The potential energy challenges of micro-algal process operations for the production of fuel.

John J Milledge

After nearly 70 years of sometimes intensive research on the commercialisation of micro-algae and with over 50 algal companies as yet not able to produce commercial-scale quantities of fuel at competitive prices, the process of producing fuel from algae would appear to be currently uneconomic. Although, algal biomass can be energy rich the growth of algae in dilute suspension poses considerable challenges in achieving a viable energy balance in algal process operations. These process operations can be simplified into three area: algal growth, algal harvesting and algal energy extraction..
Algae oil Calorific Content value % Oil 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00% 80.00% Kcal/g 4.7 5.2 5.8 6.3 6.8 7.3 7.8 8.4 Yield algae Metric Tons per Hectare per year 401 361 328 301 278 258 241 226 Yield Algal Oil US Gallons per Acre per year 4667 8408 11474 14032 16198 18057 19669 21081 Yield Algal Oil Barrels per Acre per year 111 200 273 334 386 430 468 502 Yield Algal Oil Metric Tons per Hectare per year 40 72 99 120 139 155 169 181

Maximum Algal Yield

As early as the 1950s there were complaints of far fetched estimates of algal yields1 and very optimistic estimates of potential algal production have continued to appear, The maximum algal yield for potential sites such as SW USA (annual total solar insolation of 2000 KWhr/m2yr) can be simply calculated from the calorific value of the algal based on its composition and the maximum theoretical photosynthetic efficiency. Maximum theoretical algal biomass is of the order of 400 metric tons per hectare per year, but realistic achievable yields are substantially lower2. The use of appropriate yields brings into sharper focus the importance of the control and reduction of energy inputs required for mixing gaseous exchange and pumping.

Race-ways

Currently the majority of micro-algal biomass production occurs is in outdoor ponds, although restricted to a limited number of species. The circulation energy in Photobioreactors have been estimated to be 13 to 28 times that of open race-way ponds3 and this high operational energy of PBRs may preclude their use for algal fuel production. Mixing in algal raceway ponds is normally achieved by paddle-wheels. Paddlewheels are high volume lower head devices. Manufacturers figures for commercial paddle-wheels used in algal ponds give a maximum head of 3 (7.6cm). This limited head will restricts the maximum length of the raceway and their design.

Arial view of Cyanotech Algal Production Facility showing race -way growth ponds. Courtesy Cyanotech Corporation, Hawaii, USA.

Head losses & Mixing Energy

The head losses in the bends and gaseous exchange sump can be considerable. A deep counter-current sump could have a head too great for many commercial paddle wheels. Head losses vary with square of mean velocity, but the pumping power varies with the cube of the mean velocity.. If algal production is 25g m-1d-1 with a calorific value of 4.7Kcal g-1 the Paddle- wheel will consume 60% of the total of the energy in the algae. Further energy challenges exist for gaseous exchange, pumping, harvesting and energy extraction

Theoretical GRP Race-way: 1m Channel width, 50 m Channel Length, 0.3m deep, Mean Velocity 0.3ms-1

References
Tamiya, Annual Review of Plant Physiology 8 (1), 309 (1957). 2 J J Milledge, Biofuels International 4 (2), 44 45 (2010). 3 A L Stephenson, E Kazamia, J S Dennis, C J Howe, S A. Scott, and A G. Smith, Energy & Fuels 24 (7), 4062 (2010).
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John J Milledge, School of Civil Engineering and the Environment University of Southampton Telephone: +44(0)7900 498417, Email: J.Milledge@soton.ac.uk