldtrip write-up 1xtended 1ssay %anguage orals ,%plain !et out your thesis. Gefine any terms.

&onvince rovide reasons. !upport your reasons with evidence and valid arguments. $ustify your case with examples.

This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!.

"age 1 of #$

>ans has Bust completed a TOJ unit of work and has failed the test which was set at the end of the unit. ,magine that he sends the following note to the teacher( )That test was unfair. , studied for days, reading the material four times, underlining important details and then studying them. &fter doing all this , should have got a good grade.* What is the conclusion to Hanss argument? What is he trying to persuade his teacher to accept? (see ppt. for answer)

What reasons does he give in support of his conclusion? (see ppt. for answer)

oes he ma!e any implicit assumptions? (see ppt. for answer)

oes he assume anything without actually saying it?

This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!.

"age 2 of #$

>ere is another example, this time adapted from a letter in an &merican newspaper published a few years ago. )We should bring most of our troops home from 1urope. The threat from /ussia has gone now that the 1vil 1mpire has collapsedK the 1uropeans can defend themselves now that the threat to their security is less and they are so richK and we must reduce our federal deficit fast if our economy is not to collapse.* &gain, consider these three questions( What is the conclusion of this argument? What is the author trying to persuade us of? (see ppt. for answer)

What reasons are given in support of the conclusion? (see ppt. for answer)

Is anything assumed (that is, implicit but not actually stated in this te"t)? (see ppt. for answer)

This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!.

"age 3 of #$

&onclusion indicators
The standard word used to show where the conclusion to an argument is to be found is )therefore*. Therefore that test was unfair. Therefore we should bring our troops home from 1urope. #ist as many words or phrases as you can that may be used in the $nglish language much the same way as %therefore&' (See ppt. for answers)

Reason indicators
&s with conclusion indicators, we often use words or phrases to indicate the presence of reasons. Aot surprisingly these are called reason indicators. #ist as many words or phrases that can be reason indicators' (Ive given you a couple to get started)' (see ppt. for answer) #ecause, firstly,

Identify the conclusion and reason indicators in this passage (see ppt. for answer)( Eost parents want their children to have successful careers. !ince education is essential to success, it is the duty of parents to give children the best possible education. #ecause it is also in the countryDs economic interest to have a highly educated population, the Fovernment should help parents to provide for their childrenDs education. Therefore all parents should receive financial help towards the cost of their childrenDs education, so the low paid should receive tax credit and those who are better off should receive tax relief.

This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!.

"age $ of #$

The 2therefore3 test.

,t is not always clear when someone is arguing a case 'i.e. trying to persuade you of a point of view+. One way to deal with this lack of clarity is to imagine the piece rewritten, perhaps with the order of the sentences changed, but crucially with words like )therefore*, )so* and )because* inserted in order to show explicitly which claims are reasons and conclusions. ;onsider this example. We need to make rail travel more attractive to travellers. There are so many cars on the road that the environment and human safety are under threat. /ail travel should be made cheaper. 1veryone wants the roads to be less crowded, but they still want the convenience of being able to travel by road themselves. eople will not abandon the car in favour of the train without some new incentive. The same paragraph can be rewritten as follows( There are so many cars on the road that the environment and human safety are under threat 4and5 everyone wants the roads to be less crowded, but they still want the convenience of being able to travel by road themselves 4and5 people will not abandon the car in favour of the train without some new incentive. Therefore we need to make rail travel more attractive to travellers. Therefore rail travel should be made cheaper. This passage can now be analysed in terms of reasons /, and conclusions ;. /0MThere are so many cars on the road that the environment and human safety are under threat= 4and5 /26everyone wants the roads to be less crowded, but they still want the convenience of being able to travel by road themselves= 4and5 /3Mpeople will not abandon the car in favour of the train without some new incentive.7 Therefore ;0Nwe need to make rail travel more attractive to travellers.O Therefore ;2Nrail travel should be made cheaperO. /or8ing in groups( num er the phrases elo# in the order that #ill ma8e a reasoned argument. .a el #ith reason9conclusion indicators :6R;7( 6R<7( 4&;5( 4&<5 etc.= (see ppt. for answer) Order $hrase Therefore, owners of those cars which did badly in impact tests should be anxious about their safety. and whilst some cars did better than others, in absolute terms they were all able to reach a satisfactory standard of withstanding impact in the event of an accident. /ecent evidence shows that modern cars vary in their ability to withstand impacts. !o, anybody travelling in the type of cars tested can be reassured that they are adequately protected. >owever, the degree of force that was applied to the cars was far in excess of that experienced in a road accident. Reason 9 conclusion indicator

This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!.

"age 4 of #$

*yllogisms
The simplest form of an argument is called a syllogism. ,t consists of three lines( the first and second are premises or propositions 'i.e. statements that set forth a claim, that are capable of being true or false, and that make sense+, and the third is a conclusion based upon the premises. !yllogisms are important because complex arguments can often be broken down into syllogisms 'or combinations of syllogisms+. ;onsider the following( &ll dogs are vertebrates. &ll vertebrates are animals. &ll dogs are animals.

,n this case, the argument is valid as the conclusion automatically follows from the premises 'regardless of the actual meaning of terms like vertebrates, animals and dogs+. "or example, the syllogistic argument below is equally valid. &ll glups are gribles. &ll gribles are googees. &ll glups are googees. The difference between the dog, vertebrate, animal argument and the glups, gribles and googees argument is not in its structure, but in the truth of its premises. )&ll dogs are vertebrates.* is a true statement. !imilarly, )&ll vertebrates are animals.* is true. >ence, because the premises are true and the argument is valid, then the conclusion is true. We call an argument that is both valid and has true premises a sound argument. The problems in identifying sound arguments are therefore two-fold( is the argument valid 'does its internal structure demand the conclusion be correct if the premises are true+, and are those premises true6 The second question, regarding the truth of premises falls under a different section of the ToJ syllabus, but the validity of an argument is a crucial element in using rational thought in all areas of knowledge. etermine whether the following syllogisms are valid or invalid' (see ppt. for answers) ;. &ll accountants are tennis players. &ll youngsters are tennis players. &ll accountants are youngsters. <. &ll poets have creative imaginations. Ao poets are good business people. Ao good business people have creative imaginations. >. !ome politicians are thieves. Ao one who is a thief is wise. !ome politicians are not wise. ?. &ll singers are temperamental. Ao lorry drivers are temperamental. Ao singers are lorry drivers.

This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!.

"age #5 of #$

Negation
"irstly, negation does not 'necessarily+ mean opposite. ;onsider these statements( *tatement x is positive "red believes in left-wing politics The cat was black Opposite x is negative "red believes in right-wing politics The cat was white Negation x is not positive "red does not believe in left-wing politics The cat was not black

The basic rule is, )if the original statement is true, its negation is false, and if the original statement is false, its negation is true*. ;are must be taken when negating a proposition which contains words like all, so%e or none. ;onsider the sentence 'll dogs have fleas.

;ommon sense experience tells us this is false, so its negation must be true. %ook as these possible alternatives for the negation( &ll dogs do not have fleas. Ao dogs have fleas. Ao dogs do not have fleas. Aow consider, !ome dogs do not have fleas. This is true, and a &orre&t for% of the negation. Still a false state%ent. Still false. 6alse.

This table can be used to find the negation of a proposition involving all, so%e or no. (riginal statement &ll dogs have fleas. !ome dogs have fleas. !ome dogs do not have fleas. Ao dogs have fleas. )egation !ome dogs do not have fleas. Ao dogs have fleas. &ll dogs have fleas. !ome dogs have fleas.

Write down the negation of each of these propositions( 0. 2. 3. 4. 5. &ll cows were once calves. &ll tax must be paid by 05 &pril. !ome sentences have stupid negations. Ao employee may play poker whilst at work. !ome students do not like logic.

This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!.

"age ## of #$

-allacies.
%ogical errors are very common in everyday discussions. The conclusion reached in a discussion may be true, or it may be false, but the logic used to get to the conclusion may be invalid. !uch invalid uses of reasoning are called fallacies. #elow , have listed some of the main types of common fallaciesK as you read through these fallacies, see if you can think of examples where such logical fallacies have been used. -allacy of 'm iguity. This fallacy occurs when a word or phrase is used with one meaning in one premise, and with another meaning in another premise, or in the conclusion. e.g. eople should do what is right. eople have the right to disregard good advice. Therefore, people should disregard good advice.

-allacy of &omposition. >ere we claim that some whole obBect has a property because each of its parts has the property. e.g. &ll of our ministers of state are honest, hardworking good people, so this government is also a good one.

-allacy of ,motion. We commit a fallacy of emotion if we appeal to popular passions, pity, brute force, snob appeal, vanity, or some other emotion. e.g. &ll the >ollywood stars are wearing silk this year, so you really canPt afford to not buy this wonderful silk dress.

-allacy y ,%perts. >ere we quote an expert from one field on a matter outside of the personPs field of knowledge. e.g. $ack 1vans is a fantastic mechanic. >e recommends Litamin ; for colds.

-allacy of Non *e@uitur. :.iterally( Ait does not follo#A= We commit this fallacy when the conclusion is completely unrelated to the premises. e.g. !outh ;arolina is on the &tlantic Ocean. The capital of !outh ;arolina is ;olumbia. !o, many !outh ;arolinians are #aptists.

-allacy of -alse &ause :also called %post hoc ergo propter hoc&.= >ere we imply that because two events are related in time, somehow one caused the other. e.g. , walked under a ladder, and next thing, , was hit by a car. Walking under a ladder brings bad luck.

This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!.

"age #, of #$

The following fictitious conversation 'which in no way reflects the views of the author+ contains at least one example of each of the following( -allacy of 'm iguity -allacy y ,%perts Inductive reasoning 'ssuring B a use of audience Discounting )uarding -allacy of &omposition -allacy of Non *e@uitur *yllogism B valid argument 'ssuring B appeal to o#n elief *lanting Incorrect negation -allacy of ,motion -allacy of -alse &ause *yllogism B invalid argument 'ssuring B appeal to authority $ersuasive definition &ompound proposition

(n the lines provided, fill in the space with one of the above *** each category is used only once+ (see ppt. for answers) Kim , donPt know how you can say that? %ook, , know do@ens of women who do not think abortion is wrong. ,n fact, everyone at the !quash ;lub that ,Pve spoken to agrees. ,tDs clear to me CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC that the vast maBority of women believe in the right for women to have an abortion. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

&hris

#ut thatPs Bust it. ,t isnPt a right. These mothers-to-be are thinking of themselves. The rights that are being abused are the rights of the unborn child. ,Pll put it as simply as , can. ,t is wrong to kill. &bortion is killing the foetus. !o abortion is wrong. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC Why is it you find that so difficult to follow6

Kim

OJ. !ome doctors agree abortion is allowable. &ll gynaecologists are doctors, so some gynaecologists believe abortion is allowable.CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC &greed6

&hris Kim

!o what6 Well, Gr. Williams is the best gynaecologists in the country, and he is morally in favour of women having abortions when they want them. ,f he thinks so, thatPs good enough for me. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

&hris

, donPt care what he thinks. Goctors should do what is right. #abies have the right to live. Therefore, doctors should let the babies live. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

Kim

#abies? WePre not talking about babies. These unborn foetuses are not humans. They are Bust a bunch of cellsK no feeling, no conscience. 1veryone knows that. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

&hris

/ubbish. &bortion is cold-blooded murder, pure and simple. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

"age #. of #$

This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!.

Kim

,tDs talk like that, from left-wing, pro-life loonies, CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC that really gets up my nose. ,Dll agree some abortions are made without enough thought, and are used as a form of contraception, CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC but in the vast maBority of cases women have thought it through, and therefore deserve the right to make their own decision. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

&hris

The fact that so many people express such strong opposition, going as far in some extreme cases as bombing clinics and shooting doctors who perform abortions, shows that they have Bustice on their side. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC Ao woman should be allowed to have an abortion Bust because she wants one. Women who have abortions are murderers or they are insane. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

Kim

Qet ,Dve spoken to women who are Bust as firm in their convictions. ,n one case, where a woman was raped, she demanded an abortion, and , can really sympathise with her. >er case demonstrates that all women should have the right to an abortion on demand. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC Qou are saying no women have the right to have an abortion. , think that is not true. Therefore, , believe RRR CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC all women have this right. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

&hris

&nd another thing, !heila Aewcombe, she had an abortion six years ago. Aow look at her, sheDs in a mental hospital. ,f thatDs not clear evidence that abortion is wrong, , donDt know what is? CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

Kim

,tDs been shown that CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC having an abortion doesnDt affect the mental stability of women any more than going through the traumas of labour and child-birth.

This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!.

"age #/ of #$

)lossary of terms used in .ogic & priori &nalytic proposition Jnowledge that is universal, necessary and independent of experience. & proposition whose truth is established purely through the meaning of the words used.

;lassical '&ristotelian+ logic Geductive reasoning assuming the bivariant nature of all propositions 'i.e. propositions are either true or false+. ;ompound proposition ;onclusion ;ontrapositive & proposition made by Boining other propositions together using logical connectives. & proposition arrived at through the application of a logical argument. &n equivalent proposition to an implication obtained by negating both parts, and reversing the order. ,mplication p 7 . ;ontrapositive 7 p . & non-equivalent proposition obtained by reversing the order of the parts. ;onverse is equivalent to inverse. ,mplication p 7 . ;onverse 7 p . /easoning which attempts to establish conclusive inferences. The philosophy which takes sense experiences as the source and basis of what we know. &ny sort of mistake in reasoning or inference. ,t is a term used to denote anything that causes an argument to go wrong. & direct inference characterised by the form )ifH..thenH..*. !ymbolically an implication is written as p 7 . /easoning concerned with the soundness of inferences for which the evidence is not conclusive. The process by which a new proposition is obtained from prior sources. & non-equivalent proposition obtained by negating both parts. ,nverse is equivalent to converse. ,mplication p 7 . ,nverse p 7 . The means by which we arrive at conclusions. & systematic way of combining propositions in order to arrive at a conclusion. The elements 'words or symbols+ that Boint simple propositions together to form compound propositions 'e.g. and, or, if...then+. & compound proposition which is always false, regardless of the truth of its component parts.
"age #1 of #$

;onverse

Geductive logic 1mpiricism "allacy ,mplication ,nductive logic ,nference ,nverse

%ogic %ogical argument %ogical connectives %ogical contradiction

This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!.

Aegation Eulti-variant logic roposition redicate remise /ationalism !ound argument !ubBect !yllogism !ynthetic proposition Tautology Lalid argument

The process of obtaining a new proposition using the negative statement. %ogic where propositions can take states other than true and false. &lso known as fu@@y logic. & statement which makes sense and asserts a claim. The statement must 'in theory+ be capable of being true or false. & word or phrase in a proposition that asserts something about the subBect. & proposition, other than the conclusion, used as an element of an argument. The philosophy which maintains that knowledge can be arrived at through reason alone. &n argument which is both valid and that uses only true premises. & word or phrase in a proposition about which something is asserted 'by the predicate+. & three line argument using the rules of classical deductive logic. The first two lines are premises, the third is the conclusion. & proposition whose truth relies on synthesising, or putting together, two separate notions called the subBect and the predicate. & compound proposition which is always true, regardless of the truth of its component parts. &n argument in deductive logic where the conclusion is certain if the premises are true 'or are assumed true+.

This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!.

"age #2 of #$

+i liography
"isher, &lec. ;ritical Thinking( &n ,ntroduction. ;ambridge( ;ambridge .niversity ress, 2<<0. "ogelin, /obert and !innott-&rmstrong, Walter 'editor+. .nderstanding &rguments( &n ,ntroduction to ,nformal %ogic. %ondon( Thomson %earning, 2<<<. opkin, /ichard and !troll, &vrum. hilosophy. %ondon( >einemann, 0:7:.

This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!.

"age #3 of #$

What you should know and understand by the end of this introduction to /eason(
Gistinction between rationalists and empiricists or pragmatists. Well understood  retty clear  atchy  Ao understanding 

"eatures of a proposition.
Well understood  retty clear  Well understood  retty clear  atchy  atchy  Ao understanding  Ao understanding  Ao understanding  Ao understanding  Ao understanding 

Gistinction between deductive and inductive reasoning.

/easons and conclusions in arguments. Well understood  retty clear  atchy  Well understood  retty clear  Well understood  retty clear  atchy  atchy 

%inguistic ways of swaying an argument to oneDs viewpoint. "eatures of an argument from a receiverDs perspective.
"eatures of an argument from a transmitterDs perspective. Well understood  retty clear  atchy  Ao understanding 

&ssumptions contained in arguments.

Well understood  retty clear  ;onclusion indicators. Well understood  retty clear  /eason indicators. Well understood  retty clear  atchy  atchy  atchy  atchy  atchy  atchy  atchy  atchy  Ao understanding  Ao understanding  Ao understanding  Ao understanding  Ao understanding  Ao understanding  Ao understanding  Ao understanding 

The )therefore* test.

Well understood  retty clear 

The features of a syllogism.

Well understood  retty clear  The negation of a proposition. Well understood  retty clear  !ome basic logical fallacies. Well understood  retty clear  Well understood  retty clear 

The terminology used when discussing reasoning.

This unit was designed by Mr. David Hilbourne of NIST, ang!o!.

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